Drought is the outcome of fluctuations in rainfall patterns, leading to insufficient precipitation and a shortage of water resources.

• In the Indian context, the South West Monsoon Season (spanning from June to September) accounts for more than 75% of the total annual rainfall. The erratic nature of this monsoon, characterized by extended periods of dry weather and elevated temperatures, serves as the primary cause of drought.

• State governments in different regions determine the occurrence of drought based on criteria such as rainfall levels, agricultural performance, and various other related factors.

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a general statement about Sahara Desert.

The Sahara desert covers an area of around 9,200,000 square kilometres and is one of the largest hot deserts in the world.

Deserts are defined by low average annual rainfall — usually 100 millimeters (less than 4 inches) of rain per year or less.

The cyclic transformation of the Sahara Desert into savannah and woodland ecosystems is one of the most remarkable environmental changes on the planet.

According to the research study that was published in the journal Nature Communications, the periodic wet phases in the Sahara desert were caused by changes in Earth’s orbit around the Sun

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Possible Reasons

Increase in the African Humid period which could have allowed the dispersal of various species.

There is already a lot of evidence to back up the hypothesis that the Sahara was once vegetation. These “North African humid periods” may have had a significant influence in the establishment of vegetation passageways out of Africa.

The greenings of the Sahara Desert could have been driven by changes in Earth’s orbital precession.

The Earth’s spin influences seasonality over an approximately 21,000-year cycle. The changes in precession also decide the amount of energy received by the planet during different seasons.

These changes caused warmer summers in the Northern hemisphere and thereby increased the strength of the West African monsoon system which has increased rain in the Sahara, causing the spread of savannah-type vegetation through the desert.

Conclusion

You can add a simple conclusion like the following

Sahara's transformation is a topic of ongoing research, and our understanding of the mechanisms involved continues to evolve. Additionally, human-induced climate change may be influencing the Sahara's climate in ways that are not fully understood. Studying past climate records, modeling future scenarios, and monitoring current conditions are essential for gaining a more comprehensive understanding of the complex processes involved in the transformation of the Sahara Desert into savannah and woodland ecosystems.

Other Points to Consider

Species living in the Sahara Desert

Countries covered under the Sahara Desert

Rivers flowing through the Sahara Desert

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a general statement about Ozone.

Ozone is a molecule that is made up of three oxygen atoms. A layer of this gas sits in our planet’s stratosphere between 15 and 30 kilometres above the surface. It absorbs a portion of the radiation from the Sun, preventing it from reaching the planet.

Ozone is a molecule that is made up of three oxygen atoms. A layer of this gas sits in our planet’s stratosphere between 15 and 30 kilometres above the surface.

It absorbs a portion of the radiation from the Sun, preventing it from reaching the planet. It also prevents UV-B radiation from reaching the Earth and harming humans and other living beings

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Montreal Protocol

• The 1989 Montreal Protocol is meant to protect the ozone layer of the upper atmosphere.
• A set of chemicals, mainly the chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs, which were being used in the air-conditioning and refrigeration industry earlier, were found to be damaging the ozone layer of the upper atmosphere.
• The extensive use had led to depletion of the ozone layer, and formation of an “ozone hole” over the Antarctic region.
• Montreal Protocol mandated the complete phase-out of CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances (ODS), which it has successfully managed to do in the last three decades.
• CFCs were gradually phased out, first by HCFCs, or hydrochlorofluorocarbons in some situations, and then by HFCs, which have little ozone-depleting potential.

The Kigali Amendment

• In 2016, countries agreed to include HFCs in the list of controlled substances under Montreal Protocol and decided on a schedule for its phase-down.
• If implemented successfully, the Kigali Amendment is expected to prevent about 0.5°C rise in global warming by the end of this century.

I. The Nature of Thinking :

Thinking is an intricate cognitive process that involves the manipulation of information, concepts, and ideas within the mind. It is a dynamic activity that serves various purposes, such as problem-solving, decision-making, creativity, and learning. At its core, thinking is a game played within the confines of our own minds, but it gains depth and richness when it encounters opposition.

