• A National Security Strategy document outlines the nation’s security goals and the methods intended to achieve them.
•  It outlines both conventional and unconventional threats and opportunities, while assigning responsibility to entities entrusted with these responsibilities.
•  A national security strategy would guide military and essential defense and security reforms with strategic implications, providing a comprehensive overview of national security, challenges, and a roadmap for addressing them.
• Typically, doctrine precedes strategy. Doctrine consists of established principles governing behavior, while strategy derives from doctrine as an action plan.

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• Article 74 stipulates that there exists a Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister at its helm to assist and advise the President, who must act in accordance with this advice in the exercise of their functions.
• The Central Council of Ministers, led by the Prime Minister, plays a crucial role in formulating government policies and is the practical executive authority in India's parliamentary system.
• As per the Indian Constitution, the President of India, as the head of the Executive, is obligated to act upon the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers.
• Article 75 specifies that the President appoints the Prime Minister, who in turn recommends other ministers for appointment. The size of this council is mandated not to exceed 15% of the total membership of the Lok Sabha, the House of the People.
• Article 88 empowers ministers to participate in the proceedings of the Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, joint sessions, and parliamentary committees to which they belong, although it does not guarantee them the right to vote.

Role of the Prime Minister in the Council of Ministers:

The Prime Minister serves as the chief executive of the Central Council of Ministers.

While being the foremost leader of the Council of Ministers, the Prime Minister is considered equal to other ministers.

Article 75 states that the Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha.

The Prime Minister holds decision-making authority over significant policy issues and ministries not specifically assigned to other ministers.

Additionally, the Prime Minister heads the Cabinet Secretariat, overseeing day-to-day government administration and inter-ministerial coordination. The Prime Minister also leads the NITI Aayog and the Appointments Committee of the Cabinet.

Cabinet Ministers and Ministers of State (Independent Charge):

Cabinet ministers are senior members of the council, ranking directly below the Prime Minister. They oversee crucial ministries such as Home Affairs, Finance, and Defence, and are empowered to schedule and attend meetings and make pivotal policy decisions.

Ministers of State are junior members of the Council of Ministers. A Minister of State (Independent Charge) heads their ministry independently, without oversight from other cabinet ministers or the Union government.

Ministers of State:

Ministers of State assist cabinet ministers in their duties and are responsible for specific tasks delegated to them by their superiors. They do not have primary administrative authority over a ministry but support the cabinet minister in managing it

Other Points to Consider

Council of Ministers in recent Lok Sabha

Election Commission

Introduction

• The Maldives is a crucial partner for India in safeguarding its maritime boundaries and overseeing the broader Indian Ocean region, where China is asserting its influence. The archipelago is situated approximately 300 nautical miles (560 km) from India’s west coast and about 70 nautical miles (130 km) from Minicoy Island in Lakshadweep, intersected by numerous key commercial shipping routes.
• Mohamed Muizzu, President of the Maldives, was among the leaders from India’s neighboring countries who attended Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s swearing-in ceremony at Rashtrapati Bhavan.
• Muizzu’s attendance was noteworthy due to his political stance toward India and the strategic importance of the India-Maldives relationship.

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What is the India Out Campaign?

• The India Out campaign started in 2020 as a protest against then-President Ibrahim Solih’s perceived pro-India policies, quickly evolving into a broader movement opposing India’s alleged military presence in the Maldives. Both the Solih administration and India denied these allegations.
• Consequently, in May, the final group of Indian military personnel stationed in the Maldives to operate and maintain donated helicopters and Dornier aircraft were replaced by civilians.

Muizzu’s Pro-China Tilt

• The relationship between the Maldives and India deteriorated due to Muizzu’s alignment with China, India’s geopolitical rival in the Indian Ocean.
• In January, Muizzu broke with Maldivian tradition by selecting Beijing over New Delhi for his first international visit as president. During his trip, he met with President Xi Jinping and signed 20 agreements covering areas such as tourism, social housing, and e-commerce.
• Additionally, Male signed its first-ever military deal with Beijing to receive free “non-lethal” military equipment and training from China.
• Over the past few decades, Chinese influence in the Maldives has grown, with the island nation becoming part of China’s Belt and Road Initiative, resulting in significant Chinese investment and a strengthened bilateral relationship at India’s expense.

Conclusion

• The Maldives heavily depends on Indian imports across nearly all essential sectors, including food, life-saving medicines, and aircraft used for search and rescue missions.
• India has consistently come to the Maldives' aid during various crises, from being the first responder after the 2004 tsunami to airlifting drinking water during a desalination plant failure in 2014. During the COVID-19 pandemic, India supplied medicines, masks, gloves, PPE kits, vaccines, and other necessary items

Introduction

• Birsa Munda, born on November 15, 1875, emerged during a period of significant transformation for his community. The Mundas, originally a nomadic hunting tribe that had transitioned to farming in the Chotanagpur district of present-day Jharkhand, faced severe challenges due to oppressive policies and events.
• Before colonial rule, land ownership in this region was governed by the "khuntkatti" system, based on customary rights and free from landlords.
• The introduction of the Permanent Settlement Act of 1793 marked a turning point, facilitating colonial penetration into rural India. The East India Company used this law to establish the zamindari system of land revenue collection, creating two distinct classes: the land-owning zamindars, seen as outsiders or "dikus" by the indigenous people, and the tenant farmers or "ryots."

