The Indian National Army (INA) was established on February 17, 1942, just two days after the British surrendered to Japanese forces in Singapore. Initially composed of Indian prisoners of war (PoWs) captured by the Japanese during their Southeast Asia campaign, the INA was seen by the Japanese as a potential instrument for advancing their own goals of taking control of India.

• Despite its origins, the INA's most significant impact on India's independence struggle did not occur on the battlefield.
• When Subhas Chandra Bose assumed command of the INA in July 1943, he embarked on a strategic mission to rally support for the cause of Indian independence. Bose leveraged his leadership to engage with the Indian diaspora in Japanese-occupied Southeast Asia, garnering both material resources and human support for the INA's objectives.
• Under Bose's leadership, the INA quickly expanded to encompass more than 40,000 members, with many Indians contributing their life savings to the cause.
• Bose's vision extended beyond mere military conquest; he aimed for a large-scale insurrection within India to complement the INA's offensive efforts. His strategic goal was to create a dual-front attack on the British government, believing that this would lead to its collapse and the eventual liberation of India.
• However, the INA's military campaign faced significant challenges, including supply shortages, enemy air superiority, and disease. Despite initial advances, the INA was ultimately forced into retreat, particularly after its unsuccessful attempts to capture Imphal and Kohima.
• By 1945, with the British launching their own campaign to retake Burma, the INA found itself in a precarious position, further exacerbated by Japan's surrender following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
• Bose's desire to remain with his troops for the surrender was overruled by his subordinates, marking the end of the INA's military campaign.

While the INA's military campaign did not achieve its intended objectives on the battlefield, its significance lay in its ability to galvanize support for India's independence struggle. Through his leadership and strategic vision, Subhas Chandra Bose transformed the INA into a symbol of resistance and mobilized the Indian diaspora towards the cause of liberation, leaving an indelible mark on India's path to independence.

Red Fort trials

Regiments of INA

Introduction:

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The National Water Development Agency (NWDA) has been entrusted with the ambitious task of river interlinking as outlined in the National Perspective Plan (NPP). The NPP is delineated into two key components: the Himalayan Rivers Development Component and the Peninsular Rivers Development Component. This introduction sets the stage for a comprehensive exploration of the benefits and ongoing initiatives associated with river interlinking projects under the NPP

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The interlinking of rivers under the National Perspective Plan holds immense promise for various sectors and regions across the country. Some of the anticipated benefits of these projects include: (i) Enhanced irrigation potential covering approximately 35 million hectares of land. (ii) Improved flood control measures to mitigate the impact of floods in flood-prone regions. (iii) Facilitation of navigation along interconnected waterways, fostering efficient transportation. (iv) Augmented water supply for domestic, agricultural, and industrial purposes. (v) Promotion of fisheries by creating conducive habitats and enhancing aquatic ecosystems. (vi) Mitigation of salinity intrusion, particularly in coastal areas, to safeguard agricultural lands. (vii) Implementation of measures to control water pollution, preserving water quality for various uses.

Furthermore, several states have submitted proposals for intra-state river linking projects to the NWDA. Notable examples include Maharashtra, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Odisha, Bihar, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Chhattisgarh.

Additionally, the Ken Betwa Link Project (KBLP) stands as the pioneering initiative under the NPP, with its implementation already underway. This project aims to create a link between the Ken and Betwa rivers, facilitating water transfer between these basins.

Moreover, recent collaborations between states and the Union Ministry of Jal Shakti signify significant strides in river interlinking efforts. For instance, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh have signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) to implement the Modified Parbati-Kalisindh-Chambal-ERCP (Modified PKC-ERCP) Link Project. This project aims to integrate the long-pending PKC river link project with the Eastern Rajasthan Canal Project, aligning with the overarching goals of the national perspective plan.

Conclusion:

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In conclusion, the National Water Development Agency (NWDA) has been instrumental in advancing river interlinking projects as outlined in the National Perspective Plan (NPP). Through preliminary feasibility assessments and collaborative efforts with various states, significant progress has been made towards realizing the envisioned benefits of these projects. As exemplified by initiatives such as the Ken Betwa Link Project and collaborations between states, the interlinking of rivers holds the promise of addressing water-related challenges and fostering sustainable development across diverse regions of the country

Other Points to Consider 

Mahanadi (Manibhadra) – Godavari (Dowlaiswaram) link

Godavari (Inchampalli) – Krishna (Pulichintala) link

Pennar (Somasila) – Cauvery (Grand Anicut) link

Par-Tapi-Narmada link

Introduction:

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The dynamics of female labor force participation in India have witnessed significant transformations, particularly in rural regions, as highlighted in the 'Indian Economy — A Review' by the Department of Economic Affairs in 2024. This review underscores a notable upsurge in the female labor force participation rate (FLFPR) over the past six years, with rural areas experiencing a remarkable surge. Alongside this surge, there has been a parallel increase in self-employment and engagement in agricultural activities among rural women, signaling a shift in traditional labor patterns. This introduction sets the stage for exploring the multifaceted initiatives and programs driving these changes and their implications for women's economic empowerment in India

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In discussing the topic, consider the following points:

The 'Indian Economy — A Review' by the Department of Economic Affairs in 2024 underscores the notable increase in the female labor force participation rate (FLFPR) in rural India over the past six years.

According to the report, while urban FLFPR has been on the rise, the surge in rural FLFPR has been particularly significant. This growth in rural female FLFPR has paralleled a rise in self-employment and agricultural activities among working women, both of which warrant further examination.

In rural areas, the FLFPR has surged from 24.6% in 2017-18 to 41.5% in 2022-23, whereas in urban areas, it has climbed from 20.4% to 25.4% during the same period.

Approximately 9.96 crore women across the country are covered by the mission, with over 90 lakh Women’s Self-Help Groups (SHGs) under the DAY-NRLM accessing Rs 38,892 crore as capitalization support.

Evaluation studies conducted by the Institute of Rural Management, Anand (2018) under Pramod Kumar Singh and the Stanford University team under Anjini Kochar (2020) affirmed nearly a 20% increase in household incomes for those covered by the mission, along with a maturation period of 6-8 years for newly formed SHGs.

In 2016, the MGNREGS began adopting a 60:40 unskilled labor to material ratio at the district level and promoted individual beneficiary income-generating initiatives like animal barns, agricultural ponds, and vermicomposting.

The Pradhan Mantri Gramin Awas Yojana, which is predominantly in the woman’s name in over 70% of cases, has resulted in more women gaining employment in MGNREGS through the ninety days of labor it provides.