1. Intrapersonal Thinking: Before we delve into the role of opposition in thinking, it is important to recognize that thinking often begins as an intrapersonal activity. We ponder our experiences, emotions, memories, and beliefs in solitude. This form of thinking is like practicing alone before joining a team.

2. Interpersonal Thinking: However, thinking does not remain confined within individual minds. It evolves when we engage in discussions, debates, and dialogues with others. This interpersonal thinking is where opposing teams come into play.

II. The Role of Opposition in Thinking :

Thinking is not a solitary endeavor; it thrives when it encounters opposing ideas, viewpoints, and perspectives. Opposition serves as a catalyst for critical thinking, forcing us to question assumptions, refine our arguments, and consider alternative viewpoints. Here are some key aspects of the role of opposition in thinking:

1. Critical Thinking: Opposing viewpoints challenge us to engage in critical thinking. When we encounter opposing arguments, we are compelled to evaluate the validity and reliability of our own ideas. This critical examination leads to a deeper understanding of the subject matter.

2. Divergent Thinking: Divergent thinking, an essential aspect of creativity, flourishes in the presence of opposing ideas. When we encounter opposing viewpoints, it prompts us to think beyond conventional boundaries, fostering creative and innovative solutions.

3. Conflict and Resolution: Thinking as a game often involves conflict, but this conflict can lead to resolution and progress. Through debate and discussion, opposing teams aim to arrive at a consensus or find a middle ground, which is often a more robust and nuanced perspective.

4. Broadening Perspectives: Engaging with opposing teams broadens our perspectives. It allows us to see issues from multiple angles, fostering empathy and a deeper appreciation of the complexity of human thought and experience.

III. Thinking and Opposing Teams in Society :

The concept of opposing teams in thinking is not limited to individual cognition; it extends to various aspects of society, where diverse perspectives and ideologies interact and shape collective thought and action.

1. Democracy: Democracy is a prime example of how opposing teams play a crucial role in shaping governance and policy. Political parties with differing ideologies provide voters with choices, and the ensuing debate and competition lead to well-informed decisions.

2. Science and Innovation: Scientific progress relies on the clash of opposing hypotheses and theories. The scientific community thrives on peer review, where scientists challenge each other's findings and ideas, leading to more accurate and reliable knowledge.

3. Education: Education systems that encourage critical thinking and debate create environments where young minds learn to appreciate opposing viewpoints. This prepares students to navigate the complexities of the real world.

4. Media and Journalism: In the realm of media and journalism, opposing teams represent different perspectives and editorial stances. A diversity of voices allows the public to access a broader spectrum of information and make informed judgments.

IV. Challenges and Benefits of Opposition in Thinking :

While opposing teams are vital for fruitful thinking, they also pose challenges and potential pitfalls. It is essential to strike a balance between constructive opposition and unproductive conflict.

1. Confirmation Bias: One challenge is confirmation bias, where individuals tend to favor information that supports their existing beliefs. Opposition can sometimes reinforce these biases if not approached with an open mind.

2. Polarization: In some cases, opposing teams can lead to polarization and extremism, where individuals become entrenched in their positions and unwilling to consider alternative viewpoints.

3. Constructive Dialogue: Encouraging constructive dialogue and respectful disagreement is key to reaping the benefits of opposition in thinking. It requires effective communication skills, empathy, and a willingness to listen.

4. Critical Thinking Education: Promoting critical thinking education can help individuals navigate the complexities of opposing teams in thinking. Schools and institutions can teach the art of critical analysis and open-mindedness.

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a general statement about Assam Rifles.

Assam Rifles is one of the six central armed police forces (CAPFs) under the administrative control of the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA).

The other forces being the Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF), the Border Security Force (BSF), the Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP), the Central Industrial Security Force (CISF) and the Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB).

Assam Rifles is tasked with the maintenance of law and order in the North East along with the Indian Army and also guards the Indo-Myanmar border in the region.