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• The Act allowed the dikus to claim ownership through deeds specifying particular territories, displacing indigenous people and depriving them of land they had cultivated for generations.
• Additional oppressive policies worsened the community's plight, including the "begar" system of forced labor, dependency on money lenders for credit, and the replacement of traditional clan councils with colonial courts.
• The famines of 1896–1897 and 1899–1900 further led to widespread hunger among the tribes.
• British rule and the increasing presence of Christian missionaries in the area fueled tribal resentment towards the dikus.
• Between 1886 and 1890, Munda spent much of his time in Chaibasa, a center of the Sardari rebellion, where the Oraon and Munda tribes peacefully resisted British authority.
• This period inspired Munda to join the anti-missionary and anti-colonial movements. By the time he left Chaibasa in 1890, he was deeply committed to fighting British oppression of tribal communities.
• In 1899, Birsa Munda initiated the Ulgulan movement, employing guerrilla warfare and weapons to expel the foreigners. He urged the tribes to establish Birsa Raj and defy colonial laws and rent demands.
• Despite their efforts, the British quickly suppressed the movement due to their superior strength. Munda was captured by British police on March 3, 1900, while resting with his guerrilla force in the Jamkopai jungle of Chakradharpur.
• The movement did, however, lead to significant changes, including the government's repeal of the begar system and the enactment of the Tenancy Act of 1903, which recognised the khuntkhatti system. Later, the Chotanagpur Tenancy Act of 1908 prohibited the transfer of tribal land to non-tribals

Introduction

• On June 7, 1893, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, a young lawyer, was forcibly removed from a first-class train compartment reserved for whites only at the Pietermaritzburg railway station in South Africa. This incident sparked Gandhi’s first act of civil disobedience, known as Satyagraha.
• Gandhians regard the Pietermaritzburg incident as one of the pivotal moments in Gandhi's life. In his autobiography, Gandhi described the event as "a symptom of the deep disease of colour prejudice," and he felt it was his "duty" to combat it.

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• Gandhi's experiences in South Africa profoundly influenced his personal growth and philosophical outlook.
• His debates with Christians challenging his religious beliefs led him to develop a more inclusive spirituality.
• Gandhi defended Indian traders from discrimination, opposed efforts to disenfranchise Indian voters in Natal, and authored a guidebook for Indian students, showing his commitment to both personal and professional growth.
• Ramachandra Guha, in "Gandhi Before India" (2012), highlighted that the years Gandhi spent in South Africa were crucial for shaping the unique form of political protest that would become his lasting legacy to India and the world.
• In South Africa, Gandhi both developed and practised satyagraha, engaging in activities such as writing letters, articles, and petitions, as well as organizing mass mobilizations and willingly facing imprisonment if demands were unmet. He later applied this nonviolent protest strategy against British rule in India.
• Gandhi's principles of nonviolent resistance were instrumental in India's struggle for independence, from the Non-Cooperation Movement (1919-22) and the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-34) to the Quit India Movement (1942)

Introduction

• Donanemab, a new treatment for Alzheimer’s disease developed by Eli Lilly, has received unanimous support from independent experts advising the United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA), advancing it closer to clinical trials.
• The FDA advisory committee noted in a briefing document that "the potential risks of donanemab, when properly managed as directed in the labelling, are outweighed by the demonstrated benefits on clinical endpoints in those with Alzheimer’s disease (AD)."

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How do the Benefits of the Drug Stack Up Against Its Risks?

• Donanemab is designed specifically for individuals in the early stages of Alzheimer’s disease, with mild cognitive impairment or mild dementia.
• The drug significantly slows the progression of the disease, allowing patients to maintain their functional abilities for a longer period.
• According to the FDA's risk-benefit assessment, most amyloid-related imaging abnormalities (ARIA), such as brain bleeding and seizures, were non-serious and resolved or stabilized when the medication was discontinued.
• Proper labelling and clinical monitoring can mitigate major concerns, and post-authorization studies can provide further insights. Given the severity of Alzheimer’s disease and the limited availability of disease-modifying treatments, donanemab offers a substantial clinical benefit for AD patients, as per the FDA statement.

How Does It Work?

• Donanemab is a monoclonal antibody that targets the accumulation of amyloid beta protein in the brain, a key characteristic of Alzheimer’s disease.
• A phase 3 trial demonstrated that donanemab reduced cognitive decline in early Alzheimer's patients by 35.1% over 76 weeks. The trial included 1,736 participants, with 860 receiving the infusion every four weeks until the amyloid beta plaque was eliminated.
• The primary side effect of the drug is brain swelling or bleeding, which is generally asymptomatic. The study reported that 24% of participants experienced brain edema, while 19.7% had brain bleeding. There were three treatment-related deaths documented in the study

Introduction

Direct Seeding of Rice (DSR) involves planting rice seeds directly into the field rather than transplanting seedlings from a nursery. This method is also known as the ‘tar-wattar’ technique.