Despite the majority of agricultural land being owned by men, women's contributions in farming are significant, with women tending to more than half of the land. The Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana (MKSP) initiated under the DAY-NRLM in 2011 aims to enhance skill sets through Community Resource Persons like Krishi Sakhi and Pashu Sakhi.

Conclusion:

The ending of the answer should be on a positive note and it should have a forward-looking approach

MGNREGS ensures equal wages for men and women, with its wage rates serving as the benchmark in numerous states. Elevating MGNREGS wage rates, coupled with increased productivity, can serve as an effective means to uphold the dignity of the poor and elevate their skill levels.

The DAY-NRLM and MGNREGS play pivotal roles in augmenting the female labor force participation rate, underlining their significance in advancing economic empowerment and inclusivity

Other Points to Consider

DAY-NRLM

MGNREGS

Deendayal Upadhyay Grameen Kaushalya Yojana (DDU-GKY)

Introduction:

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Geospatial intelligence involves gathering and amalgamating data from diverse technological sources such as satellites, mobile sensors, ground control stations, and aerial photography. This data is utilized to create real-time maps and simulations, aiding in forecasting threats in terms of their location, timing, and magnitude. Stakeholders ranging from individuals to government officials utilize this information to make informed decisions.

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Various initiatives, including the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and National Developmental Priorities, address the integration of geospatial data into research and operational endeavors. The National Programme on Spatial Disaster Risk Reduction (SDRR) exemplifies this approach, encompassing initiatives such as Landslide Hazard Mitigation (LHM) and Coastal Hazard, Risk Assessment and Reduction (CHRAR). LHM focuses on developing early warning systems for landslides in vulnerable regions like Sikkim, Nilgiris, Manikaran, and Uttarakhand. CHRAR, on the other hand, employs geospatial techniques to study coastal disasters, including erosion, tsunamis, cyclones, and floods, aiming to produce actionable outputs for relief efforts.

In urban governance, geospatial solutions play a crucial role, with emphasis on emerging technologies like Geo-ICT. Projects under this domain focus on areas such as IoT and GIS technologies, smart parking management systems, flood mapping frameworks, and indoor navigation systems, contributing to the development of smart cities.

Conclusion:

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The recent signing of the Indo-US Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement (BECA) underscores the importance of geospatial intelligence in national security. This agreement enables India to leverage US geospatial intelligence, enhancing the accuracy of automated systems and weapons like missiles and armed drones. Access to topographical and aeronautical data through BECA will significantly bolster India's capabilities in navigation and targeting, marking a significant advancement in defense collaboration between the two nations

Other Points to Consider

Geospatial Technology Programme

Geospatial Science Programme

Introduction:

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Micro Irrigation represents a holistic approach aimed at boosting crop productivity by enhancing water utilization efficiency through Micro Irrigation Systems.

It involves the gradual delivery of small drips, minute streams, or miniature sprays of water either above or below the soil surface.

Micro irrigation systems are adept at conserving water and improving water utilization efficiency compared to conventional surface irrigation methods.

Benefits

(i) Decreases water consumption

(ii) Suppresses the growth of undesirable vegetation (weeds)

(iii) Applicable across diverse types of terrain

(iv) Suited for undulating landscapes

(v) Enhances crop yield and reduces labor expenses

(vi) Diminishes the need for fertilizers while enhancing soil fertility.

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Government Initiatives

Per Drop More Crop (PDMC) scheme

This initiative, spearheaded by the Department of Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare, is a central government endeavor promoting micro-irrigation systems like drip or sprinkler systems.

Initiated in 2006, it was subsequently absorbed into the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sichai Yojna (PMKSY) in 2015, forming one of its integral components.

Financing is divided, with the central government contributing approximately 40 percent, and the remainder financed by states and farmers themselves, with varying proportions in hilly and northeastern states.

The scheme primarily aims to augment water-use efficiency and bolster productivity, thereby augmenting farmer incomes.

Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY)

This scheme, undertaken by the Government of India, endeavors to enhance water utilization efficiency in agriculture by advocating suitable technological interventions.

Micro Irrigation Fund

This initiative is committed to facilitating agricultural irrigation access by prioritizing water conservation and management.

It offers several advantages such as increased subsidies on micro irrigation systems, complimentary service for three years post-installation of micro irrigation systems, and heightened water utilization efficiency.

States can access the fund in the form of a loan from NABARD (National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development) at a 3 percent lower cost of funds, with the central government compensating the remaining 3 percent

Conclusion:

The ending of the answer should be on a positive note and it should have a forward-looking approach

Micro Irrigation, bolstered by government initiatives like the Per Drop More Crop (PDMC) scheme and the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY), emerges as a pivotal tool in enhancing agricultural productivity while conserving water resources. Through the effective implementation of micro irrigation systems, farmers can achieve higher crop yields, reduce water consumption, and mitigate the growth of unwanted vegetation. Moreover, initiatives such as the Micro Irrigation Fund further incentivize the adoption of these systems by providing financial assistance and promoting water conservation practices. By leveraging micro irrigation technologies and government support, India can progress towards sustainable agriculture, ensuring food security, and bolstering the livelihoods of farmers nationwide

Other Points to Consider

Sprinkler and Drip Irrigation

Challenges in implementation

Introduction:

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Poverty has conventionally been assessed using income or, when income data is unavailable, expenditure levels. These "poverty lines" represent expenditure thresholds considered low enough to classify individuals as poor.

Multidimensional poverty in India saw a decline from 29.17% in 2013-14 to 11.28% in 2022-23, resulting in approximately 24.82 crore people lifting themselves out of poverty during this period.

At the state level, Uttar Pradesh led the rankings with 5.94 crore individuals rising above the poverty line, followed by Bihar at 3.77 crore and Madhya Pradesh at 2.30 crore.

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Difference between Indian MPI and Global MPI

Internationally, the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) encompasses 10 indicators across three key domains: (i) health, (ii) education, and (iii) standard of living. Each of these dimensions contributes equally to the final index.

Health indicators in the MPI encompass child and adolescent mortality rates, while educational metrics include years of schooling and attendance. Standard of living considerations involve household-specific factors such as housing quality, possession of household assets, type of cooking fuel, access to sanitation facilities, availability of drinking water, and electricity.

The Indian MPI includes two additional indicators:

(i) Maternal health (within the health dimension) and

(ii) Access to bank accounts (within the standard of living dimension).

This adaptation, as per the NITI Aayog, aims to align the MPI with India's national development priorities.