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Dual control structure of the Assam Rifles

• It is the only paramilitary force with a dual control structure. While the administrative control of the force is with the MHA, its operational control is with the Indian Army, which is under the Ministry of Defence (MoD).
• It means that salaries and infrastructure for the force is provided by the MHA, but the deployment, posting, transfer and deputation of the personnel is decided by the Army.
• All its senior ranks, from DG to IG and sector headquarters are manned by officers from the Army. The force is commanded by Lieutenant General from the Indian Army.
• Its recruitment, perks, promotion of its personnel and retirement policies are governed according to the rules framed by the MHA for CAPFs.
• This has created two sets of demands from both within the Assam Rifles and by MoD and MHA for singular control over the force by one ministry.

Role and Contribution

• Assam Rifles is the oldest paramilitary force raised way back in 1835 in British India with just 750 men. Since then, it has gone on to fight in two World Wars, the Sino-Indian war of 1962 and used as an anti-insurgency force against militant groups in the North East.
• It was reorganised later as Assam Frontier Force as its role was expanded to conduct punitive operations beyond Assam borders.
• The Post-Independence role of the Assam Rifles continued to evolve ranging from conventional combat role during Sino-India War 1962, operating in foreign land as part of the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) to Sri Lanka in 1987 (Op Pawan) to peacekeeping role in the North-Eastern areas of India.
• It remains the most awarded paramilitary force in both pre- and post-independent India.
• Assam Rifle is responsible for the maintenance of law and order in the North East along with the Indian Army and also guards the Indo-Myanmar border in the region.

Ozone (chemically, a molecule of three oxygen atoms) is found mainly in the upper atmosphere, an area called stratosphere, between 10 and 50 km from the earth’s surface.

Ozone is present in the atmosphere in low concentrations and at places where this layer is thickest, there are not more than a few molecules of ozone for every million air molecules.

Why it is important?

The ozone layer protects life on Earth from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays.

The ozone molecules eliminate a big threat to life forms on Earth. UV rays can cause skin cancer and other diseases and deformities, in plants and animals

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• During experiments in Antarctica in the early 1980s, scientists noticed that during September-November, the concentration of ozone fell considerably lower than what was recorded in the 1950s.
• The destruction of the ozone layer became a major international issue in 1985 when the “ozone hole” was discovered over Antarctica.
• The ‘ozone hole’ is not really a hole. It is a region in the stratosphere, directly above Antarctica, where the concentration of ozone has been measured to become extremely low in certain months.

Causes

• The depletion of the ozone layer is not limited to that area and has happened in other regions of the stratosphere as well, but a set of special meteorological and chemical conditions that arise over Antarctica in the months of September, October and November.
• The 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer (the only universally ratified treaty in United Nations’ history), began the phase-out of CFCs in 1993.
• By 2005 the consumption of ozone-depleting chemicals controlled by the agreement had fallen by 90–95 percent in the 197 countries that were parties to the protocol.
• There are 96 chemicals are presently controlled by the Montreal Protocol, including:
• Halo-carbons (Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and Halons): These were considered wonder gases because they are long-lived, non-toxic, non-corrosive, and non-flammable.
• CFC-11 remains in the atmosphere for 50 years, CFC-12 for 102 years, and CFC-115 for 1,700.
• Halon 1301 is used primarily in fire extinguishers and has an atmospheric lifetime of 65 years.
• Carbon tetrachloride: It is used as a solvent and takes about 42 years to break down in the atmosphere.
• Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs): These were developed as the first major replacement for CFCs. While much less destructive than CFCs, HCFCs also contribute to ozone depletion. They have an atmospheric lifetime of about 1.4 to 19.5 years.
• There are various other chemicals that can be mentioned like Methyl chloroform, Hydrobromofluorocarbons (HBFCs), Methyl bromide, Bromochloromethane (BCM), etc.

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a general statement about PVTGs.

Tribal groups are frequently defined by certain characteristics such as primitive qualities, particular culture, geographical isolation, reluctance to contact with the larger population, and backwardness.

Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) have some specific features such as dependency on hunting, gathering for food, having pre-agriculture level of technology, zero or negative growth of population and extremely low level of literacy.