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How DSR Works

Traditionally, rice farmers start by sowing seeds in nurseries. After 25–35 days, these seedlings are transplanted into the main, flooded field. Although this method is labor-intensive and water-demanding, it generally results in higher yields and healthier crops.

In DSR, seeds are sown directly into the field approximately 20-30 days before they would traditionally be transplanted. The field is first irrigated and leveled with a laser before using a seed drill or fortunate seeder for planting. Seed preparation is crucial, with seeds soaked in a fungicide solution for eight hours and then dried for half a day before planting.

The first irrigation occurs 21 days post-sowing, followed by 14-17 more irrigation cycles at intervals of 7-10 days, depending on soil type and monsoon conditions. The final irrigation happens 10 days before harvesting, with the overall process requiring around 25-27 irrigations.

Benefits of DSR

• Water Conservation: DSR can reduce water usage by 15% to 20%, whereas the traditional method requires 3,600 to 4,125 liters of water per kilogram of rice.
• Labor Reduction: It requires less labor compared to traditional methods.
• Faster Maturation: DSR crops mature 7 to 10 days sooner, allowing farmers more time to manage paddy straw.
• Cost Efficiency: Lower production costs.
• Environmental Impact: Better soil conditions for subsequent crops and reduced methane emissions.

Challenges of DSR

• Weed Management: Weeds pose a significant challenge in DSR as they compete with rice seedlings more aggressively than in traditional methods.
• Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Although DSR reduces methane emissions, it can increase nitrous oxide emissions due to aerobic soil conditions.
• Nutrient Deficiencies: Micronutrient deficiencies are more prevalent in DSR.

Conclusion

Achieving comparable yields with DSR is possible through several cultural strategies, such as selecting suitable cultivars, timing the sowing process appropriately, using the correct seeding rates, and managing weeds and water effectively. Encouraging farmers to adopt DSR can be facilitated by developing better short-duration and high-yielding varieties, as well as improving nutrient management and weed control strategies

Other Points to Consider

Subsidies in DSR

Importance of soil for DSR

Introduction

Challenges and Opportunities in India’s Neighborhood

Afghanistan

• Diplomatic relations with Kabul have been minimal since the Taliban took over in August 2021. India maintains a low-level engagement through a technical team for humanitarian aid, with no high-level interactions planned.

Myanmar

• Engaging with Myanmar's junta, which is dealing with internal armed resistance, presents a challenge. Indian strategic circles suggest that India should also consider engaging with opposition groups due to the potential instability of the current government.

Maldives

• The election of President Mohamed Muizzu, who campaigned on an "India Out" platform, is significant. In response, India replaced its military personnel with trained technical staff as requested by the Muizzu government, indicating readiness for further engagement.

Bangladesh

• A restrained approach from Indian government members during the third phase of the BJP government is beneficial, as both countries aim to combat extremism, radicalization, and terrorism.

Bhutan

• India is prepared to assist Bhutan with its five-year plan, a financial stimulus package, and the Gelephu city project.

Nepal

• China has a notable influence in Nepal, with former Prime Minister K P Sharma Oli's government appearing to use Beijing's support against India. India needs to work hard to regain the trust of the Nepalese people, which was damaged by the 2015 economic blockade.

Sri Lanka

• India's support during Sri Lanka’s financial crisis earned goodwill, but this was undermined by disputes over Katchatheevu island.

Seychelles and Mauritius

• India aims to enhance port infrastructure in these countries as part of its maritime diplomacy and security efforts. Progress has been made on Agalega Islands in Mauritius, but developing Assumption Island in Seychelles remains challenging.

Pakistan

• India's relationship with Pakistan fluctuated in 2014 and 2015, deteriorating after terrorist attacks in Pathankot and Uri in 2016. The 2019 Pulwama attack and subsequent Balakot strikes heightened nationalist sentiment in India. Changes to the constitutional status of Jammu and Kashmir in August 2019 led to a further downgrading of diplomatic relations. Recent terrorist attacks in J&K have hindered any potential for renewed engagement.

China

• High-level engagements, including Modi's meeting with President Xi Jinping at the SCO summit in Kazakhstan, could offer a chance for progress. However, India insists on complete disengagement and de-escalation, which will require significant time to move 50,000-60,000 troops and equipment from both sides of the border

Introduction

In the newly elected Lok Sabha, the Speaker is chosen by a simple majority vote. Until this selection is complete, a pro-tem Speaker is appointed to perform necessary duties temporarily. The term 'pro-tem' denotes a temporary assignment.

Article 94 of the Indian Constitution clarifies that following the dissolution of the House of the People, the sitting Speaker remains in office until just before the first session of the newly elected House. Although the Constitution does not explicitly mention the role of a pro-tem Speaker, the official ‘Handbook on the Working of Ministry of Parliamentary Affairs’ provides guidelines for the ‘Appointment and Swearing in of Speaker pro tem’.

Appointment Process of the Pro-tem Speaker

The handbook indicates that when the Speaker’s position is vacant before the establishment of a new Lok Sabha, the President appoints a Member of the House to temporarily carry out the Speaker’s duties as the pro-tem Speaker. Typically, three additional elected members are also appointed by the President to witness the oath-taking of the new MPs.

