The Indian National Army (INA) was established on February 17, 1942, just two days after the British surrendered to Japanese forces in Singapore. Initially composed of Indian prisoners of war (PoWs) captured by the Japanese during their Southeast Asia campaign, the INA was seen by the Japanese as a potential instrument for advancing their own goals of taking control of India.

• Despite its origins, the INA's most significant impact on India's independence struggle did not occur on the battlefield.
• When Subhas Chandra Bose assumed command of the INA in July 1943, he embarked on a strategic mission to rally support for the cause of Indian independence. Bose leveraged his leadership to engage with the Indian diaspora in Japanese-occupied Southeast Asia, garnering both material resources and human support for the INA's objectives.
• Under Bose's leadership, the INA quickly expanded to encompass more than 40,000 members, with many Indians contributing their life savings to the cause.
• Bose's vision extended beyond mere military conquest; he aimed for a large-scale insurrection within India to complement the INA's offensive efforts. His strategic goal was to create a dual-front attack on the British government, believing that this would lead to its collapse and the eventual liberation of India.
• However, the INA's military campaign faced significant challenges, including supply shortages, enemy air superiority, and disease. Despite initial advances, the INA was ultimately forced into retreat, particularly after its unsuccessful attempts to capture Imphal and Kohima.
• By 1945, with the British launching their own campaign to retake Burma, the INA found itself in a precarious position, further exacerbated by Japan's surrender following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
• Bose's desire to remain with his troops for the surrender was overruled by his subordinates, marking the end of the INA's military campaign.

While the INA's military campaign did not achieve its intended objectives on the battlefield, its significance lay in its ability to galvanize support for India's independence struggle. Through his leadership and strategic vision, Subhas Chandra Bose transformed the INA into a symbol of resistance and mobilized the Indian diaspora towards the cause of liberation, leaving an indelible mark on India's path to independence.

Red Fort trials

Regiments of INA

Introduction:

The introduction of the answer is essential and should be restricted to 3-5 lines. Remember, a one-liner is not a standard introduction

The National Water Development Agency (NWDA) has been entrusted with the ambitious task of river interlinking as outlined in the National Perspective Plan (NPP). The NPP is delineated into two key components: the Himalayan Rivers Development Component and the Peninsular Rivers Development Component. This introduction sets the stage for a comprehensive exploration of the benefits and ongoing initiatives associated with river interlinking projects under the NPP

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The interlinking of rivers under the National Perspective Plan holds immense promise for various sectors and regions across the country. Some of the anticipated benefits of these projects include: (i) Enhanced irrigation potential covering approximately 35 million hectares of land. (ii) Improved flood control measures to mitigate the impact of floods in flood-prone regions. (iii) Facilitation of navigation along interconnected waterways, fostering efficient transportation. (iv) Augmented water supply for domestic, agricultural, and industrial purposes. (v) Promotion of fisheries by creating conducive habitats and enhancing aquatic ecosystems. (vi) Mitigation of salinity intrusion, particularly in coastal areas, to safeguard agricultural lands. (vii) Implementation of measures to control water pollution, preserving water quality for various uses.

Furthermore, several states have submitted proposals for intra-state river linking projects to the NWDA. Notable examples include Maharashtra, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Odisha, Bihar, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Chhattisgarh.

Additionally, the Ken Betwa Link Project (KBLP) stands as the pioneering initiative under the NPP, with its implementation already underway. This project aims to create a link between the Ken and Betwa rivers, facilitating water transfer between these basins.

Moreover, recent collaborations between states and the Union Ministry of Jal Shakti signify significant strides in river interlinking efforts. For instance, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh have signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) to implement the Modified Parbati-Kalisindh-Chambal-ERCP (Modified PKC-ERCP) Link Project. This project aims to integrate the long-pending PKC river link project with the Eastern Rajasthan Canal Project, aligning with the overarching goals of the national perspective plan.

Conclusion:

The ending of the answer should be on a positive note and it should have a forward-looking approach

In conclusion, the National Water Development Agency (NWDA) has been instrumental in advancing river interlinking projects as outlined in the National Perspective Plan (NPP). Through preliminary feasibility assessments and collaborative efforts with various states, significant progress has been made towards realizing the envisioned benefits of these projects. As exemplified by initiatives such as the Ken Betwa Link Project and collaborations between states, the interlinking of rivers holds the promise of addressing water-related challenges and fostering sustainable development across diverse regions of the country

Other Points to Ponder

Mahanadi (Manibhadra) – Godavari (Dowlaiswaram) link

Godavari (Inchampalli) – Krishna (Pulichintala) link

Pennar (Somasila) – Cauvery (Grand Anicut) link

Par-Tapi-Narmada link

Introduction:

The introduction of the answer is essential and should be restricted to 3-5 lines. Remember, a one-liner is not a standard introduction

The dynamics of female labor force participation in India have witnessed significant transformations, particularly in rural regions, as highlighted in the 'Indian Economy — A Review' by the Department of Economic Affairs in 2024. This review underscores a notable upsurge in the female labor force participation rate (FLFPR) over the past six years, with rural areas experiencing a remarkable surge. Alongside this surge, there has been a parallel increase in self-employment and engagement in agricultural activities among rural women, signaling a shift in traditional labor patterns. This introduction sets the stage for exploring the multifaceted initiatives and programs driving these changes and their implications for women's economic empowerment in India

Body:

It is the central part of the answer and one should understand the demand of the question to provide rich content.

In discussing the topic, consider the following points:

The 'Indian Economy — A Review' by the Department of Economic Affairs in 2024 underscores the notable increase in the female labor force participation rate (FLFPR) in rural India over the past six years.

According to the report, while urban FLFPR has been on the rise, the surge in rural FLFPR has been particularly significant. This growth in rural female FLFPR has paralleled a rise in self-employment and agricultural activities among working women, both of which warrant further examination.

In rural areas, the FLFPR has surged from 24.6% in 2017-18 to 41.5% in 2022-23, whereas in urban areas, it has climbed from 20.4% to 25.4% during the same period.

Approximately 9.96 crore women across the country are covered by the mission, with over 90 lakh Women’s Self-Help Groups (SHGs) under the DAY-NRLM accessing Rs 38,892 crore as capitalization support.

Evaluation studies conducted by the Institute of Rural Management, Anand (2018) under Pramod Kumar Singh and the Stanford University team under Anjini Kochar (2020) affirmed nearly a 20% increase in household incomes for those covered by the mission, along with a maturation period of 6-8 years for newly formed SHGs.