According to a Tribal Affairs Ministry letter to various states in 2015, “PVTGs constitute the most vulnerable section among tribals and inhabit isolated, remote and difficult areas in small and scattered hamlets/ habitats.”

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Characteristics of PVTGs

• PVTGs have some basic characteristics -they are mostly homogenous, with a small population, relatively physically isolated, social institutes cast in a simple mould, absence of written language, relatively simple technology and a slower rate of change etc.
• According to the 2001 census, there are 12 PVTGs having a population above 50,000 and the remaining groups have a population of 1000 or less.
• The PVTG of Sahariyas has the highest population of 4,50,217, while the PVTGs of Sentinelets and Andamanese has a very small population of 39 and 43, respectively.
• PVTG cultural practises, systems, self-government, and livelihood practises vary greatly according on the group and location.
• The level of inequalities in social and economical conditions is very high amongst PVTGs.
• The growth of PVTGs’ population is either stagnating or declining.
• PVTGs depend on various livelihoods such as food gathering,Non Timber Forest Produce (NTFP), hunting, livestock rearing, shifting cultivation and artisan works.Most of their livelihoods depend on the forest.
• PVTGs’ health is in terrible shape due to a variety of factors such as poverty, illiteracy, a lack of safe drinking water, poor sanitary conditions, difficult terrain, malnutrition, poor maternal and child health services, a lack of health and nutritional services, superstition, and deforestation.

How they are identified?

Government of India follows the following criteria for identification of PVTGs:

Pre-agricultural level of technology

Low level of literacy

Economic backwardness

A declining or stagnant population.

Conclusion

Your conclusion should be short. You may include:

To improve socio-economic conditions of the particularly vulnerable tribal groups (PVTGs), Pradhan Mantri PVTG Development Mission will be launched.

This will saturate PVTG families and habitations with basic facilities such as safe housing, clean drinking water and sanitation, improved access to education, health and nutrition, road and telecom connectivity, and sustainable livelihood opportunities

The Finance Minister said in her Budget speech, “A Mission to eliminate Sickle Cell Anaemia by 2047 will be launched. It will entail awareness creation, universal screening of 7 crore people in the age group of 0-40 years in affected tribal areas, and counselling through collaborative efforts of central ministries and state governments.”

Other Points to Consider

Different Tribes in News

National Commission for Scheduled Tribes

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a general statement about the speaker of the Lok Sabha.

The role of the Speaker is critical in our parliamentary democracy. It has been claimed of the Speaker’s Office that, while members of Parliament represent specific constituencies, the Speaker symbolises the whole power of the House itself.

He/she represents the majesty and power of the House over which he/she presides. As a result, it is expected that the bearer of this high-ranking position will be able to represent the House in all of its forms.

Speaker holds Office from the date of his/her election till immediately before the first meeting of the Lok Sabha after the dissolution of the one to which he/she was elected. He/She is eligible for re-election. On the dissolution of the Lok Sabha, although the Speaker ceases to be a member of the House, he/she does not vacate his/her Office.

Article 93 for Lok Sabha and Article 178 for state Assemblies state that these Houses “shall, as soon as may be”, choose two of its members to be Speaker and Deputy Speaker.

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Role of the Speaker

In House

• He/she is guided by the provisions of the Constitution and the Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Lok Sabha.
• He/She benefits from the Directions issued by his/her predecessors which are compiled periodically.
• He/she is assisted by the Secretary-General of the Lok Sabha and senior officers of the Secretariat on parliamentary activities and on matters of practice and procedure.
• In the absence of the Speaker, the Deputy Speaker discharges his/her functions. A member from the Panel of Chairmen presides over the House in the absence of both the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker.
• The Speaker has extensive functions to perform in matters administrative, judicial and regulatory, falling under his/her domain. He/She enjoys vast authority under the Constitution and the Rules, as well as inherently.
• He/she is the ultimate arbiter and interpreter of those provisions which relate to the functioning of the House. His/Her decisions are final and binding and ordinarily cannot be questioned, challenged or criticised.