The handbook notes that usually, the most senior members, in terms of their tenure in the House, are chosen for this role, though there can be exceptions. After the new government is formed, the Legislative I Section of the Government of India prepares a list of the senior-most Lok Sabha members, which is then submitted to the Minister of Parliamentary Affairs or the Prime Minister. They then appoint an MP as the pro-tem Speaker and three more members for administering oaths.

Roles and Responsibilities of the Pro-tem Speaker

The primary duty of the pro-tem Speaker is to administer the oaths to the newly elected MPs. According to Article 99 of the Constitution, each Member of the House must take an oath or affirmation before the President or an appointed representative before they can assume their seat, following the form set out in the Third Schedule of the Constitution.

The Minister of Parliamentary Affairs sends a note to the President requesting approval for the appointment of the pro-tem Speaker and the three additional members, including the date and time for the swearing-in ceremony.

At Rashtrapati Bhawan, the President administers the oath to the pro-tem Speaker, who then administers the oath to the three appointed members. With the help of these three members, the pro-tem Speaker administers the oath/affirmation to the newly elected members of the Lok Sabha

Other Points to Consider

Duties of Speaker of the Lok Sabha

Articles related to Speaker of the Lok Sabha and chairman of the Rajya Sabha

India's e-mobility ambitions require a multi-pronged approach. While localizing battery manufacturing is crucial, it must be accompanied by a large-scale rollout of charging infrastructure. Additionally, exploring alternative battery technologies and integrating more renewable energy sources into the power grid can pave the way for a more sustainable and successful EV revolution in India.

Other Points to Consider 

Cruise missiles are self-guided, unmanned vehicles that rely on jet engines and aerodynamic lift to deliver their payloads with precision. They travel through the atmosphere, unlike ballistic missiles that follow a high, arcing trajectory. Cruise missiles can be launched from various platforms, including land, air, ships, and submarines. These missiles are categorized based on factors like size, speed, range, and launch platform. One key distinction lies in their speed. Supersonic Cruise Missiles travel at extremely high speeds, typically between 2 and 3 times the speed of sound (Mach 2-3). Their supersonic speed combined with their warhead payload creates a devastating impact on targets.

The Strategic Importance of Supersonic Cruise Missiles

Supersonic cruise missiles, exemplified by the formidable BrahMos, hold significant strategic relevance owing to their advanced features and operational capabilities:

• Dual-Stage Propulsion: The BrahMos employs a sophisticated two-stage propulsion system, comprising a solid propellant booster engine and a liquid ramjet. This design enables the missile to achieve supersonic speeds during its flight trajectory, enhancing its agility and effectiveness in hitting targets.
• Stealth and Versatility: With an exceptionally low radar signature and the ability to maneuver along diverse flight paths, the BrahMos exhibits stealth capabilities, making it challenging for adversaries to detect and intercept. Its versatility allows for effective deployment across various operational scenarios, including land, air, and sea.
• Standoff Range Engagement: As a "standoff range weapon," the BrahMos can be launched from a considerable distance, enabling the attacker to evade defensive counterfire while maintaining precision and lethality. This standoff capability enhances operational flexibility and reduces the risk of launching platforms.
• Superior Performance: Compared to subsonic cruise missiles, the BrahMos offers three times the speed, significantly extended flight range, and enhanced striking capabilities. Its unparalleled speed and range make it a formidable asset for preemptive strikes and swift engagements across vast distances.
• Continuous Advancements: Recent tests, including the successful launch of an extended-range air-launched variant from a frontline SU-30MKI aircraft and an advanced sea-to-sea variant from INS Visakhapatnam, underscore ongoing advancements in BrahMos technology. These developments further augment the missile's operational effectiveness and expand its tactical utility.

The BrahMos deployment and ongoing advancements solidify India's defence posture. The strategic triad deployment, commitment to modernization, and burgeoning international partnerships position India as a major player in the field of supersonic cruise missile technology.

Other Points to Consider 

Other classifications of cruise missiles

Difference between solid propulsion and liquid propulsion

The Battle of Plassey stands as a pivotal moment in history, etched in both cultural and literary narratives, symbolizing the British conquest of the Indian subcontinent. The conflict escalated in 1756 with the accession of Siraj-ud-Daulah, a 23-year-old ruler. Unlike his predecessor Alivardi Khan, whose reign was celebrated as a 'golden age,' Siraj-ud-Daulah faced widespread disdain from the Murshidabad court. The battle gained prominence as it marked the East India Company's initial significant triumph in India.

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You may incorporate some of the following points in the body of your answer:

The Company's Administrative Evolution in Bengal

Following the Battle of Plassey, Mir Jafar ascended to the Nawab's throne, yet the East India Company remained hesitant to assume direct administrative responsibilities.

• The Company's primary objective remained trade expansion. Instead of direct conquest, they sought to collaborate with local rulers, granting privileges to facilitate trade expansion.
• When Mir Jafar voiced dissatisfaction, the Company replaced him with Mir Qasim. However, repeated grievances led to Mir Qasim's defeat at Buxar (1764) and his subsequent expulsion from Bengal.
• The Company demanded substantial monthly payments from the Nawab to fund battles, meet trade requirements, and cover other expenses. Over time, it sought additional territories and revenue sources.
• In 1765, the Mughal emperor conferred Diwani rights upon the Company, granting control over Bengal's revenue resources. This resolved a significant financial constraint for the Company.
• The Diwani rights curtailed the outflow of gold from Britain, allowing revenues from India to fund Company expenses. These funds were allocated for various purposes, including textile procurement, military support, and infrastructure development in Calcutta.