In 2016, the MGNREGS began adopting a 60:40 unskilled labor to material ratio at the district level and promoted individual beneficiary income-generating initiatives like animal barns, agricultural ponds, and vermicomposting.

The Pradhan Mantri Gramin Awas Yojana, which is predominantly in the woman’s name in over 70% of cases, has resulted in more women gaining employment in MGNREGS through the ninety days of labor it provides.

Despite the majority of agricultural land being owned by men, women's contributions in farming are significant, with women tending to more than half of the land. The Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana (MKSP) initiated under the DAY-NRLM in 2011 aims to enhance skill sets through Community Resource Persons like Krishi Sakhi and Pashu Sakhi.

Conclusion:

The ending of the answer should be on a positive note and it should have a forward-looking approach

MGNREGS ensures equal wages for men and women, with its wage rates serving as the benchmark in numerous states. Elevating MGNREGS wage rates, coupled with increased productivity, can serve as an effective means to uphold the dignity of the poor and elevate their skill levels.

The DAY-NRLM and MGNREGS play pivotal roles in augmenting the female labor force participation rate, underlining their significance in advancing economic empowerment and inclusivity

Other Points to Consider

DAY-NRLM

MGNREGS

Deendayal Upadhyay Grameen Kaushalya Yojana (DDU-GKY)

Introduction:

The introduction of the answer is essential and should be restricted to 3-5 lines. Remember, a one-liner is not a standard introduction

Poverty has conventionally been assessed using income or, when income data is unavailable, expenditure levels. These "poverty lines" represent expenditure thresholds considered low enough to classify individuals as poor.

Multidimensional poverty in India saw a decline from 29.17% in 2013-14 to 11.28% in 2022-23, resulting in approximately 24.82 crore people lifting themselves out of poverty during this period.

At the state level, Uttar Pradesh led the rankings with 5.94 crore individuals rising above the poverty line, followed by Bihar at 3.77 crore and Madhya Pradesh at 2.30 crore.

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Difference between Indian MPI and Global MPI

Internationally, the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) encompasses 10 indicators across three key domains: (i) health, (ii) education, and (iii) standard of living. Each of these dimensions contributes equally to the final index.

Health indicators in the MPI encompass child and adolescent mortality rates, while educational metrics include years of schooling and attendance. Standard of living considerations involve household-specific factors such as housing quality, possession of household assets, type of cooking fuel, access to sanitation facilities, availability of drinking water, and electricity.

The Indian MPI includes two additional indicators:

(i) Maternal health (within the health dimension) and

(ii) Access to bank accounts (within the standard of living dimension).

This adaptation, as per the NITI Aayog, aims to align the MPI with India's national development priorities.

Conclusion:

The ending of the answer should be on a positive note and it should have a forward-looking approach

Consequently, the MPI value for a specific population represents the proportion of weighted deprivations experienced by multidimensionally poor individuals relative to the total population

Other Points to Consider

What is the basis for this assessment?

How is MPI calculated?

Introduction:

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The concept of creditisation aims to establish parity in academic recognition between vocational and general education, fostering seamless transition between these two educational streams, as outlined in the NEP 2020.

In 2022, the University Grants Commission, responsible for overseeing higher education, devised the National Credit Framework (NCrF) to operationalize this initiative.

The NCrF serves as a unified credit system aimed at integrating vocational training and skill development into both school and higher education.

Students' earned credits will be digitally recorded in the Academic Bank of Credits, accessible through a linked Digilocker account.

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Changes proposed by CBSE subcommittee

Currently, the standard school curriculum lacks a formalized credit structure. Under the CBSE plan, an academic year would comprise 1,200 notional learning hours, equivalent to earning 40 credits.

These hours encompass both in-school academic learning and extracurricular or experiential learning outside the classroom.

To implement this, the curriculum has been modified to specify teaching hours and credits earned for each subject.

The committee suggests incorporating multidisciplinary and vocational courses into the existing disciplines. Thus, students in Classes 9 and 10 would need to complete ten subjects—three languages and seven core disciplines—to pass final exams.

At least two of the three mandatory languages must be Indian, such as a combination of Hindi, Sanskrit, and English.

For Classes 11 and 12, students are advised to study six subjects, including two languages and four optional subjects, with an additional fifth choice. At least one of the two languages must be Indian.

Conclusion:

The ending of the answer should be on a positive note and it should have a forward-looking approach

The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE), the largest national school board in the country, is proposing significant revisions to the academic structure of Classes 9 to 12, aligning with the creditisation strategy advocated by the 2020 National Education Policy (NEP)

Other Points to Ponder

National Education Policy

Credit system

National Credit Framework

Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture:

• Rainfall and Temperature Changes: Climate change has led to erratic rainfall patterns and temperature fluctuations, impacting crop growth cycles. Dry spells, droughts, heatwaves, and floods disrupt agricultural operations and reduce crop yields.
• Production Risks: Climate-induced risks pose threats to food security and rural economies. Variability in weather conditions increases production uncertainties, affecting crop productivity and farmer incomes.
• Regional Variances: India's diverse agro-climatic zones experience varying impacts of climate change. Coastal areas face challenges such as saline intrusion due to sea-level rise, while inland regions deal with water scarcity and heat stress affecting crop suitability and productivity.
• Crop Diversity and Livelihoods: Climate change affects crop diversity and the livelihoods of farmers dependent on specific crops. Shifts in climate suitability may necessitate changes in cropping patterns, adoption of resilient crop varieties, and sustainable agricultural practices.

Specific Impacts of Climate Change:

• Temperature Variation: Rising temperatures affect crop growth stages, alter pest and disease dynamics, and impact livestock health and productivity.
• Rainfall Variability: Changes in precipitation patterns lead to water stress, affecting irrigation, groundwater recharge, and crop water requirements.
• Greenhouse Gas Concentration: Increasing greenhouse gas emissions contribute to climate change, affecting weather patterns and long-term climate stability.
• Extreme Weather Events: Heatwaves, cyclones, and heavy rainfall events cause crop damage, soil erosion, and infrastructure disruptions, impacting agricultural productivity and food supply chains.

Interaction between climate change and agriculture

National Family Health Survey

Global Hunger Index

Introduction:

The introduction of the answer is essential and should be restricted to 3-5 lines. Remember, a one-liner is not a standard introduction

World Food Day, observed on October 16, commemorates the establishment of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) in 1945, which was established primarily to ensure global food and nutrition security following World War II.