In Regulating the Business of the House

• The final authority for adopting rules for regulating its procedure rests with each House, but a perusal of the rules of the Indian Parliament would indicate that the Presiding Officers in the two Houses are given vast powers by the rules.
• If a Bill is pending before the House, it is the Speaker who decides whether he/she should allow amendments to be moved to various clauses of the Bill or not. As regards regulating discussions in the House, it is the Speaker who decides as to when a member shall speak and how long he/she shall speak.
• The Speaker is the guardian of the rights and privileges of the House, its Committees and members. It depends solely on the Speaker to refer any question of privilege to the Committee of Privileges for examination, investigation and report. It is through him/her that the decisions of the House are communicated to outside individuals and authorities.
• It is the Speaker who decides the form and manner in which the proceedings of the House is published.
• He/She also issues warrants to execute the orders of the House, wherever necessary, and delivers reprimands on behalf of the House.
• He/She certifies Money Bills and decides finally what are money matters by reason of the Lok Sabha’s overriding powers in financial matters.
• The Speaker of the Lok Sabha who presides over joint sittings called in the event of disagreement between the two Houses on a legislative measure.

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a general statement about India-Russia relations 

Russia has been a longstanding and time-tested partner for India. The development of India-Russia relations has been a key pillar of India’s foreign policy.

India-Russia ties have acquired a qualitatively new character with enhanced levels of cooperation in almost all areas, including political, security, defence, trade and economy, science & technology, culture, and people-to-people ties.

In December 2010, the Strategic Partnership was elevated to the level of “Special and Privileged Strategic Partnership.

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Recent Developments

Bilateral Interaction/Visits

Russia is an important bilateral partner, India and Russia have a crucial role to play in global security and stability.

The Annual Summit between the Prime Minister of India and the President of the Russian Federation is the highest institutionalized dialogue mechanism in the strategic partnership between India and Russia.

There are various meetings where both countries meet like — BRICS, G20 and SCO.

Security Council Cooperation

India and Russia maintain close cooperation between the Security Council secretariats led by NSA from the Indian side and Secretary of the Russian Security Council.

Trade

The primary mechanism at the government level for enhancing trade and economic cooperation is the India-Russia Intergovernmental Commission for Trade, Economic, Scientific & Cultural Cooperation (IRIGC-TEC).

The free trade agreement (FTA) talks mark a step up in economic relations between the two countries. India’s imports from Russia more than quadrupled to $46.33 billion over the last fiscal year, mainly through oil.

India-Russia Strategic Economic Dialogue (IRSED) is another G2G mechanism co-chaired by Vice Chairman, NITI Aayog on Indian side and Minister of Economic Development of the Russian Federation.

Defence

India-Russia military-technical cooperation has evolved from a buyer-seller framework to one involving joint research, development and production of advanced defence technologies and systems.

India was involved in various defence deals such as — BrahMos Missile, T-90 tanks, S-400 air defence system and Ka-226t Helicopters.

Nuclear Energy

Russia is an important partner for India in the area of peaceful use of nuclear energy. Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant (KKNPP) is a flagship project between India and Russia in this sphere.

Space Cooperation

India-Russia cooperation in the field of peaceful uses of outer space dates back to about four decades. The two countries are cooperating closely under India’s first human spaceflight program “Gaganyaan”.

Science & Technology

The new Roadmap for Bilateral STI cooperation has been developed and agreed by both sides to replace the erstwhile ILTP cooperation program. It focusses on a variety of new engagements to promote co-innovation and exchanges and will be in force for next 5 years.

Conclusion

Your conclusion should be short. You may include:

Russia, traditionally India’s top source of military hardware, displaced Iraq to become India’s top supplier of crude oil.

Russia’s efforts to improve trade with India form part of its strategy to help evade the impact of Western sanctions by boosting commerce with Asian giants including China.

Moscow is also trying to increase or maintain cooperation with other South Asian countries, most recently agreeing to settle payments in yuan for building a nuclear power plant in Bangladesh and discussing discounted oil exports to Pakistan.

India’s interests in Russia are many and will continue even as its investments in Central Europe expand in strategic importance and political power to determine the future of Eurasia.