The Battle of Plassey opened the door for the British East India Company's transformation from a trading entity to a political and administrative power in Bengal. The Company's initial reluctance to take on administrative burdens gave way to seizing control of Bengal's revenue streams, laying the groundwork for their eventual dominance in India. While Plassey itself may be a singular event, its consequences had a long-lasting impact on the Indian subcontinent.

Other Points to Consider 

Battle of Buxar

Conflict between the Company and the Nawabs of Bengal

Coral reefs are among the most biologically diverse marine ecosystems on Earth, with a history spanning approximately 200 million years. These reefs are vital components of the marine ecosystem, providing essential habitats for a wide array of marine vegetation and wildlife.

Ecologically, coral reefs are comparable to tropical rainforests in terms of species richness and biological productivity. They play a crucial role in promoting the establishment of related ecosystems, which support important habitats, fisheries, and livelihoods. Thus, the health and preservation of coral reefs are critical for maintaining marine biodiversity and supporting human communities that rely on these ecosystems.

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You may incorporate some of the following points in the body of your answer:

Coral Bleaching and Its Impact

Causes of Coral Bleaching

Coral bleaching occurs when water temperatures become excessively warm, causing corals to expel the microscopic algae living in their tissues. These algae are crucial for the corals as they provide nourishment through photosynthesis. Without these algae, the corals' tissues become transparent, revealing their white skeletons, a phenomenon known as coral bleaching.

Effects and Risks of Bleaching

Bleached corals are not dead but are at significant risk of malnutrition and disease. Scientists estimate that corals can survive without their algae for around two weeks. Thermal stress, which causes bleaching, occurs when sea surface temperatures exceed 1 degree Celsius above the maximum mean temperature, and this stress intensifies if high temperatures persist.

Measuring Heat Stress

Scientists use the Degree Heating Week (DHW) indicator to measure accumulated heat stress in a given area over the previous 12 weeks. This indicator sums up any temperatures that surpass the bleaching threshold during that period, expressed in Celsius weeks.

Regional Impacts and Case Studies

The western Indian Ocean region has experienced the most significant increase in marine heatwaves, with approximately 1.5 events per decade, followed by the north Bay of Bengal at 0.5 events per decade. An underwater assessment showed that 85% of the corals in the Gulf of Mannar near the Tamil Nadu coast bleached after the marine heatwave in May 2020.

Other Points to Consider 

Heat waves

Importance of corals

The eggshell skull rule is a common law principle in civil litigation. It holds that an offender is accountable for all harms exacerbated by the victim’s unique characteristics, even if the offender was unaware of them. For instance, a defendant is liable for the full extent of injury to a person with a delicate skull, even if a "normal person" would not have been as severely impacted. This rule allows for claiming enhanced compensation for damage greater than ordinarily anticipated due to the defendant's actions.

The Jyoti Devi Case

The Supreme Court's recent judgment in the Jyoti Devi case sheds light on the application of the eggshell skull rule in medical negligence claims.

Jyoti Devi underwent an appendectomy in a Himachal Pradesh hospital in 2005. However, she continued to experience abdominal pain after the surgery. Following a series of consultations over four years, doctors at PGIMS Chandigarh discovered a foreign object (a needle) left behind in her abdomen, necessitating further surgery.

Compensation Dispute

Jyoti Devi filed a consumer forum complaint seeking compensation for medical negligence. The district forum awarded Rs. 5 lakh, but the state forum reduced it to Rs. 1 lakh. On appeal, the NCDRC increased it to Rs. 2 lakh.

Supreme Court's Ruling

The Supreme Court reinstated the district forum's initial Rs. 5 lakh compensation, stating that the lower courts awarded "paltry" and "unjust" sums. However, the court clarified that the eggshell skull rule did not apply in this case.

Reasoning Behind Non-Application of Eggshell Rule

The Supreme Court ruled that the eggshell skull rule wouldn't apply in Jyoti Devi's case because the facts presented no evidence of a "pre-existing vulnerability or medical condition" that might have caused her to suffer "unusual damage."

This case emphasizes the importance of considering all aspects when awarding compensation for medical negligence. While the eggshell skull rule protects vulnerable patients, it's not a blanket principle. The specific circumstances of each case determine its applicability.

Other Points to Consider 

Origin of the eggshell skull rule

National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission (NCDRC)

Bilateral trade between India and Italy has experienced significant growth, reaching USD 13.229 billion in the fiscal year 2021-22, marking a remarkable increase of over 50% compared to the previous year. Italy stands as India's fourth-largest trading partner within the European Union, showcasing the depth of economic cooperation between the two nations.