The theme for World Food Day 2023 is "Water is Life. Water is Food." Assessing India's strides towards food security and its utilization of water resources for agriculture is pertinent within this context, especially considering the detrimental effects of climate change on sustainable development across various ecosystems.

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Climate Change Impact on Agriculture in India:

Alterations in rainfall patterns, temperature fluctuations (both maximum and minimum), and the sudden onset of extreme weather events like dry spells, droughts, heatwaves, and floods significantly impede crop growth, resulting in diminished productivity.

Such climate-induced risks to production not only jeopardize food security and nutritional requirements but also threaten the socioeconomic stability of rural economies.

However, the extent of climate change effects on agricultural output and livelihoods varies across India's diverse agro-climatic regions, making the impact uncertain in similar locales.

Climate change manifests in various agricultural impacts, including temperature variations, alterations in atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations, fluctuations in rainfall patterns (leading to floods, droughts, and altered runoff), and changes in groundwater recharge rates.

Conclusion:

The ending of the answer should be on a positive note and it should have a forward-looking approach

Over the last three years (2020-2023), India has exported approximately 85 million tonnes (MT) of cereals, predominantly rice, wheat, and corn, solidifying its position as a leading producer.

India stands as the foremost producer of milk globally, and its fish and poultry production has witnessed rapid growth since 2000-2001, symbolizing the emergence of the "pink" (poultry) and "blue" (fisheries) revolutions alongside the historic green and white revolutions.

However, despite these advancements, malnutrition remains a concern, with about 16.6% of the population suffering from malnutrition, 35% of children under five experiencing stunted growth, and 32% being underweight, according to the latest National Family Health Survey (2020-2022)

Other Points to Consider

Interaction between climate change and agriculture

National Family Health Survey

Global Hunger Index

Introduction:

The introduction of the answer is essential and should be restricted to 3-5 lines. Remember, a one-liner is not a standard introduction

Ozone, comprised of three oxygen molecules, primarily exists in the upper atmosphere known as the stratosphere, situated between 10 and 50 kilometers above Earth's surface. Existing in minimal concentrations, even at its densest points, ozone comprises only a few molecules per million air molecules.

Significance of Ozone:

The ozone layer serves as a crucial shield safeguarding life on Earth from the sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. By neutralizing this threat, ozone molecules play a pivotal role in mitigating the risk of skin cancer and other health issues in both plants and animals.

Body:

It is the central part of the answer and one should understand the demand of the question to provide rich content

Observations made during Antarctic expeditions in the early 1980s revealed a significant decline in ozone concentration during September-November compared to 1950s records, culminating in the discovery of the "ozone hole" over Antarctica in 1985.

Causes:

The depletion of the ozone layer, particularly pronounced over Antarctica during September-November, arises from a complex interplay of meteorological and chemical factors. The 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer, hailed as the only universally embraced treaty in United Nations history, initiated the phase-out of ozone-depleting substances (ODS) like Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and Halons. By 2005, signatory nations had drastically reduced ODS consumption by 90-95%.

The Montreal Protocol regulates 96 chemicals, including CFCs, Halons, Carbon tetrachloride, Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), and others. These substances, characterized by their longevity and non-toxic properties, persist in the atmosphere for extended periods, exacerbating ozone depletion.

Conclusion:

The ending of the answer should be on a positive note and it should have a forward-looking approach

In addition to preserving the ozone layer, the elimination of ozone-depleting substances yields significant climate change benefits. Many of these substances, categorized as potent greenhouse gases, surpass carbon dioxide in terms of warming potential, underscoring the multifaceted environmental advantages of Montreal Protocol compliance

Other Points to Consider

Kigali Agreement

India’s effort

The ozone layer, consisting of ozone molecules (a three-oxygen molecule), is crucial for life on Earth as it shields the planet from harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun. Found primarily in the stratosphere, the ozone layer's protection against UV rays is essential for preventing skin cancer, cataracts, and other health issues in humans, as well as protecting ecosystems and wildlife.

Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion:

• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and Halons: These synthetic chemicals were widely used in refrigerants, air conditioning systems, foam insulation, and fire extinguishers. When released into the atmosphere, CFCs and Halons break down ozone molecules in the stratosphere, leading to ozone depletion.
• Halo-carbons and Other Ozone-Depleting Substances: Besides CFCs and Halons, other ozone-depleting substances like carbon tetrachloride, hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), methyl chloroform, methyl bromide, and bromochloromethane contribute to the destruction of the ozone layer. These chemicals have varying atmospheric lifetimes but collectively pose a threat to ozone stability.
• Chemical Reactions: Ozone depletion occurs due to complex chemical reactions involving ozone and ozone-depleting substances. For instance, chlorine and bromine atoms released from CFCs and Halons catalytically break down ozone molecules, reducing the ozone concentration in the stratosphere.

Efforts to Address Ozone Depletion:

• Montreal Protocol: Recognizing the severity of ozone layer depletion, the international community established the Montreal Protocol in 1987. This treaty aimed to phase out the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances. Over time, significant progress has been made in reducing the use of CFCs, Halons, and other harmful chemicals regulated under the protocol.
• Replacement Technologies: The Montreal Protocol led to the development and adoption of alternative substances that do not harm the ozone layer. For example, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are used as substitutes for CFCs in many applications, as they have zero ozone-depleting potential.

Kigali Agreement

India’s effort

Objectives of NCAP

1. Mitigation Measures: Implementing stringent measures for the prevention, control, and abatement of air pollution. This includes adopting advanced technologies, enforcing regulations on emissions from industries and vehicles, and promoting cleaner fuels.

2. Ambient Air Quality Monitoring: Establishing and enhancing an efficient ambient air quality monitoring network across the country. This network ensures a robust and reliable database on air quality parameters, helping in assessing pollution levels, identifying hotspots, and formulating targeted interventions.

3. Public Awareness and Capacity Building: Conducting public awareness campaigns and capacity-building initiatives. These efforts aim to educate the public about the health impacts of air pollution, promote sustainable practices, and foster community participation in pollution control measures. Training programs are also conducted to build expertise and infrastructure for air quality management.

The NCAP's primary goal is to achieve a substantial reduction in particulate matter concentrations, especially PM10 and PM2.5, by 20% to 30% by 2024 and now further aiming for a 40% reduction by 2026. These targets are crucial for improving ambient air quality and safeguarding public health. Additionally, the NCAP emphasizes collaborative efforts involving central ministries, state governments, local bodies, and various stakeholders to ensure a coordinated approach in combating air pollution across all sources and sectors. Through city-specific action plans and continuous monitoring, the NCAP strives to create cleaner and healthier environments for all citizens.