Other Points to Consider

India-Russia Defence Exercises

Recent defence ties

Russia-Ukraine (places in news)

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a general statement about the Vijayanagara Empire.

The Vijayanagara Empire was founded by Harihara I of the Sangama dynasty. The kingdom existed from 1336 to 1646.

The kingdom reached its peak under Krishna Deva Raya (reign 1509-1529), a period in which it enjoyed military superiority to its rival kingdoms such as the Bahmani Sultanate, the Golconda Sultanate and the Gajapatis of Odisha.

At its peak, the kingdom stretched from Goa on the Konkan coast to parts of southern Odisha in the east and all the way to the very tip of the subcontinent in the south.

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• The Vijayanagar’s contributions to culture and architecture were very significant. This period witnessed poetry, writing styles and literature in Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Sanskrit also flourished.
• The most striking feature about the location of Vijayanagara is the natural basin formed by the river Tungabhadra which flows in a north-easterly direction.
• According to Abdur Razzaq, an ambassador sent by the ruler of Persia to Calicut in the fifteenth century, was greatly impressed by the fortifications and mentioned seven lines of forts. These encircled not only the city but also its agricultural hinterland and forests while the outermost wall linked the hills surrounding the city.
• The fort was entered through well-guarded gates, which linked the city to the major roads. Gateways were distinctive architectural features that often defined the structures to which they regulated access.
• Mahanavami Dibba is a massive platform rising from a base of about 11,000 sq. ft to a height of 40 ft.
• The construction of temples in the region had a long history, going back to dynasties such as the Pallavas, Chalukyas, Hoysalas and Cholas. Temples functioned as centres of learning. The walls of the Hazara Rama Temple include scenes from the Ramayana.

Virupaksha temple

• The Virupaksha temple was erected over decades, with inscriptions indicating that the first shrine was established in the ninth and eleventh centuries, and it was significantly expanded with the formation of the Vijayanagara Empire.
• The hall in front of the main shrine was built by Krishnadeva Raya to mark his accession.
• The halls in the temple were used for a variety of purposes. Some were spaces in which the images of gods were placed to witness special programmes of music, dance, drama, etc.

Vitthala Temple

The principal deity is Vitthala, a form of Vishnu generally worshipped in Maharashtra.

A characteristic feature of the temple complexes is the chariot streets that extended from the temple gopuram in a straight line.

Conclusion

Your conclusion should be short. You may include:

In 1976, Hampi was recognised as a site of national importance. Then, in the early 1980s, a major initiative was begun to meticulously document the material remains at Vijayanagara by broad and rigorous surveys employing a range of recording techniques. 

Vijayanagara’s capital Hampi is a UNESCO World Heritage Site today, known for its sophisticated fortifications as well as innumerable temples and other architectural marvels.

Vijayanagara has been remembered as an era of “cultural conservatism” when classical forms of Hinduism were preserved amidst growing Islamization of the rest of the subcontinent, especially the North.

Other Points to Consider

Temples of Vijayanagara Empire

Rulers of Vijayanagara Empire

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a general statement about geological time scale.

The Earth’s geological time scale is a crucial tool used by geologists, paleontologists, and other scientists to investigate the planet’s history. 

It is a system that divides the history of the Earth into discrete intervals of time, based on events, such as the evolution and extinction of different living beings and processes that have occurred.

It is divided into five broad categories:

(i) Eons

(ii) Epochs

(iii) Eras

(iv) Periods

(v) Ages

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How has the geological time scale evolved over time?

The geological time scale takes hundreds of years to evolve. The root of its origin goes back to the 1500s and 1600s when the first major breakthrough came in 1669 after Danish scientist Nicolas Steno published the first laws of stratigraphy — the science of interpreting the strata, or layers of rock, in the Earth’s outer surface.

He laid out two basic geologic principles:

(i) Sedimentary rocks (formed on or near the planet’s surface, in contrast to metamorphic and igneous rocks, which are formed deep within the Earth) are laid down in a horizontal manner.

(ii) Younger rock units were deposited on top of older rock units.