Migration and Mobility Partnership Agreement (MMPA): The signing of the Migration and Mobility Partnership Agreement (MMPA) in November 2023 during the visit of India's External Affairs Minister to Italy underscores a new dimension in bilateral relations. This agreement aims to enhance people-to-people connectivity and mobility, facilitating the movement of various categories of individuals, including workers, students, researchers, and artists, in alignment with the respective labor market needs.

Enhancing Job Opportunities and Collaboration: The MMPA is poised to create job opportunities for Indian workers and professionals by streamlining their mobility in Italy. By addressing the identified needs of labor markets, the agreement fosters greater collaboration and synergy between the two countries, contributing to economic growth and development.

Stabilizing the Indo-Pacific Region: The partnership between India and Italy, including the MMPA, contributes to the stability and prosperity of the Indo-Pacific region. A safe and open Indo-Pacific region is essential for fostering future commerce, connectivity, and strategic cooperation, aligning with the shared objectives of both nations.

India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC): The inauguration of the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC) during the G20 conference in Delhi signifies a concerted effort to establish a new trade route between Asia and Europe. This initiative aims to bolster economic integration and connectivity, further strengthening India's engagement with the Middle East and Europe while enhancing regional stability and prosperity.

The agreement between India and Italy strengthens ties in two key areas: education and professional mobility. Indian students in Italy can now gain valuable work experience for up to a year after completing their studies. This aligns with the growing trend of Indian students choosing Italy for education, with numbers rising from 3,008 in 2021 to 5,897 in 2022.

Other Points to Consider 

The Nagara architectural style originated in northern India during the fifth century CE, flourishing during the late Gupta dynasty era. In North India, it is customary to build complete temples on stone platforms with ascending steps, contrasting with the South Indian tradition that often incorporates elaborate boundary walls and gates. Nagara temples are further classified into different types according to the design of their shikharas.

Characteristics:

• Nagara temples are elevated on a raised platform, with the inner sanctum, known as the garbha griha, situated at the heart of the temple complex, housing the deity idol.
• The garbhagriha is consistently positioned directly beneath the tallest tower, known as the shikhara, which symbolizes the pinnacle of the temple.
• The shikhara, often likened to a mountain peak, stands as the most prominent feature of Nagara-style temples.
• Typically, Nagara temples include a pathway encircling the garbha griha, facilitating circumambulation, along with one or more mandapas (halls) aligned with the main axis. Intricate murals and reliefs frequently adorn the temple walls.

 

Modes of Nagara Architecture:

• According to Adam Hardy's renowned work "The Temple Architecture of India" (2007), Nagara temple architecture manifests in five distinct modes: Valabhi, Phamsana, Latina, Shekhari, and Bhumija.
• Valabhi mode represents a transition from wooden structures to masonry, often resembling barrel-roofed chaitya halls associated with Buddhist shrines.
• Phamsana mode demonstrates a formalization of multi-eave towers, achieved through stacking slabs.
• Latina mode features a single, slightly curved tower with four equal-length sides, evolving into composite forms in the tenth century, giving rise to Shekhari and Bhumija styles.
• Shekhari style incorporates attached sub-spires or spirelets echoing the main tower's shape, often varying in size and placement.
• Bhumija mode showcases miniature spires arranged in horizontal and vertical rows, creating a grid-like pattern on each face of the tower.

Vimanas of Dravida-style temples are generally smaller compared to the grand gatehouses or gopurams, which serve as the most visually striking architectural features within a temple complex. In southern Indian architectural traditions, shikhara are referenced, but they specifically pertain to the dome-shaped crown positioned atop the vimana.

Other Points to Consider 

Features of Dravida style temples

Examples of Nagara and Dravida style temples

In 1942, under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, the people of India embarked on the decisive final phase of the independence movement. This monumental anti-colonial uprising, unprecedented in scale, conveyed a resolute message: the imminent end of British rule in India. Despite the ruthless suppression by the British, the movement, fueled by the determination of India's masses, left an indelible mark. It became unequivocally clear that nothing less than the complete departure of the British was acceptable to the people of India.

• Although the Quit India Movement's ability to incite insurrection at the national level was limited, it achieved significant regional success, particularly in areas like Satara, Maharashtra, Talcher, Orissa, and Midnapore.
• Local inhabitants successfully established parallel governments in Midnapore's Tamluk and Contai subdivisions, which operated autonomously until Gandhi intervened personally and ordered the leaders to disband in 1944.
• In Ballia, Uttar Pradesh's easternmost district, a small-scale insurrection occurred. The populace overturned the district administration, stormed the jail to free arrested Congress leaders, and established their own independent government. It took weeks for the British to restore their authority in the district.
• The Quit India Movement in rural Bengal was propelled by peasants' discontent with increasing war taxes and forced rice exports.
• Despite the incarceration of all members of the Congress Working Committee, massive rallies and demonstrations erupted across the country. Workers went on strike, and various forms of civil disobedience were observed. Some demonstrations turned violent, with explosions, arson attacks on government buildings, and disruptions to transportation and communication infrastructure. The government responded by arresting nearly ten thousand individuals.
• On August 8th, 1942, in Bombay (now Mumbai), Mahatma Gandhi delivered a powerful message to the Indian people gathered at Gowalia Tank Maidan. His words, "Do or Die," resonated throughout the nation, igniting a spirit of unwavering determination. The message was clear: India would be free, and its people were prepared to fight for it, even if it meant sacrificing their lives.