Other Points to Ponder

What are Non Attainment Cities?

Central Pollution Control Board

Implementation of NCAP

The rise in the average global temperature since 1850, by at least 1.1 degrees Celsius, has significantly impacted extreme weather events worldwide. 

• Increased Frequency and Intensity: The warming climate has led to more frequent and intense extreme weather events such as heat waves, droughts, floods, hurricanes, and wildfires. This is primarily due to the unprecedented emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere from human activities.
• Heat Waves: Climate change has amplified heat waves globally. For instance, a study following a deadly 2019 heatwave in Western Europe revealed that climate change made such extreme heat events five times more likely. In India, the duration and intensity of heatwaves have also increased, leading to significant health risks and agricultural impacts.
• Droughts: Rising temperatures have exacerbated drought conditions in various regions. East Africa, for example, experienced its worst drought in 40 years between 2020 and 2022. Climate change made this severe drought at least 100 times more likely, according to a report by World Weather Attribution (WWA).
• Wildfires: Extreme heat and dry conditions increase the likelihood and severity of wildfires. Climate change has extended the wildfire season and created more conducive conditions for wildfires by reducing moisture in vegetation. Regions like Eastern Canada have experienced heightened "fire weather" conditions due to climate change, leading to increased wildfire risks.
• Floods: Warmer temperatures cause increased evaporation of water from land and oceans, leading to a warmer and moisture-laden atmosphere. This intensifies precipitation during storms, resulting in more severe and frequent flooding events. The atmosphere's ability to hold around 7% more moisture for every 1-degree Celsius increase in temperature contributes to heavier rainfall and subsequent flooding.
• Sea Level Rise: Climate change has also contributed to rising sea levels due to thermal expansion and melting glaciers. This has increased the vulnerability of coastal areas to storm surges and flooding during extreme weather events like hurricanes and cyclones.

Discuss the impact of the climate change on the Indian coastline.

Introduction

Natural vegetation in India encompasses a variety of plant communities that have evolved undisturbed by human intervention over time. These include Tropical Evergreen Forests,  Tropical Deciduous Forests, Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs, Montane Forests and Mangrove Forests. 

Body:

It is the central part of the answer and one should understand the demand of the question to provide rich content.

Forest fires, which can be categorized as ground, surface, and crown fires, have been intensifying in the hills, particularly in regions like Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh. Ground fires burn slowly beneath the vegetation, surface fires spread swiftly through dry leaves and branches on the ground, and crown fires move rapidly from treetop to treetop with intense heat.

Causes of Forest Fires

• Weather Conditions: Higher temperatures and decreased precipitation during the dry season create favorable conditions for forest fires. The forest fire season typically lasts from November to June.
• Vegetation and Fuel Load: Dry biomass, including fallen leaves, branches, and other organic matter, serves as fuel for forest fires. Changes in vegetation patterns and accumulation of dry biomass contribute to fire susceptibility.
• Human Activities: Many forest fires are ignited by human activities such as agricultural burning, campfires, discarded cigarettes, and deliberate arson. Unchecked land-use practices and encroachment into forested areas further escalate the risk of forest fires.
• Land-use Patterns: Changes in land-use patterns, including deforestation, land clearing for agriculture, and expansion of human settlements, can alter natural fire regimes and increase fire vulnerability in forested areas.
• Lack of Fire Management: Inadequate fire management practices, including limited firefighting resources, insufficient monitoring, and delayed response to fire incidents, exacerbate the impact of forest fires.

Conclusion: 

The ending of the answer should be on a positive note and it should have a forward-looking approach.

Addressing the intensification of forest fires in the hills requires a comprehensive approach that addresses both natural and human-induced factors. Effective forest management strategies, including fire prevention, early detection, and prompt suppression efforts, are essential for mitigating the impact of forest fires and safeguarding the biodiversity and ecological integrity of forested landscapes. Additionally, promoting sustainable land-use practices and raising awareness about the importance of fire prevention and conservation are critical for ensuring the long-term resilience of forest ecosystems.

Other Points to Ponder

Forests fires in Uttarakhand

How vulnerable are forests in Uttarakhand and Himachal?

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The following information in the body of your answer might be appropriate

Revolt Against the British

• Rani Chennamma's defiance began when the British East India Company refused to recognize Shivalingappa, the adopted heir, as the rightful successor to the throne of Kittur under the 'doctrine of lapse.'
• In response to the British attack on Kittur in October 1824, Rani Chennamma led her forces in a valiant defense, defeating British troops led by John Thackery. This victory symbolized her bravery and determination to protect her kingdom's sovereignty.

Impact on Women's Rights Movement

1. Symbol of Resistance: Rani Chennamma's stand against colonial forces became a symbol of resistance and courage for women across India. Her leadership challenged traditional gender roles and norms, showcasing women as capable leaders and warriors.
2. Inspiration for Nationalist Movements: The Kittur revolt inspired other princely states and leaders to resist British dominance. Rani Chennamma's spirit of resistance influenced subsequent nationalist movements, including those led by men like Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi and Begum Hazrat Mahal during the Indian Rebellion of 1857.
3. Legacy of Empowerment: Rani Chennamma's legacy continues to inspire women's empowerment and participation in various spheres. Her courage and sacrifice serve as a reminder of women's contributions to India's freedom struggle and their rightful place in shaping the nation's destiny.
4. Historical Representation: Commemorating Rani Chennamma's revolt and acknowledging her role in history helps highlight women's agency and leadership in historical narratives. It encourages the recognition of women's struggles and achievements, paving the way for greater gender equality and empowerment.

Conclusion:

A Balanced answer in your conclusion should be there 

Rani Chennamma's revolt against the British in Kittur not only symbolized resistance to colonial rule but also sparked a nationwide struggle for women's rights and empowerment. Her legacy stands as a testament to the strength and determination of women leaders in shaping India's history and inspiring future generations to strive for equality and justice.

Rani Laxmi Bai

Begum Hazrat Mahal

Sarojini Naidu

A fjord represents an elongated, deep, and narrow body of water that extends deeply inland. Typically, fjords are situated within a U-shaped valley, surrounded by steep rock walls on both sides.