Conclusion:

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Consequently, the MPI value for a specific population represents the proportion of weighted deprivations experienced by multidimensionally poor individuals relative to the total population

Other Points to Consider

What is the basis for this assessment?

How is MPI calculated?

Simultaneous elections for the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies have been a topic of discussion in Indian politics for various reasons.

Advantages:

• Cost Reduction: Conducting elections at different times for state assemblies and the Lok Sabha incurs significant expenses. Simultaneous elections would help reduce the overall cost of holding elections, including expenses related to campaigning, security, and logistics.
• Efficient Governance: With simultaneous elections, the government machinery can focus on governance and policy implementation rather than being frequently engaged in election-related activities. This leads to better efficiency and continuity in governance.
• Policy Continuity: Since elections at both levels would be synchronized, there would be greater policy continuity. This ensures that development initiatives and welfare schemes continue without disruption, benefiting citizens across the nation.
• Reduced Polarization: Frequent elections can sometimes lead to polarized campaigns based on short-term considerations. Simultaneous elections might reduce the frequency of such polarizing campaigns and encourage a more holistic approach to governance.

Disadvantages:

• Logistical Challenges: Conducting simultaneous elections requires extensive logistical arrangements, including a large number of electronic voting machines (EVMs) and personnel. Managing such a massive electoral exercise simultaneously across the country can pose logistical challenges.
• Dominance of National Parties: Simultaneous elections might benefit nationally dominant parties at the expense of regional parties. Regional issues and concerns may get overshadowed by national agendas, potentially marginalizing regional voices.
• Delayed Results: Holding elections simultaneously means that the results for both Lok Sabha and state assemblies would be announced together. This could delay the formation of governments and decision-making processes, especially if there are hung assemblies.
• Impact on Regional Issues: Regional parties often focus on local or state-specific issues during elections. Simultaneous polls might restrict their ability to highlight these issues effectively, leading to a dilution of regional concerns in the national discourse.

Previous Efforts and Recommendations:

• Election Commission and Law Commission: Both the Election Commission and Law Commission of India have explored the idea of simultaneous elections in various reports. They have highlighted the potential benefits while also acknowledging the logistical and political challenges involved.
• Niti Aayog's Proposal: In 2017, Niti Aayog proposed a roadmap for implementing simultaneous elections, emphasizing the need for consensus-building among political parties and stakeholders. The proposal aimed to address the complexities involved in transitioning to such a system.

Has the idea of simultaneous polls been explored before?

What are the arguments around holding simultaneous elections?

Introduction:

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The concept of creditisation aims to establish parity in academic recognition between vocational and general education, fostering seamless transition between these two educational streams, as outlined in the NEP 2020.

In 2022, the University Grants Commission, responsible for overseeing higher education, devised the National Credit Framework (NCrF) to operationalize this initiative.

The NCrF serves as a unified credit system aimed at integrating vocational training and skill development into both school and higher education.

Students' earned credits will be digitally recorded in the Academic Bank of Credits, accessible through a linked Digilocker account.

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Changes proposed by CBSE subcommittee

Currently, the standard school curriculum lacks a formalized credit structure. Under the CBSE plan, an academic year would comprise 1,200 notional learning hours, equivalent to earning 40 credits.

These hours encompass both in-school academic learning and extracurricular or experiential learning outside the classroom.

To implement this, the curriculum has been modified to specify teaching hours and credits earned for each subject.

The committee suggests incorporating multidisciplinary and vocational courses into the existing disciplines. Thus, students in Classes 9 and 10 would need to complete ten subjects—three languages and seven core disciplines—to pass final exams.

At least two of the three mandatory languages must be Indian, such as a combination of Hindi, Sanskrit, and English.

For Classes 11 and 12, students are advised to study six subjects, including two languages and four optional subjects, with an additional fifth choice. At least one of the two languages must be Indian.

Conclusion:

The ending of the answer should be on a positive note and it should have a forward-looking approach

The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE), the largest national school board in the country, is proposing significant revisions to the academic structure of Classes 9 to 12, aligning with the creditisation strategy advocated by the 2020 National Education Policy (NEP)

Other Points to Consider 

National Education Policy

Credit system

National Credit Framework

• The government's investment in healthcare has witnessed a steady rise, demonstrated by an increase in healthcare spending as a percentage of GDP. From FY 2015 to FY 2020, government spending on healthcare rose from 1.13% to 1.35% of GDP, showcasing a commitment to strengthening the healthcare infrastructure and services.
• Reduction in Out-of-Pocket Expenditure (OOPE): There has been a notable decrease in out-of-pocket expenditure (OOPE) by individuals on healthcare services. The proportion of total healthcare spending sourced directly from individuals' pockets dropped significantly from 62.6% in FY 2015 to 47.1% in FY 2020. This reduction alleviates financial burdens on citizens and contributes to improved accessibility to healthcare services.
• Emphasis on Primary Healthcare Sector: A substantial portion of government healthcare expenditure has been allocated to the primary healthcare sector, indicating a strategic focus on foundational healthcare services. In FY 2020, 55.9% of government healthcare spending targeted primary care, emphasizing preventive measures, basic medical services, and community health initiatives.
• Increase in Social Security Expenditure: The government has demonstrated an increased commitment to social security in the healthcare domain. Social security expenditure as a percentage of total healthcare spending rose from 5.7% in FY 2015 to 9.3% in FY 2020. This signifies efforts to enhance healthcare accessibility, affordability, and inclusivity, particularly for vulnerable populations.

The National Health Accounts Estimates for India: 2019-20 signify a positive trajectory in healthcare financing, resource allocation, and sectoral priorities. These outcomes underscore the government's dedication to improving healthcare accessibility, reducing financial burdens on citizens, and strengthening the foundational pillars of primary healthcare. Through strategic investments and policy frameworks, India's healthcare system continues to evolve, ensuring better health outcomes and enhanced well-being for its citizens.

Challenges in the Healthcare Sector

Introduction:

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The concept of the "blue economy" broadly encompasses economic activities linked to oceans and coastlines, often with an implicit emphasis on sustainability.

According to the European Commission, it encompasses "all economic activities related to oceans, seas, and coasts, encompassing a wide array of interconnected established and emerging sectors."

The World Bank defines the blue economy as the "sustainable utilization of ocean resources to foster economic growth, enhance livelihoods, and create employment opportunities while safeguarding the health of ocean ecosystems."

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For countries like India, endowed with extensive coastlines, abundant marine resources, and diverse tourism potential, the blue economy holds significant importance.