Though the Quit India Movement was ultimately suppressed, it marked a turning point in India's freedom struggle. It was a moment when the masses rose as one, their collective voice demanding an end to British rule with an unprecedented intensity and passion. The movement may have been quelled, but the message resonated – India would no longer tolerate British dominion.

Other Points to Consider 

Cripps Mission

Other movements led by Mahatma Gandhi

According to Maoist ideology, the economically oppressed peasants and working class will rise against the capitalist bourgeois class to establish a classless society through armed revolution. However, rapid economic growth, opportunities created by communication and mobility, and aspirational youth act as strong counterforces to economic class-based divisions.

Strategies for Countering Naxalism

Strategic victory over Naxalism requires a clear understanding of the roles and responsibilities of central and state governments, as well as an honest assessment of the capabilities, mindset, and resolve of security forces engaged in anti-Naxalite operations. Additionally, establishing a realistic timeframe is essential to effectively root out this menace.

Tactical Warfare and Local Commando Forces

At the tactical level, successful combat against Naxalism necessitates the deployment of agile, stealthy, enduring, and disciplined commando forces primarily recruited from the local youth. An example of this approach is the Greyhounds of the erstwhile Andhra Pradesh police.

Economic Interests and Resource-Rich Regions

The influence of Maoists thrives in contiguous forested areas across multiple states due to deep-rooted financial interests. These regions are rich in minerals such as bauxite, iron ore, limestone, marble, dolomite, coal, and copper, as well as pristine forests abundant in timber and Minor Forest Produce (MFP).

Exploitation of Natural Resources and Extortion

The value chain associated with these natural resources offers significant profit margins for extractive industries and contractors, creating opportunities for extortion and protection money demanded by Maoist groups. With many state governments enacting the Panchayat (Extension of Scheduled Areas) Act 1996, gram panchayats now auction MFP, including bamboo and tendu leaves, further contributing to these dynamics.

Implications and Solutions

Understanding the economic dynamics behind Naxalism underscores the importance of holistic approaches that address socio-economic grievances, governance issues, and the exploitation of natural resources. Combining security measures with development initiatives aimed at improving the lives of local communities is crucial for effectively countering the insurgency and fostering lasting peace and stability in affected regions.

To effectively combat Naxalism, an integrated approach is imperative, spearheaded by counter-offensive operations conducted by well-trained, disciplined, agile, and stealthy commando forces of the state police. Additionally, expanding road networks from the periphery to the core of liberated zones, facilitated under the security cover of central forces or specially raised engineering units, is crucial. Furthermore, the rapid expansion of mobile communication networks and the commercialization of economic activities represent slow but certain and irreversible pathways to success.

Other Points to Consider 

3D printing is a manufacturing method that utilizes computer-generated designs to produce three-dimensional objects layer by layer. It operates on an additive principle, gradually building up layers of materials such as plastic, composites, or bio-materials to form objects of various shapes, sizes, rigidity, and colours.

3D printing is transforming manufacturing across industries, and even space exploration isn't immune to its potential. 

Simplified Printing Process

• User-Friendly Approach: 3D printing offers a relatively straightforward process. With a 3D model designed using Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software and a connected 3D printer, users can bring their ideas to life. The printer handles the intricate task of constructing the object layer by layer.
• Additive Manufacturing: In contrast to traditional subtractive manufacturing techniques that remove material to create an object, 3D printing works additively. It builds the desired form by depositing material layer upon layer.

ISRO's Success Story

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) exemplifies the exciting possibilities of 3D printing in space exploration:

• Engine Revamp: ISRO successfully 3D printed a liquid rocket engine, the PS4, used in the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle's (PSLV) fourth stage.
• Benefits of 3D Printing: This innovative approach offered significant advantages:
  • Part Consolidation: The engine design was transformed from 14 separate parts into a single, unified piece.
  • Efficiency Boost: 3D printing eliminated the need for 19 weld joints, saving a remarkable 97% of raw materials.
  • Time Savings: Production time was reduced by a staggering 60%.

ISRO's achievement demonstrates the immense potential of 3D printing to revolutionize space exploration by streamlining engine design, reducing production times, and minimizing resource requirements.

3D printing finds application across a diverse array of industries, including healthcare, automobile, and aerospace. During the height of the Covid-19 pandemic in 2020, the healthcare sector extensively leveraged 3D printers to manufacture crucial medical equipment such as swabs, face shields, masks, and components for ventilator repairs. Last year saw the inauguration of India’s maiden 3D-printed post office, marking a significant milestone in the adoption of this innovative technology.