Glacial valleys, shaped like troughs and exhibiting a U-shaped structure, possess wide, relatively smooth floors and steep sides. These valleys might contain scattered debris or moraine-shaped debris with a marshy appearance.

Hanging valleys may exist at elevated positions on one or both sides of the primary glacial valley. The cliff faces of divides or ridges from these hanging valleys, extending into the main glacial valleys, often display a truncated appearance, resembling triangular facets. Fjords or fiords refer to extremely deep glacial troughs filled with seawater, forming coastlines (mostly in high latitudes).

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You may incorporate the following into your answer 

What makes these regions among the most visually stunning areas globally?

Fjords are predominantly located in Norway, Chile, New Zealand, Canada, Greenland, and the U.S.

Bergen, surrounded by seven mountains and fjords.

Fjords formed due to glacier activity. Glaciers, moving at a slow pace, significantly transform landscapes as they progress through an area, a process known as glaciation.

Several factors contribute to their status as some of the most picturesque areas:

Rich wildlife

Cascading waterfalls

Diverse biodiversity

Stunning landscapes

Towering cliffs

Other Points to Consider

Cirques

Hanging Valley

Moraines

Glacial Till

Puppets stand out as one of humanity's most impressive and inventive creations. It's been suggested that a puppet often surpasses its live counterpart due to the captivating and enduring suggestive elements it embodies.

The term "puppet" stems from the Latin word "Pupa," translating to "doll." While puppetry is believed to have originated in India, the country hasn't fully explored its potential. The earliest mention of puppetry is found in the Tamil classic "Silappadikaaram," dating back to the first or second century B.C.

India boasts various puppetry forms:

— String Puppets

— Shadow Puppets

— Rod Puppets

— Glove Puppets

Across India, puppetry is practiced in 18 distinct traditions, including the 'Chamadyache Bahulya' (leather puppets) of Maharashtra, 'Beni Putul' (glove puppets) of West Bengal, 'Tholu Bommalata' (shadow puppets) of Andhra Pradesh, 'Tholpavakoothu' (shadow puppetry) of Kerala, and the traditional 'Kathputli' of Rajasthan.

Kathputli, Rajasthan

Crafted from a single piece of wood, these puppetry figures resemble large, vividly attired dolls.

Undhei, Odisha

Constructed from lightweight wood, Odisha puppets lack legs but sport long flowing skirts. With more joints, they are more flexible, articulate, and easier to manipulate.

Gombeyatta, Karnataka

Karnataka's string puppets, known as Gombeyatta, mirror the characters from Yakshagana, the region's traditional theater form.

Bommalattam, Tamil Nadu

These wooden puppets in Tamil Nadu have manipulation strings tied to an iron ring worn as a crown by the puppeteer.

Chitrakathi Puppetry – Maharashtra

Shadow Puppeteers – Kerala

Other Points to Consider

Other forms of Art

Different Puppetry Form

As per research conducted by "The Global Burden of Disease Study" and published in the Lancet Public Health journal, it was revealed that 63 percent of all suicides recorded in India occurred within the age bracket of 15-39.

The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that in India, approximately 57 million people, constituting nearly 18 percent of the global estimate, grapple with depression. Therefore, it is unsurprising that suicide ranks as one of the leading causes of mortality in the United States.

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You may incorporate some of the following points in the body of your answer:

• The report indicated that a high risk of elevated suicide rates in India is linked to factors such as a concerning level of ignorance and stigmatization, family pressures, career and financial concerns, and the growing impact of social media.

• The study identified significant variations in suicide death rates across different Indian states. Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, West Bengal, and Tripura all exhibited high suicide death rates for both men and women.

• India's suicide rate in 2019, at 12.9 per 100,000, surpassed the regional average of 10.2 and the global average of 9.0. Notably, suicide has now become the leading cause of death for individuals aged 15–29 in India.

• The utilization of specific forms of social media by young people is also exacerbating stress and mental health issues. Social media often hinders in-person connections and reduces participation in meaningful activities, and more critically, it diminishes self-esteem through unfavorable social comparisons.

• Mental illness has extensive socioeconomic repercussions and is the primary cause of disability on a global scale. Furthermore, it is intrinsically linked to poverty, creating a detrimental cycle of disadvantage. Individuals living in poverty are more susceptible to mental health issues, and the stigma and discrimination associated with mental illness further erode their social support systems.

• The suicide death rate among women in India was found to be 15 per 100,000 women, which is twice the global suicide rate for women (7 per 100,000 women).

• One significant factor contributing to the high suicide rates among women in India is attributed to marriage. The study highlighted that a substantial proportion of suicide deaths among women in India involves married women.

Drought is the outcome of fluctuations in rainfall patterns, leading to insufficient precipitation and a shortage of water resources.

• In the Indian context, the South West Monsoon Season (spanning from June to September) accounts for more than 75% of the total annual rainfall. The erratic nature of this monsoon, characterized by extended periods of dry weather and elevated temperatures, serves as the primary cause of drought.

• State governments in different regions determine the occurrence of drought based on criteria such as rainfall levels, agricultural performance, and various other related factors.

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a general statement about PVTGs.

Tribal groups are frequently defined by certain characteristics such as primitive qualities, particular culture, geographical isolation, reluctance to contact with the larger population, and backwardness.

Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) have some specific features such as dependency on hunting, gathering for food, having pre-agriculture level of technology, zero or negative growth of population and extremely low level of literacy.

According to a Tribal Affairs Ministry letter to various states in 2015, “PVTGs constitute the most vulnerable section among tribals and inhabit isolated, remote and difficult areas in small and scattered hamlets/ habitats.”

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Characteristics of PVTGs

• PVTGs have some basic characteristics -they are mostly homogenous, with a small population, relatively physically isolated, social institutes cast in a simple mould, absence of written language, relatively simple technology and a slower rate of change etc.
• According to the 2001 census, there are 12 PVTGs having a population above 50,000 and the remaining groups have a population of 1000 or less.
• The PVTG of Sahariyas has the highest population of 4,50,217, while the PVTGs of Sentinelets and Andamanese has a very small population of 39 and 43, respectively.
• PVTG cultural practises, systems, self-government, and livelihood practises vary greatly according on the group and location.
• The level of inequalities in social and economical conditions is very high amongst PVTGs.
• The growth of PVTGs’ population is either stagnating or declining.
• PVTGs depend on various livelihoods such as food gathering,Non Timber Forest Produce (NTFP), hunting, livestock rearing, shifting cultivation and artisan works.Most of their livelihoods depend on the forest.
• PVTGs’ health is in terrible shape due to a variety of factors such as poverty, illiteracy, a lack of safe drinking water, poor sanitary conditions, difficult terrain, malnutrition, poor maternal and child health services, a lack of health and nutritional services, superstition, and deforestation.