Finance Minister Sitharaman highlighted the launch of a scheme focusing on restoration, adaptation measures, coastal aquaculture, and mariculture, adopting an integrated, multi-sectoral approach.

Restoration and adaptation efforts are vital to ensuring that economic activities do not compromise the health of ocean ecosystems.

Does India have a blue economy policy?

A preliminary draft policy framework for India's Blue Economy was unveiled in July 2022.

As per the Press Information Bureau (PIB), the policy blueprint outlined key recommendations covering aspects such as the National Accounting Framework for the Blue Economy, Ocean Governance, Coastal Marine Spatial Planning, Tourism Prioritization, Marine Fisheries, Aquaculture, Fish Processing, Manufacturing, Emerging Industries, Trade, Technology, Services, Skill Development, Logistics, Infrastructure, Shipping, Coastal and Deep-Sea Mining, Offshore Energy, Security, Strategic Dimensions, and International Engagement.

Conclusion:

The ending of the answer should be on a positive note and it should have a forward-looking approach

The Finance Minister additionally announced plans to establish five integrated aquaparks and expand the Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY) to increase aquaculture productivity, double exports to Rs 1 lakh crore, and create 55 lakh employment opportunities in the near future, as reported by ANI

Other Points to Consider

Coastal aquaculture

Mariculture

Introduction:

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DAP, known as di-ammonium phosphate, ranks as the second most utilized fertilizer in India following urea.

It boasts a high phosphorus content that plays a vital role in stimulating root establishment and development. Without adequate phosphorus, plants struggle to attain their usual size or experience delayed maturation.

Nano DAP, comprising 8% Nitrogen and 16% Phosphorus by volume, diverges from conventional DAP, which typically exists in granular form. Notably, the Nano DAP manufactured by the Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative (IFFCO) is presented in liquid form.

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Rationale for Government Interest:

The minute particle size of Nano DAP renders it more efficient compared to its traditional counterpart. This efficiency allows the fertilizer to penetrate easily into the seed surface or through plant openings such as stomata.

Enhanced assimilation of the fertilizer within the plant system translates to augmented seed vigor, heightened chlorophyll levels, enhanced photosynthetic efficiency, improved crop quality, and amplified yields.

Given the substantial subsidies offered by the government on DAP, transitioning to a more economical fertilizer variant is poised to alleviate the government's subsidy burden significantly.

Advantages:

Nano DAP proves to be more economically viable.

Its liquid form renders Nano DAP considerably more convenient for application.

Conclusion:

The ending of the answer should be on a positive note and it should have a forward-looking approach

Most notably, India presently relies heavily on fertilizer imports to meet domestic demand. The widespread adoption of domestically produced Nano DAP, manufactured in Kalol, Gujarat, is anticipated to markedly alleviate this dependence on imports.

This groundbreaking initiative not only propels Indian agriculture forward in food grain production but also bolsters India's self-reliance in fertilizer manufacturing.

The integration of Nano DAP into agricultural practices stands to foster self-sufficiency in fertilizers, thereby offering substantial benefits to our farming community

Other Points to Consider

IFFCO

Nano DAP

Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture:

• Rainfall and Temperature Changes: Climate change has led to erratic rainfall patterns and temperature fluctuations, impacting crop growth cycles. Dry spells, droughts, heatwaves, and floods disrupt agricultural operations and reduce crop yields.
• Production Risks: Climate-induced risks pose threats to food security and rural economies. Variability in weather conditions increases production uncertainties, affecting crop productivity and farmer incomes.
• Regional Variances: India's diverse agro-climatic zones experience varying impacts of climate change. Coastal areas face challenges such as saline intrusion due to sea-level rise, while inland regions deal with water scarcity and heat stress affecting crop suitability and productivity.
• Crop Diversity and Livelihoods: Climate change affects crop diversity and the livelihoods of farmers dependent on specific crops. Shifts in climate suitability may necessitate changes in cropping patterns, adoption of resilient crop varieties, and sustainable agricultural practices.

Specific Impacts of Climate Change:

• Temperature Variation: Rising temperatures affect crop growth stages, alter pest and disease dynamics, and impact livestock health and productivity.
• Rainfall Variability: Changes in precipitation patterns lead to water stress, affecting irrigation, groundwater recharge, and crop water requirements.
• Greenhouse Gas Concentration: Increasing greenhouse gas emissions contribute to climate change, affecting weather patterns and long-term climate stability.
• Extreme Weather Events: Heatwaves, cyclones, and heavy rainfall events cause crop damage, soil erosion, and infrastructure disruptions, impacting agricultural productivity and food supply chains.

Interaction between climate change and agriculture

National Family Health Survey

Global Hunger Index

Introduction:

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World Food Day, observed on October 16, commemorates the establishment of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) in 1945, which was established primarily to ensure global food and nutrition security following World War II.

The theme for World Food Day 2023 is "Water is Life. Water is Food." Assessing India's strides towards food security and its utilization of water resources for agriculture is pertinent within this context, especially considering the detrimental effects of climate change on sustainable development across various ecosystems.

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Climate Change Impact on Agriculture in India:

Alterations in rainfall patterns, temperature fluctuations (both maximum and minimum), and the sudden onset of extreme weather events like dry spells, droughts, heatwaves, and floods significantly impede crop growth, resulting in diminished productivity.

Such climate-induced risks to production not only jeopardize food security and nutritional requirements but also threaten the socioeconomic stability of rural economies.

However, the extent of climate change effects on agricultural output and livelihoods varies across India's diverse agro-climatic regions, making the impact uncertain in similar locales.

Climate change manifests in various agricultural impacts, including temperature variations, alterations in atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations, fluctuations in rainfall patterns (leading to floods, droughts, and altered runoff), and changes in groundwater recharge rates.

Conclusion:

The ending of the answer should be on a positive note and it should have a forward-looking approach

Over the last three years (2020-2023), India has exported approximately 85 million tonnes (MT) of cereals, predominantly rice, wheat, and corn, solidifying its position as a leading producer.

India stands as the foremost producer of milk globally, and its fish and poultry production has witnessed rapid growth since 2000-2001, symbolizing the emergence of the "pink" (poultry) and "blue" (fisheries) revolutions alongside the historic green and white revolutions.

However, despite these advancements, malnutrition remains a concern, with about 16.6% of the population suffering from malnutrition, 35% of children under five experiencing stunted growth, and 32% being underweight, according to the latest National Family Health Survey (2020-2022)

Other Points to Consider

Interaction between climate change and agriculture

National Family Health Survey

Global Hunger Index

Introduction:

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Ozone, comprised of three oxygen molecules, primarily exists in the upper atmosphere known as the stratosphere, situated between 10 and 50 kilometers above Earth's surface. Existing in minimal concentrations, even at its densest points, ozone comprises only a few molecules per million air molecules.