Other Points to Consider 

Types of 3D printing

Advantages and challenges of 3D printing

• India began diplomatic relations with Israel in 1992. Since then, commerce between the two countries has increased dramatically, from approximately $200 million in 1992 (mainly for diamonds) to $10.7 billion (excluding defense) in the fiscal year 2022-23. In contrast, Iran was India’s 59th largest trading partner, with bilateral trade.
• According to the think tank Global Trade Research Initiative (GTRI), petrol prices in India are unlikely to rise as a result of the ongoing Middle East tensions. However, tensions in the Red Sea, a vital commercial route between Europe and Asia, may have a broader impact. This route accounts for around 12% of total world trade.
• Since November 2023, Yemeni militants known as the Houthis have targeted certain ships sailing through this region. They claim their actions are in response to Israel’s military activity in the Gaza Strip, while Israel accuses Iran of supporting the Houthis. The latest conflict between Iran and Israel may exacerbate India’s commercial problems caused by shipping disruptions in the Red Sea. Despite these challenges, this battle is unlikely to impact Indian petrol prices significantly. The ongoing conflict has made the situation in West Asia extremely insecure, potentially delaying initiatives such as the Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC) for an extended period.
• The current violence is unlikely to seriously impair crude oil and gas output because major producers such as the United States, Russia, and North Sea firms are not in the conflict zone, and Saudi Arabia has not directly intervened. However, shipping disruptions in the Red Sea have forced longer trade routes via the Cape of Good Hope to Europe and North America’s east coast, potentially resulting in higher oil and petrol costs. In India, the impact on consumers may be negligible because the government can balance price rises by lowering taxes.

While geopolitical tensions in the Middle East may create challenges for India's trade and energy security, the country's diversified trade relations, coupled with its ability to adapt to changing circumstances, position it to navigate through these challenges with resilience.

Other Points to Consider 

India and Nepal enjoy a robust friendship and cooperation founded on an open border and deep-seated familial and cultural ties. Nepal shares a border spanning over 1850 kilometres with five Indian states: Sikkim, West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Uttarakhand. Extensive defence cooperation is a hallmark of the relationship between India and Nepal. The Government of India's development assistance to Nepal is comprehensive, focusing on grassroots infrastructure development. Projects encompass infrastructure, healthcare, water resources, education, rural, and community development. Cooperation in water resources, particularly involving shared rivers, is a pivotal area of bilateral collaboration. Since 1971, India and Nepal have maintained a Power Exchange Agreement to fulfil their power requirements along the border, leveraging each other’s transmission facilities.

The territorial dispute revolves around a 372-square-kilometer area encompassing Limpiadhura, Lipulekh, and Kalapani at the India-Nepal-China trijunction in Uttarakhand’s Pithoragarh district. Nepal asserts historical and evident ownership of these lands.

Genesis of the Issue

• The Treaty of Sugauli, concluding the Anglo-Nepalese War of 1814-16, led to Nepal ceding territory to the East India Company. Article 5 of the treaty removed Nepal’s rulers’ sovereignty over the land east of the Kali River.
• British Surveyor General of India's maps from 1819, 1821, 1827, and 1856 depicted the Kali River as originating near Limpiadhura.
• A map issued in 1879 referred to the river in the local language as "Kuti Yangti."
• However, the last map printed by the British before their departure from India in 1947 depicted the Kali River’s source near Limpiadhura.
• Until 1962, villages in this area, including Gunji, Nabhi, Kuti, and Kalapani (also known as Tulsi Nyurang and Nabhidang), were included in Nepal government censuses, with villagers paying land revenue to the Kathmandu government. However, this changed during the conflict between India and China that year.

Resolving this dispute peacefully and through historical evidence is crucial for maintaining the strong relationship between India and Nepal. Their long-standing cooperation in various sectors,  including defense, development, water resources, and power exchange, makes a collaborative solution even more important.

Other Points to Consider 

Map work: Limpiadhura, Lipulekh, and Kalapani

Treaty of Sugauli

Anglo-Nepalese War

 Auroras are natural lights that appear as bright, swirling curtains in the night sky, displaying a variety of colours such as blue, red, yellow, green, and orange. These lights are typically seen around the poles in both the northern and southern hemispheres throughout the year but can sometimes extend to lower latitudes. The northern lights are called the Aurora Borealis, while the southern lights are known as the Aurora Australis.

Reasons for the Occurance of the Aurora

• Auroras occur due to activity on the Sun’s surface. The Sun continuously emits a stream of charged particles, primarily electrons and protons, along with magnetic fields known as the solar wind. As the solar wind approaches Earth, it is deflected by the planet’s magnetic field, which acts as a protective barrier.
• However, some charged particles become trapped in the magnetic field and travel along magnetic field lines near the north and south poles into the Earth’s upper atmosphere.
• These particles then interact with other gases in the atmosphere, producing small flashes that light up the night sky. When solar wind particles collide with oxygen, green light is produced, while interaction with nitrogen generates blue and purple hues.
• When the solar wind is particularly strong, auroras can extend to the midlatitudes. This happens when increased activity on the Sun’s surface leads to solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs), which are additional bursts of energy in the solar wind.
•  In such cases, the solar wind is so strong that it can cause a geomagnetic storm, a temporary disturbance of the Earth’s magnetic field. During a geomagnetic storm, auroras can be observed in the middle latitudes.

NASA explains that solar storms erupt when the Sun unleashes powerful explosions called solar flares. These flares hurl intense bursts of energy particles towards Earth. These flares also release a type of high-energy radiation called ionized radiation. When this radiation interacts with Earth's atmosphere, it can create temporary magnetic fields.

Other Points to Consider 

Auroras in India

What are the impacts of the northern lights on Earth?