The second principle essentially means that layers closer to the Earth’s surface must be younger than layers below them. This allowed scientists of the time to conclude that each rock layer represented a specific interval of geologic time.

Italian geologist Giovanni Arduino classified the four main layers of the Earth’s crust as:

(i) Primary (the lowest metamorphic and volcanic layers),

(ii) Secondary (hard sedimentary rocks),

(iii) Tertiary (less hardened sedimentary rocks), and

(iv) Quaternary (the most recently laid rock layer, which is quite soft in comparison to other strata).

There were some issues with Arduino’s classification and Steno’s principles like:

(i) The rocks were locally described by colour, texture, or even smell, comparisons between rock sequences of different areas were often not possible.

(ii) Unlike tree-ring dating, in which each ring is equivalent to one year’s growth, rock layers don’t tell the specific length of geologic time, meaning no one layer can convey how long a certain period lasted on the Earth.

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a general statement about Methane.

Methane is a greenhouse gas, which is responsible for 30 per cent of the warming since preindustrial times, second only to carbon dioxide. A report by the United Nations Environment Programme observed that over a 20-year period, methane is 80 times more potent at warming than carbon dioxide.

There are various sources of methane including human and natural sources. Human sources of methane include landfills, oil and natural gas systems, agricultural activities, coal mining, wastewater treatment, and certain industrial processes

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Measures to Reduce Methane Emissions

India has been persistent in its commitment to developing and implementing climate change policies. The following are ongoing attempts to limit methane emissions:

National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA): It involves climate-resilient practices such as methane reduction in rice agriculture which helps to significantly reduce methane emissions.

National Innovations in Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) project: The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has developed several technologies with mitigation potential for methane from rice viz.

(a) System for Rice Intensification: The technique has potential to enhance rice yield from 36-49% with about 22-35% less water than conventional transplanted rice;

(b) Direct Seeded Rice: The system reduces methane emissions as it does not involve raising nurseries, puddling and transplanting. Unlike transplanted paddy cultivation, standing water is not maintained in this system and

(c) Crop Diversification Programme: Methane emissions is avoided due to diversion of paddy to alternate crops like pulses, oilseeds, maize, cotton and agroforestry.

Capacity-building programmes are conducted through Krishi Vigyan Kendras across the country to create awareness on climate-resilient practices.

National Livestock Mission: It includes Breed Improvement and Balanced Rationing. Feeding better quality balanced rations to animals helps to minimise methane emissions from livestock. The Government of India also promotes for green fodder production, silage making, chaff cutting, and total mixed ration.

Gobar (Galvanizing Organic Bio-Agro Resources) –Dhan’ scheme: It supports biodegradable waste recovery and conversion of waste into resources and reduction of methane emissions.

Conclusion

Your conclusion should be short. You may include:

COP28 President Designate Sultan Ahmed Al Jaber called upon the oil and gas industry to phase out methane emissions by 2030 and align in favour of comprehensive net-zero emission plans by or before 2050.

According to the Paris-based International Energy Agency (IEA), methane emissions are among the top causes of global warming. Fossil fuel operations generate over one-third of all methane emissions from human activity. Thus, action on methane is seen as one of the most effective measures the energy sector can take to mitigate climate change

Other Points to Consider

Global Methane Pledge

Global Methane Initiative

Waste to Energy

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a general statement about Aditya L1

• The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) launched Aditya L-1, the first Indian space-based mission to study the Sun, from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota.
• The solar probe was carried into space by the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) in ‘XL’ configuration. SLV is one of the most reliable and versatile workhorse rockets of ISRO.
• The PSLV will initially place the Aditya L-1 in a lower Earth orbit. Subsequently, the spacecraft’s orbit around the Earth will be raised multiple times before it is put on a path to a halo orbit around the L1 Lagrange point

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a general statement about ASEAN.

India’s emphasis on a deepened and multifaceted connection with ASEAN stems from considerable developments in the world’s political and economic landscape.

The Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN) comprises Indonesia, Singapore, Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar and Vietnam.