How they are identified?

Government of India follows the following criteria for identification of PVTGs:

Pre-agricultural level of technology

Low level of literacy

Economic backwardness

A declining or stagnant population.

Conclusion

Your conclusion should be short. You may include:

To improve socio-economic conditions of the particularly vulnerable tribal groups (PVTGs), Pradhan Mantri PVTG Development Mission will be launched.

This will saturate PVTG families and habitations with basic facilities such as safe housing, clean drinking water and sanitation, improved access to education, health and nutrition, road and telecom connectivity, and sustainable livelihood opportunities

The Finance Minister said in her Budget speech, “A Mission to eliminate Sickle Cell Anaemia by 2047 will be launched. It will entail awareness creation, universal screening of 7 crore people in the age group of 0-40 years in affected tribal areas, and counselling through collaborative efforts of central ministries and state governments.”

Other Points to Consider

Different Tribes in News

National Commission for Scheduled Tribes

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a general statement about the Vijayanagara Empire.

The Vijayanagara Empire was founded by Harihara I of the Sangama dynasty. The kingdom existed from 1336 to 1646.

The kingdom reached its peak under Krishna Deva Raya (reign 1509-1529), a period in which it enjoyed military superiority to its rival kingdoms such as the Bahmani Sultanate, the Golconda Sultanate and the Gajapatis of Odisha.

At its peak, the kingdom stretched from Goa on the Konkan coast to parts of southern Odisha in the east and all the way to the very tip of the subcontinent in the south.

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• The Vijayanagar’s contributions to culture and architecture were very significant. This period witnessed poetry, writing styles and literature in Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Sanskrit also flourished.
• The most striking feature about the location of Vijayanagara is the natural basin formed by the river Tungabhadra which flows in a north-easterly direction.
• According to Abdur Razzaq, an ambassador sent by the ruler of Persia to Calicut in the fifteenth century, was greatly impressed by the fortifications and mentioned seven lines of forts. These encircled not only the city but also its agricultural hinterland and forests while the outermost wall linked the hills surrounding the city.
• The fort was entered through well-guarded gates, which linked the city to the major roads. Gateways were distinctive architectural features that often defined the structures to which they regulated access.
• Mahanavami Dibba is a massive platform rising from a base of about 11,000 sq. ft to a height of 40 ft.
• The construction of temples in the region had a long history, going back to dynasties such as the Pallavas, Chalukyas, Hoysalas and Cholas. Temples functioned as centres of learning. The walls of the Hazara Rama Temple include scenes from the Ramayana.

Virupaksha temple

• The Virupaksha temple was erected over decades, with inscriptions indicating that the first shrine was established in the ninth and eleventh centuries, and it was significantly expanded with the formation of the Vijayanagara Empire.
• The hall in front of the main shrine was built by Krishnadeva Raya to mark his accession.
• The halls in the temple were used for a variety of purposes. Some were spaces in which the images of gods were placed to witness special programmes of music, dance, drama, etc.

Vitthala Temple

The principal deity is Vitthala, a form of Vishnu generally worshipped in Maharashtra.

A characteristic feature of the temple complexes is the chariot streets that extended from the temple gopuram in a straight line.

Conclusion

Your conclusion should be short. You may include:

In 1976, Hampi was recognised as a site of national importance. Then, in the early 1980s, a major initiative was begun to meticulously document the material remains at Vijayanagara by broad and rigorous surveys employing a range of recording techniques. 

Vijayanagara’s capital Hampi is a UNESCO World Heritage Site today, known for its sophisticated fortifications as well as innumerable temples and other architectural marvels.

Vijayanagara has been remembered as an era of “cultural conservatism” when classical forms of Hinduism were preserved amidst growing Islamization of the rest of the subcontinent, especially the North.

Other Points to Consider

Temples of Vijayanagara Empire

Rulers of Vijayanagara Empire

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a general statement about geological time scale.

The Earth’s geological time scale is a crucial tool used by geologists, paleontologists, and other scientists to investigate the planet’s history. 

It is a system that divides the history of the Earth into discrete intervals of time, based on events, such as the evolution and extinction of different living beings and processes that have occurred.

It is divided into five broad categories:

(i) Eons

(ii) Epochs

(iii) Eras

(iv) Periods

(v) Ages

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How has the geological time scale evolved over time?

The geological time scale takes hundreds of years to evolve. The root of its origin goes back to the 1500s and 1600s when the first major breakthrough came in 1669 after Danish scientist Nicolas Steno published the first laws of stratigraphy — the science of interpreting the strata, or layers of rock, in the Earth’s outer surface.

He laid out two basic geologic principles:

(i) Sedimentary rocks (formed on or near the planet’s surface, in contrast to metamorphic and igneous rocks, which are formed deep within the Earth) are laid down in a horizontal manner.

(ii) Younger rock units were deposited on top of older rock units.

The second principle essentially means that layers closer to the Earth’s surface must be younger than layers below them. This allowed scientists of the time to conclude that each rock layer represented a specific interval of geologic time.

Italian geologist Giovanni Arduino classified the four main layers of the Earth’s crust as:

(i) Primary (the lowest metamorphic and volcanic layers),

(ii) Secondary (hard sedimentary rocks),

(iii) Tertiary (less hardened sedimentary rocks), and

(iv) Quaternary (the most recently laid rock layer, which is quite soft in comparison to other strata).

There were some issues with Arduino’s classification and Steno’s principles like:

(i) The rocks were locally described by colour, texture, or even smell, comparisons between rock sequences of different areas were often not possible.

(ii) Unlike tree-ring dating, in which each ring is equivalent to one year’s growth, rock layers don’t tell the specific length of geologic time, meaning no one layer can convey how long a certain period lasted on the Earth.

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a general statement about ground water resources.

Ground water has emerged as the backbone of India’s agriculture and drinking water security.

The contribution of ground water is nearly 62 per cent in irrigation, 85 per cent in rural water supply and 50 per cent in the urban water supply.

Ground water is an annually replenishable resource but its availability is non-uniform in space and time.

The availability of groundwater resources in a given area is determined by several factors such as rainfall intensity and duration, geological strata of the area, the number of existing recharge structures, and extraction by consumers for a variety of purposes such as industrial applications, drinking/domestic purposes, irrigation, and so on.