Significance of Ozone:

The ozone layer serves as a crucial shield safeguarding life on Earth from the sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. By neutralizing this threat, ozone molecules play a pivotal role in mitigating the risk of skin cancer and other health issues in both plants and animals.

Body:

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Observations made during Antarctic expeditions in the early 1980s revealed a significant decline in ozone concentration during September-November compared to 1950s records, culminating in the discovery of the "ozone hole" over Antarctica in 1985.

Causes:

The depletion of the ozone layer, particularly pronounced over Antarctica during September-November, arises from a complex interplay of meteorological and chemical factors. The 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer, hailed as the only universally embraced treaty in United Nations history, initiated the phase-out of ozone-depleting substances (ODS) like Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and Halons. By 2005, signatory nations had drastically reduced ODS consumption by 90-95%.

The Montreal Protocol regulates 96 chemicals, including CFCs, Halons, Carbon tetrachloride, Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), and others. These substances, characterized by their longevity and non-toxic properties, persist in the atmosphere for extended periods, exacerbating ozone depletion.

Conclusion:

The ending of the answer should be on a positive note and it should have a forward-looking approach

In addition to preserving the ozone layer, the elimination of ozone-depleting substances yields significant climate change benefits. Many of these substances, categorized as potent greenhouse gases, surpass carbon dioxide in terms of warming potential, underscoring the multifaceted environmental advantages of Montreal Protocol compliance

Other Points to Consider

Kigali Agreement

India’s effort

The ozone layer, consisting of ozone molecules (a three-oxygen molecule), is crucial for life on Earth as it shields the planet from harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun. Found primarily in the stratosphere, the ozone layer's protection against UV rays is essential for preventing skin cancer, cataracts, and other health issues in humans, as well as protecting ecosystems and wildlife.

Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion:

• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and Halons: These synthetic chemicals were widely used in refrigerants, air conditioning systems, foam insulation, and fire extinguishers. When released into the atmosphere, CFCs and Halons break down ozone molecules in the stratosphere, leading to ozone depletion.
• Halo-carbons and Other Ozone-Depleting Substances: Besides CFCs and Halons, other ozone-depleting substances like carbon tetrachloride, hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), methyl chloroform, methyl bromide, and bromochloromethane contribute to the destruction of the ozone layer. These chemicals have varying atmospheric lifetimes but collectively pose a threat to ozone stability.
• Chemical Reactions: Ozone depletion occurs due to complex chemical reactions involving ozone and ozone-depleting substances. For instance, chlorine and bromine atoms released from CFCs and Halons catalytically break down ozone molecules, reducing the ozone concentration in the stratosphere.

Efforts to Address Ozone Depletion:

• Montreal Protocol: Recognizing the severity of ozone layer depletion, the international community established the Montreal Protocol in 1987. This treaty aimed to phase out the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances. Over time, significant progress has been made in reducing the use of CFCs, Halons, and other harmful chemicals regulated under the protocol.
• Replacement Technologies: The Montreal Protocol led to the development and adoption of alternative substances that do not harm the ozone layer. For example, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are used as substitutes for CFCs in many applications, as they have zero ozone-depleting potential.

Kigali Agreement

India’s effort

Introduction:

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The concept of High Altitude Pseudo Satellite (HAPS) refers to an advanced solar-powered unmanned aerial system designed to sustain prolonged control over a designated area, positioned above the troposphere, and equipped with specialized mission sensors. Operating at altitudes around 20 kilometers, solely powered by solar energy, and capable of enduring in-flight for several months, HAPS presents a revolutionary tool with multifaceted applications, notably in surveillance, monitoring, and disaster management scenarios.

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The National Aerospace Laboratories (NAL) in Bengaluru recently achieved a milestone by conducting the inaugural test flight of a solar-powered "pseudo satellite," a cutting-edge unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) poised to elevate India's surveillance capabilities, particularly in border regions. Despite being a nascent technology, India's successful test flight positions it alongside a select group of nations exploring HAPS technology.

Challenges of HAPS:

Developing a self-sustaining solar-powered aircraft capable of extended flight durations presents formidable technological challenges. Key hurdles include generating sufficient solar energy to power the aircraft, sustain payload operations, and recharge batteries throughout the night. Additionally, design considerations must address the aircraft's lightweight construction to minimize power demands while ensuring stability. Operating in frigid temperatures exceeding -50 degrees Celsius at high altitudes necessitates specialized measures to maintain electronic functionality.

Conclusion:

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Unlike conventional battery-powered UAVs limited by short flight durations and restricted coverage, HAPS represents a transformative advancement akin to geostationary satellites but with added versatility. Its capacity for redeployment to different locations and adaptability to diverse payloads distinguishes it from geostationary satellites, offering unprecedented flexibility in aerial surveillance and monitoring applications

Other Points to Consider

What is the need for such UAVs?

India and the HAPS

Introduction:

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The Square Kilometre Array (SKA) project represents a monumental international collaboration aimed at constructing the world's most extensive radio telescope, boasting a cumulative collecting area exceeding one million square meters. Unlike traditional single large telescopes, the SKA comprises thousands of dish antennas meticulously orchestrated to function as a unified entity. Situated in sparsely populated areas across South Africa and Australia, the antennas are strategically dispersed to minimize interference from human activities. Once operational, the SKA is poised to significantly surpass existing radio telescopes in potency, promising groundbreaking insights into the cosmos

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The Square Kilometre Array (SKA) project represents a collaborative endeavor on a global scale aimed at constructing the most extensive radio telescope worldwide, boasting a cumulative collecting area exceeding one million square meters.

Unlike traditional single large telescopes, the SKA comprises thousands of dish antennas meticulously orchestrated to function as a unified entity.

Strategically located in sparsely populated areas, the antennas are dispersed across South Africa and Australia, with approximately 200 and over 130,000 installations, respectively, chosen to minimize interference from human activities.

Once operational, the SKA is poised to outperform existing radio telescopes by a considerable margin, exhibiting a potency ranging from 5 to 60 times that of current counterparts operating within similar frequency spectrums.

Benefits for India

India has officially committed to participating in the Square Kilometer Array (SKA) initiative, a pivotal global scientific collaboration endeavoring to construct the world's largest radio telescope.