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Consequences of the depletion of the ground water

• According to the journal “Drift of Earth’s Pole Confirms Groundwater Depletion as a Significant Contributor to Global Sea Level Rise 1993–2010”, published in the journal Geophysical Research Letters, the excessive extraction of groundwater for drinking and irrigation has shifted the Earth’s axis of rotation.
• According to the Central Groundwater Board of India, around 17 per cent of groundwater blocks are overexploited (meaning the rate at which water is withdrawn exceeds the rate at which the aquifer can recharge), while 5 per cent and 14 per cent are at critical and semi-critical phases, respectively.
• The government’s support for the “green revolution” to ensure food security has increased the demand for groundwater for agriculture.
• The depletion of ground water resources will demand the extraction of water from deeper inside the Earth.
• The depletion of water resources will reduces the water bodies, lakes and will restrict the biodiversity
• The depletion of water resources will lead to salt contamination of the ground water.

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a general statement about monsoons in India.

The climate of India can broadly be classified as a tropical monsoon. The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) designates four official seasons out of which the Monsoon or rainy season is from June to September.

The Indian subcontinent receives around 80% of its annual rainfall during the summer monsoon, from June to September.

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Impact of Climate Change on Monsoons in India

The Indian monsoon is a complex phenomenon influenced by various internal and external factors:’

• El Nino is an external driver that modulates the monsoon’s intensity and spatial distribution. However, it is important to note that El Nino alone cannot account for all monsoonal variations.
• El Nino is associated with weak monsoons and lower-than-average rainfall in India.
• The location of the El Nino event also influences its effects on the Indian monsoon — warming in the Central Pacific Ocean affects it more than the warming in the Eastern Pacific Ocean.
• Indian Ocean Dipole significantly shape monsoon dynamics.
• The western coast of the country witnessed the high-intensity cyclone
• Central, Eastern and Northern parts experienced heat stress.
•  In India, heavy rainfalls “lasting from May to September triggered multiple landslides and river overflows and floods, resulting in casualties and damage
• According to the report by WMO, the rise in frequency and severity of extreme weather events has particularly impacted the agriculture sector in Asia.
• For climate-related disasters such as floods, droughts, and tropical storms, more than 25 per cent of all damage and losses is associated with the agriculture sector

The Kanwar Yatra is a major annual pilgrimage in India, with millions of devotees participating each year. The pilgrimage takes place in the months of July and August, and it traverses through the states of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar.

The Kanwar Yatra has a significant socio-cultural and economic impact on the regions it traverses. The pilgrimage brings in a lot of revenue for local businesses, such as hotels, restaurants, and transportation providers. It also helps to promote tourism in the region, and it can help to preserve religious heritage.

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The socio-cultural and economic impact of the Kanwar Yatra on these regions can be significant and multifaceted:

1. Socio-cultural impact: a. Religious significance: The Kanwar Yatra holds immense religious importance for devotees, primarily those belonging to the Hindu faith. It fosters a sense of devotion, spirituality, and religious unity among the participants and the communities they encounter along the way.

   b. Social cohesion: The Yatra brings together people from diverse backgrounds and regions, fostering a sense of social cohesion and cultural exchange. It reinforces a shared identity and strengthens social bonds, as people participate collectively in the pilgrimage.

   c. Folk traditions and cultural heritage: The Kanwar Yatra is deeply rooted in traditional and folk practices. As the pilgrimage passes through various regions, it promotes and preserves local cultural heritage, art forms, and customs.

2. Economic impact: a. Boost to local economies: The Yatra's massive scale translates to increased economic activity in the regions it traverses. Local businesses such as vendors, shops, restaurants, and hotels witness a surge in demand as pilgrims need food, accommodation, and other essentials during their journey.

   b. Employment opportunities: The influx of pilgrims creates employment opportunities for locals, such as in transportation services, tourism-related jobs, and temporary stalls or shops set up to cater to the pilgrims' needs.

   c. Infrastructure development: Local authorities and governments often invest in improving infrastructure, including roads, sanitation facilities, and crowd management systems, to accommodate the large number of pilgrims. This can have long-term benefits for the regions' infrastructure and development.

3. Tourism impact: a. Promoting regional tourism: The Kanwar Yatra attracts a significant number of domestic and sometimes international tourists, depending on the locations it passes through. This influx of visitors can help promote lesser-known tourist destinations and highlight the cultural richness of those regions.

   b. Economic benefits to the tourism sector: The pilgrimage season can become a peak tourist season for the regions involved. Tourist attractions, hotels, and local tour operators witness increased business during this period.

4. Preservation of religious heritage: a. Protection of sacred sites: The Yatra often includes visits to ancient temples, rivers, and other sacred sites, drawing attention to the need for their preservation and maintenance. This can lead to greater efforts to protect these heritage sites.

   b. Revival of rituals and traditions: The Kanwar Yatra involves the performance of age-old rituals and practices. By keeping these traditions alive, the pilgrimage contributes to the preservation of religious heritage and cultural identity.

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In the body of the answer write the Gita Press on the growth and development of Hindi as a language and its role in strengthening Hindu identity in colonial and post-colonial India

Promotion of the Hindi Language

Gita Press has been instrumental in popularizing Hindi as a language of religious and spiritual literature. It has published and distributed a vast array of books, magazines, and scriptures in Hindi, making religious texts accessible to the masses. This contributed to the growth and acceptance of Hindi as a language of religious discourse and cultural expression.

Preservation of Hindu Scriptures

Gita Press has undertaken the crucial task of preserving and publishing Hindu scriptures, including the Bhagavad Gita, Ramayana, Mahabharata, and various Puranas. By making these texts available in Hindi, Gita Press has not only preserved ancient wisdom but also made it accessible to Hindi-speaking individuals who may have faced language barriers with Sanskrit or other regional languages.

Dissemination of Hindu Values and Ideology

Gita Press has played a crucial role in disseminating Hindu values, moral teachings, and cultural ethos through its publications. It has sought to reinforce Hindu identity, promote religious rituals, and foster a sense of pride in Hindu traditions and beliefs. The literature published by Gita Press has helped in shaping the worldview and religious consciousness of millions of readers across India.

Social and Cultural Influence

Gita Press has been involved in various philanthropic and social welfare activities, including running hospitals, schools, and religious libraries. It has actively contributed to the preservation and promotion of Hindu culture, fostering a sense of community and religious solidarity among its followers.