Although none of the SKA infrastructure will be situated within Indian territory, the country stands to reap substantial scientific and technological dividends by assuming full membership in the project.

While India has been actively involved in the SKA project for several years, attaining full member status entails formal ratification of an international treaty and a corresponding financial commitment, thereby unlocking enhanced scientific prospects with the impending facility.

Comparable to the scientific opportunities presented by initiatives such as the LHC or ITER, despite being situated abroad, the SKA membership offers India preferential access to the facilities and resources of the project.

As a full member, India stands to gain preferential allocation of time on the radio telescope, commensurate with its contribution to the endeavor, with limited additional time slots accessible via competitive selection processes.

Conclusion:

The ending of the answer should be on a positive note and it should have a forward-looking approach

India has allocated Rs 1,250 crore towards the SKA project, earmarking its financial commitment for the construction phase of the initiative.

In addition to its involvement in the SKA, India has embarked on constructing a gravitational wave detector to augment the international LIGO network and holds full membership status in the ITER project, focusing on harnessing energy from nuclear fusion reactions.

Furthermore, India's robust engagement in initiatives such as the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), the world's largest and most potent particle accelerator, underscores its proactive participation in groundbreaking scientific endeavors at the global forefront

Other Points to Consider

India’s involvement

Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory

ITER project

Introduction:

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Established under Section 3A of the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987, the Supreme Court Legal Services Committee serves the purpose of offering "free and proficient legal services" to marginalized sections of society within the jurisdiction of the apex court.

Section 3A mandates the constitution of the committee by the Central Authority, which is the National Legal Services Authority (NALSA).

The committee is chaired by a sitting Supreme Court judge, as stipulated by the Act, and comprises members possessing the requisite qualifications and experience determined by the Central government.

Both the chairman and the other members are nominated by the Chief Justice of India (CJI), who also holds the authority to appoint the Committee's Secretary.

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The imperative of providing legal aid finds mention in various provisions of the Indian Constitution. Article 39A emphasizes the State's obligation to ensure that the legal system operates in a manner that fosters justice and equal opportunity, including the provision of free legal assistance.

Articles 14 (equality before the law) and 22(1) (right to be informed of grounds for arrest) further reinforce the State's duty to uphold equality and ensure a legal framework that upholds justice on the basis of equal opportunity.

Despite the initial proposal for a legal assistance system in the 1950s, it wasn't until 1980 that a national committee, chaired by then-Supreme Court Justice PN Bhagwati, was formed. This Committee for Implementing Legal Aid Schemes was tasked with overseeing legal aid initiatives nationwide.

Conclusion:

The ending of the answer should be on a positive note and it should have a forward-looking approach

The enactment of the Legal Services Authorities Act in 1987 provided a statutory foundation to legal aid initiatives, aiming to furnish free and proficient legal services to eligible groups, including women, children, SC/ST and EWS categories, industrial workers, persons with disabilities, among others.

The Supreme Court Legal Services Committee, headed by Chairperson BR Gavai and comprising nine members appointed by the CJI, possesses the authority to appoint officers and staff members as per the guidelines set by the Central government, in consultation with the CJI

Other Points to Consider

Legal Services Authorities Act

NALSA

Articles 14

Objectives of NCAP

1. Mitigation Measures: Implementing stringent measures for the prevention, control, and abatement of air pollution. This includes adopting advanced technologies, enforcing regulations on emissions from industries and vehicles, and promoting cleaner fuels.

2. Ambient Air Quality Monitoring: Establishing and enhancing an efficient ambient air quality monitoring network across the country. This network ensures a robust and reliable database on air quality parameters, helping in assessing pollution levels, identifying hotspots, and formulating targeted interventions.

3. Public Awareness and Capacity Building: Conducting public awareness campaigns and capacity-building initiatives. These efforts aim to educate the public about the health impacts of air pollution, promote sustainable practices, and foster community participation in pollution control measures. Training programs are also conducted to build expertise and infrastructure for air quality management.

The NCAP's primary goal is to achieve a substantial reduction in particulate matter concentrations, especially PM10 and PM2.5, by 20% to 30% by 2024 and now further aiming for a 40% reduction by 2026. These targets are crucial for improving ambient air quality and safeguarding public health. Additionally, the NCAP emphasizes collaborative efforts involving central ministries, state governments, local bodies, and various stakeholders to ensure a coordinated approach in combating air pollution across all sources and sectors. Through city-specific action plans and continuous monitoring, the NCAP strives to create cleaner and healthier environments for all citizens.

Other Points to Ponder

What are Non Attainment Cities?

Central Pollution Control Board

Implementation of NCAP

Introduction:

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India's relationship with Russia has been enduring and dependable, forming a crucial aspect of India's foreign policy.

The partnership between India and Russia has evolved significantly, marked by enhanced collaboration across various sectors including politics, security, defense, trade, economy, science and technology, culture, and people-to-people exchanges.

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During a visit to Moscow by External Affairs Minister Subrahmanyam Jaishankar, it was emphasized that the Indo-Russian relationship has remained remarkably steady amidst fluctuations in ties with other major nations.

India and Russia have maintained a remarkably stable relationship since the mid-20th century, marked by minimal bilateral disagreements and frequent alignment of their geopolitical interests, contributing to a stable power balance in Asia.

The absence of annual summits does not signify a decline in the relationship; on the contrary, bilateral economic cooperation has witnessed growth over the past couple of years.

India and Russia are not merely reverting to their previous dynamics; the context of their bilateral ties has fundamentally transformed. In 1991, India's GDP was half that of Russia's, but today, India's economy surpasses Russia's significantly.

A significant development in bilateral cooperation occurred in December 2021 with the inaugural 2+2 Dialogue, involving the Foreign and Defense Ministers of both countries, held alongside summit-level talks.

Conclusion:

The ending of the answer should be on a positive note and it should have a forward-looking approach

India and Russia collaborate closely on various multilateral platforms such as the UN, G20, BRICS, and SCO. India's Presidency of the G20 and SCO in 2023 facilitated interactions between officials and ministers of both countries during events in India.

Maintaining a pragmatic bilateral relationship will afford India and Russia greater adaptability in an increasingly polarized global landscape

Other Points to Consider

Trade & Economic relations

Defence & Security Cooperation

Science & Technology Cooperation

Introduction:

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Large Language Models (LLMs), as defined by Google, are expansive general-purpose models capable of being pre-trained and subsequently fine-tuned for specific tasks.

These models are equipped to tackle common language challenges including text classification, question answering, cross-industry text production, document summarization, and more.

LLMs can also be customized to address specific issues across various domains such as finance, retail, entertainment, etc., often utilizing relatively small sets of field-specific datasets.

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Types of LLMs

LLMs can be classified in several ways:

(i) Architecturally, they fall into three categories: autoregressive, transformer-based, and encoder-decoder models.

(ii) In terms of training data, there are three types: pretrained and fine-tuned, multilingual models capable of understanding and generating text in multiple languages, and domain-specific models trained on data relevant to particular fields such as legal, finance, or healthcare.

(iii) They can also be categorized as open-source or closed-source based on availability; while some are publicly accessible, others remain proprietary. Examples of open-source LLMs include LLaMA2, BlOOM, Google BERT, Falcon 180B, and OPT-175 B, whereas proprietary LLMs include Claude 2, Bard, and GPT-4.

How LLMs Operate?

LLMs operate on the principle of "deep learning", involving the construction of artificial neural networks inspired by the structure and functioning of the human brain.

These neural networks are trained to predict the probability of a word or sequence of words given the preceding words in a sentence for LLMs.

Conclusion:

The ending of the answer should be on a positive note and it should have a forward-looking approach

LLMs excel in predicting the most probable next word or sequence of words based on input prompts.

With their versatility, LLMs find applications across diverse domains, generating text for various purposes such as articles, songs, poems, and stories, while also serving as virtual assistants or engaging in conversations

Other Points to Consider

ChatGPT

Gemini

What are the advantages of LLMs?

The rise in the average global temperature since 1850, by at least 1.1 degrees Celsius, has significantly impacted extreme weather events worldwide. 

• Increased Frequency and Intensity: The warming climate has led to more frequent and intense extreme weather events such as heat waves, droughts, floods, hurricanes, and wildfires. This is primarily due to the unprecedented emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere from human activities.
• Heat Waves: Climate change has amplified heat waves globally. For instance, a study following a deadly 2019 heatwave in Western Europe revealed that climate change made such extreme heat events five times more likely. In India, the duration and intensity of heatwaves have also increased, leading to significant health risks and agricultural impacts.
• Droughts: Rising temperatures have exacerbated drought conditions in various regions. East Africa, for example, experienced its worst drought in 40 years between 2020 and 2022. Climate change made this severe drought at least 100 times more likely, according to a report by World Weather Attribution (WWA).
• Wildfires: Extreme heat and dry conditions increase the likelihood and severity of wildfires. Climate change has extended the wildfire season and created more conducive conditions for wildfires by reducing moisture in vegetation. Regions like Eastern Canada have experienced heightened "fire weather" conditions due to climate change, leading to increased wildfire risks.
• Floods: Warmer temperatures cause increased evaporation of water from land and oceans, leading to a warmer and moisture-laden atmosphere. This intensifies precipitation during storms, resulting in more severe and frequent flooding events. The atmosphere's ability to hold around 7% more moisture for every 1-degree Celsius increase in temperature contributes to heavier rainfall and subsequent flooding.
• Sea Level Rise: Climate change has also contributed to rising sea levels due to thermal expansion and melting glaciers. This has increased the vulnerability of coastal areas to storm surges and flooding during extreme weather events like hurricanes and cyclones.

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The Fair and Remunerative Price (FRP) for sugarcane is determined by the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA) at the central level.

This price is calculated based on the sugar recovery rate from the cane, which represents the percentage of sugar extracted relative to the amount of cane crushed. A higher recovery rate translates to a higher FRP, reflecting increased sugar production from the cane.

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Sugar mills are legally obligated to pay the FRP to sugarcane farmers for their produce. Failure to settle FRP dues within 14 days of cane sale may lead to enforcement action by cane commissioners. Non-payment could result in the seizure of mill assets as outstanding land tax liabilities.

How does FRP differ from the Minimum Support Price (MSP)?

MSPs serve as a safety net for farmers, ensuring a minimum guaranteed payment to mitigate risks associated with agriculture, such as adverse weather conditions.

They provide stability in market prices, preventing fluctuations that could impact both farmers' incomes and consumers' access to essential food items.

The government announces MSPs annually for specific crops, indicating the price at which it will procure the produce from farmers if market prices fall below the set MSP.

MSPs are determined based on various factors including production costs, demand-supply dynamics, market trends, and ensuring a minimum profit margin for farmers, typically set at 50% over production costs.

Conclusion:

The ending of the answer should be on a positive note and it should have a forward-looking approach

The central government introduced MSP for sugar in 2018 as part of measures to stabilize sugar prices and maintain a balanced demand-supply ratio.

Additionally, the government has established mill-specific sales quotas. Non-compliance with these regulations could lead to punitive measures under the Essential Commodities Act of 1955, including fines, imprisonment, or both, as a means to regulate the sugar industry effectively

Other Points to Consider

Why does sugarcane have both the FRP and MSP?

Introduction:

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The Raisina Dialogue is an annual gathering focused on discussions about global geopolitics and geoeconomics, aimed at tackling the world's most pressing issues.

Held in New Delhi, the conference draws participants from diverse backgrounds including politics, business, media, and civil society.

It serves as a platform for a wide-ranging dialogue involving heads of state, cabinet ministers, local government officials, as well as leaders from the private sector, media, and academia.

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The theme for the 2024 edition, as announced by the Ministry of External Affairs, is “Chaturanga: Conflict, Contest, Cooperate, Create.”

Participants engage in discussions revolving around six key thematic pillars:

(i) Advancing Tech Frontiers: Regulation & Reality;

(ii) Promoting Peace with the Planet: Investment & Innovation;

(iii) Navigating War & Peace: Armaments & Asymmetry;

(iv) Reshaping Multilateralism: Institutions & Inclusivity;

(v) Charting the Post-2030 Agenda: People & Progress; and

(vi) Safeguarding Democracy: Society & Sovereignty.

Conclusion:

The ending of the answer should be on a positive note and it should have a forward-looking approach

The 9th edition of the Raisina Dialogue saw a diverse representation from over 100 countries, including Ministers, former Heads of State and Government, Military Leaders, Industry Captains, Technology Pioneers, Scholars, Journalists, and Youth, reflecting its broad appeal and significance as a global forum for dialogue and exchange of ideas

Other Points to Consider

Who was the chief guest for the conference?