Gita Press has played a vital role in disseminating religious literature, preserving Hindu scriptures, promoting Hindi as a language, and reinforcing Hindu identity in colonial and post-colonial India. Its publications continue to have a wide readership, contributing to the cultural, religious, and linguistic fabric of the country.

Kamala Sohonie's Research on Neera:

Kamala Sohonie's research focused on analyzing the nutritional content of Neera and understanding its potential as a dietary supplement. She conducted studies to determine the presence of essential nutrients such as proteins, vitamins, minerals, and amino acids in Neera. Sohonie's research provided valuable insights into the nutritional profile of Neera and its potential as a locally available and sustainable resource for addressing malnutrition.

Significance of Findings:

Sohonie's findings regarding Neera have significant implications for addressing malnutrition, particularly among children from tribal communities in India. Malnutrition is a persistent issue in these communities due to limited access to diverse and nutritious food sources. Neera, being a natural product rich in essential nutrients, can serve as a valuable supplement to combat nutritional deficiencies.

Implications for Public Health:

The findings of Sohonie's research have broader implications for public health in India. By exploring and promoting indigenous food sources like Neera, public health initiatives can focus on sustainable and culturally appropriate solutions to address malnutrition. Integrating Neera into government nutrition programs, school meal schemes, and community-based interventions can contribute to better health outcomes and improved nutritional status among vulnerable populations.

Conclusion

Conclude the answer in a short and crisp as per the demand of the question

Kamala Sohonie's research on Neera and its potential in addressing malnutrition among children from tribal communities in India has significant implications for public health. Her findings shed light on the nutritional composition of Neera and its viability as a dietary supplement. By incorporating Neera into interventions aimed at combating malnutrition, public health efforts can promote sustainable and culturally appropriate solutions to improve the nutritional status and well-being of vulnerable populations. 

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a basic fact such as:

A cloudburst is a localised but intense rainfall over a small geographical area that can cause widespread destruction, especially in hilly regions where this phenomenon is most common.

According to the Indian Meteorological Department, if 10 cm of rainfall is received at a station in one hour, the rain event is termed a cloud burst. Predicting the cloud bursts is difficult due to their very small scale in space and time

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Start your Answer with the main theme of the question 

In India, cloudbursts often occur during the monsoon season, when the southwesterly monsoon winds bring copious amounts of moisture inland.

The moist air that converges over land gets lifted as it encounters the hills. The moist air reaches an altitude and gets saturated, and the water starts condensing out of the air, forming clouds.

This is how clouds usually form, but such an orographic lifting together with a strong moisture convergence can lead to intense cumulonimbus clouds taking in huge volumes of moisture that are dumped during cloudbursts.

Tall cumulonimbus clouds can develop in about half an hour as the moisture updraft happens rapidly, at a pace of 60 to 120 km/hr.

A single-cell cloud may last for an hour and dump all the rain in the last 20 to 30 minutes, while some of these clouds merge to form multi-cell storms and last for several hours. Cloudbursts occur mostly over the rugged terrain of the Himalayas, Western Ghats, and northeastern hill states of India.

The heavy spells of rain on the fragile steep slopes trigger landslides, debris flows, and flash floods, causing large-scale destruction and loss of people and property.

 Recent events:

On July 8, 2022, flash floods occurred in the Lidder Valley en route to Amarnath Temple in Jammu and Kashmir, taking the lives of several pilgrims.

Himachal Pradesh (2003), Ladakh (2010) and Uttarakhand (2013)

Conclusion

Your conclusions should be balanced, simple and short. It weighs more if you add factual data and a possible solution to Cloudburst

Ground monitoring stations can hardly capture the characteristics of cloudbursts due to their highly localised and short occurrences. Hence, most of these events go unreported due to the lack of monitoring mechanisms in the region, weakening our ability to understand them from a complete perspective.

The temple is enclosed within a compound wall.

The front wall has an entrance gateway in its center, which is known as a gopuram.

 The shape of the main temple tower, vimana, is like a stepped pyramid that rises up geometrically.

The word ‘shikhara’ is used only for the crowning element at the top of the temple which is usually shaped like a small stupika or an octagonal cupola.

Large water reservoir or a temple tank is enclosed within the complex.

The subsidiary shrines are either incorporated within the main temple tower or located as distinct, separate small shrines beside the main temple.

The gopurams have been even loftier for example in the Srirangam temple in Tiruchirapally has as many as seven ‘concentric’ rectangular enclosure walls, each with gopurams

Contributions of the Chola dynasty

The Great Living Chola Temples were built by kings of the Chola Empire, which stretched over all of south India and the neighboring islands.

Temples also started becoming the focus of urban architecture. Kanchipuram, Thanjavur or Tanjore, Madurai and Kumbakonam are the most famous temple towns of Tamil Nadu.

The three Great Chola Temples are an exceptional and the most outstanding testimony to the development of the architecture of the Chola Empire and the Tamil civilisation in Southern India.

Examples:

(i) The gigantic Brihadeshwara Temple in Thanjavur is perhaps one of the finest examples of the Cholas’ artistic brilliance.

(ii) The Brihadeshvara temple complex at Gangaikondacholapuram.

(ii) The Airavatesvara temple complex, built by Rajaraja II, at Darasuram, features a 24-m vimana and a stone image of Shiva which testify to the brilliant achievements of the Chola in architecture, sculpture, painting and bronze casting.

Conclusion

Concluding remarks are very important, Conclusion looks good if you add some relatable quotes

The doyen of South Indian history, Nilakantha Sastri, in his 1955 book The Cholas, writes that under Rajaraja I and his successors, the Chola Empire had reached the capacity of ‘Byzantine royalty’ “with its numerous palaces, officials and ceremonials and its majestic display of the concentrated resources of an extensive empire.”  Temples architecture was definitely an important part of their history.

Ahilyabai was also a great patron of Hindu temples. She built over 300 temples throughout Malwa, including the famous Kashi Vishwanath Temple in Varanasi. She also built many other religious structures, such as ghats, wells, and rest houses.

Ahilyabai Holkar was a wise and compassionate ruler who made a significant contribution to the development of Malwa. She is remembered as one of the greatest rulers in Indian history.

Here are some of the temples built by Ahilyabai Holkar:

• Kashi Vishwanath Temple, Varanasi
• Mahakaleshwar Temple, Ujjain
• Ambabai Temple, Indore
• Jyotirlinga Temple, Gwalior
• Rameshwaram Temple, Rameswaram