Observer Research Foundation

Introduction:

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The Rajya Sabha, a permanent House under the Indian Constitution, operates with a system ensuring continuity through staggered retirements of one-third of its members every two years. These vacancies are filled through biennial elections, maintaining the House's composition of 245 members. While 233 members represent states and union territories, the President nominates the remaining 12. Vacancies due to resignation, demise, or disqualification are filled through by-elections, with the elected members serving the remainder of their predecessors' terms. Article 80(3) mandates that nominated members possess specialized knowledge or practical experience in various fields and allows them to join a political party within six months of assuming office.

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Voting Mechanism:

The election of Rajya Sabha MPs involves an indirect electoral process wherein Members of Legislative Assemblies (MLAs) elect them. As per Article 80(4), state Assembly members elect Rajya Sabha members through a proportional representation system using a single transferable vote method. The Fourth Schedule of the Constitution determines the allocation of Rajya Sabha seats to states and Union Territories based on their population.

Vote Counting Process:

The calculation of required votes for a candidate depends on the number of vacancies and the House's strength. For a single vacancy, the Election Commission's Conduct of Election Rules, 1961, dictates that a candidate needs the majority of votes polled, divided by two, plus one. For instance, if 100 votes are cast, the candidate requires 51 votes.

In cases of multiple vacancies, each first-preference vote carries a value of 100. The total value of votes cast for all candidates is divided by one more than the number of vacancies, and one is added to the quotient. For example, if 100 members vote for three vacancies, the required quota for any candidate would be (100 × 100)/(3 + 1) + 1 = 2501.

If no candidate secures the specified number of votes, second-preference votes are considered, albeit with reduced value, to determine the winner

Conclusion:

The ending of the answer should be on a positive note and it should have a forward-looking approach

The Rajya Sabha, functioning as a crucial pillar of India's parliamentary democracy, ensures representation from states and Union Territories through a nuanced electoral process. The indirect election of its members by MLAs, utilizing proportional representation and single transferable vote methods, upholds the constitutional mandate. The meticulous calculation of required votes, governed by the Election Commission's rules, guarantees a fair and transparent electoral process. Through this mechanism, the Rajya Sabha maintains its role as a vital forum for deliberation and decision-making, contributing significantly to India's legislative landscape and democratic ethos

Other Points to Ponder

Why do Rajya Sabha numbers matter?

How often are Rajya Sabha elections held?

Introduction:

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The Uruguay Round global trade negotiations, formally endorsed in Marrakesh, Morocco, in April 1994, ushered in various agreements, including the WTO Agreement on Agriculture, which commenced implementation from January 1, 1995. This agreement delineated specific reduction obligations for different categories of countries, emphasizing market access, domestic support, and export subsidies.

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Market Access:

Provisions concerning market access encompassed tariffication, tariff reductions, and access opportunities. Industrialized nations were mandated to reduce their ordinary tariffs by an average of 36% over a six-year period, with each tariff item subjected to a minimum reduction of 15%. Conversely, developing nations, still grappling with quantitative restrictions due to balance-of-payments concerns, were permitted to offer ceiling bindings instead of tariffs.

Domestic Support:

Regarding domestic support measures, which were subject to reduction commitments, affluent nations were required to curtail overall support provided during 1986-88 by 20%, while developing countries faced a reduction of 13.3%. Certain policies falling under domestic support categories, constituting less than 5% of the value of production for developed countries and less than 10% for developing nations, were exempt from reduction commitments.

Export Subsidies:

The Agreement mandated reductions in export subsidies, with developed countries tasked with slashing export subsidy expenditure by 36% and volume by 21% over six years, based on 1986-1990 levels. Similarly, developing countries were required to make cuts of 24% and 14%, respectively, over a decade. Furthermore, the Agreement prohibited future subsidies for products not subject to export subsidy reduction agreements.

Conclusion:

The ending of the answer should be on a positive note and it should have a forward-looking approach

Although the WTO’s ministerial conference concluded without resolving crucial issues pertinent to India's interests, such as devising a permanent solution for the public food Public Stockholding (PSH) program and curbing fisheries subsidies contributing to overcapacity and overfishing, members agreed to extend the moratorium on imposing import duties on e-commerce trade for an additional two years. These deliberations underscore the ongoing challenges and negotiations within the WTO framework

Other Points to Consider

13th ministerial conference (MC)

India’s commitment

India’s PSH (Public Stockholding) programme

Introduction:

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The Indian leopard (Panthera pardus fusca) is found across diverse forested habitats spanning India, Nepal, Bhutan, and certain regions of Pakistan. Classified as "Vulnerable" by the IUCN Red List and listed in Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, this species faces conservation challenges.

According to recent findings, India's leopard population increased from 12,852 in 2018 to 13,874 in 2022.

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Methodology:

The fifth cycle of leopard population assessment in India (2022) focused on forested habitats across 18 tiger states, encompassing four significant tiger conservation landscapes. Utilizing a likelihood-based spatially explicit capture mark-recapture (SECR) covariate model, researchers combined photo-captures with geographical data on prey, habitat, and human-induced factors to estimate leopard abundance.

Phase 1:

Systematic sampling of wooded regions within each landscape was conducted using M-STrIPES Android apps and desktop applications.

Phase 2:

Remote sensing and secondary data were employed to model leopard occupancy and abundance in response to habitat factors and human influences.

Phase 3:

SECR models were utilized to predict leopard density through camera trap data, with individuals identified using image and pattern processing applications such as CaTRACT and ExtractCompare.

Outcomes:

Madhya Pradesh boasts the highest leopard count in the country, with 3,907 individuals (up from 3,421 in 2018). Central India harbors the most significant population, comprising 8,820 leopards, followed by the Western Ghats with 3,596, and the Shivalik Hills and Gangetic Plains with 1,109 individuals. Population growth rates varied across regions, with a decline observed in the Shivalik Hills and Gangetic Plains, while other regions experienced moderate increases.

In Central India, a substantial proportion (68%) of leopards reside in human-use forests outside Protected Areas, heightening vulnerability to poaching and human-leopard conflicts. Similarly, in the Western Ghats, although leopard populations remain stable, a significant portion (65%) inhabits areas outside Protected Areas.

Conclusion:

The ending of the answer should be on a positive note and it should have a forward-looking approach

Conservation efforts for the Indian leopard necessitate a multifaceted approach, including habitat restoration initiatives, protection measures beyond Protected Areas, and the implementation of strategies to mitigate human-leopard conflicts. Records maintained by the Wildlife Protection Society of India (WPSI) underscore the urgency of addressing poaching threats, with over 5,500 leopards poached since 1994. Efforts aimed at safeguarding this species are imperative to ensure its long-term survival and ecological balance

Other Points to Ponder

Benefits from tiger conservation efforts

Leopard-human conflict remains a worry