India has taken other policy initiatives in the region that involve some members of ASEAN like the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC), Mekong-Ganga Cooperation (MGC), etc

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• The Act East Policy is meant to serve the purposes of stronger trade and business ties with South East Asia and other Indo-Pacific countries and to create development opportunities for the North East States of India. Commerce, Culture and connectivity – the three Cs- are therefore the pillars of India’s current Act East Policy.
• India’s Act East Policy is at the heart of its eastward orientation and ties in with the broader approach to the Indo-Pacific.
• The collaboration between India and Asean has accelerated across a range of economic and strategic issue, including trade and investment, connectivity, energy, culture, people-to-people contacts, and maritime security.

Recent Developments

India and ASEAN countries declared to:

• Strengthen cooperation on cybersecurity by establishing new dialogue platforms between India and the ten-member bloc.
• Establish a comprehensive strategic partnership and enhance cooperation against terrorism.
• Enhance cooperation in the digital economy through a series of regional capacity-building activities in digital transformation, digital trade, digital skills and innovation, as well as Hackathons.
• Enhance cooperation in smart agriculture including the exchange of best practices in the use of new technologies to develop a future-ready, resilient, and sustainable food supply.
• Expedite the review of the ASEAN-India Trade in Goods Agreement (AITIGA) to make it more user-friendly, simple, and trade-facilitative, and work together to forge resilient supply chains, explore cooperation on a single window platform to enhance trade facilitation and integration.
• Enhance ASEAN-India cooperation in the space sector including through the establishment of tracking, data reception and processing stations in Vietnam and Indonesia, and encourage cooperation between ASEAN and Indian space industry players, including in new areas of collaboration.
• Revive tourism and related industries which have been severely hit by the Covid-19 pandemic through effective implementation of the ASEAN-India tourism work plans.
• India and several Southeast Asian nations including Singapore and Thailand have signed for cross-border trade of renewable energy (RE) electricity will help expand cross-border sale of electricity by India manifold. Currently, cross-border interconnections exist with Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Myanmar.

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a general statement about the Delimitation Commission.

According to ECI, delimitation means the act or process of fixing limits or boundaries of territorial constituencies in a country or a province having a legislative body.

The job of delimitation is assigned to a high-power body known as the Delimitation Commission or a Boundary Commission.

In India, such Delimitation Commissions have been constituted 4 times

• 1952 under the Delimitation Commission Act, 1952,
• 1963 under Delimitation Commission Act, 1962,
• 1973 under Delimitation Act, 1972 and
• 2002 under Delimitation Act, 2002

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The ‘Waste to Wealth Mission’ of the Prime Minister’s Science, Technology, and Innovation Advisory Council (PM-STIAC) aims to identify, develop, and deploy technologies to treat waste to generate energy, recycle materials, and extract resources of value.

The mission is working to identify and support the development of new technologies that promise to create a clean and green environment.

The objective of the mission is:

(i) To identify and support the development of new technologies that can help create a cleaner and greener environment.

(ii) To boost and augment the Swachh Bharat Mission and Smart Cities Project by leveraging science, technology, and innovation.

(iii) To create circular economic models that are financially viable for waste management.

(iv) To streamline waste handling in India.

The mission will assist and augment the Swachh Bharat and Smart Cities projects by leveraging science, technology, and innovation to create circular economic models that are financially viable for waste management to streamline waste handling in the country.

The Waste to Wealth Mission is one of the nine scientific missions of the Prime Minister’s Science, Technology, and Innovation Advisory Council (PMSTIAC).

In addition, the objective will seek out and assist the development of innovative technologies that promise to build a clean and green environment.

The mission will support and supplement the Swachh Bharat and Smart Cities programs by harnessing science, technology, and innovation to develop circular economic models that are commercially feasible for waste management in order to simplify trash management in the country.

You can add the following schemes in your answer

GOBAR-Dhan” (Galvanising Organic Bio-Agro Resources-Dhan) initiative has two objectives:

(i) To make villages clean and generate wealth.

(ii) Energy from cattle and other waste.

Houseboat Sewage Management

The Waste to Wealth Mission will assist the Government of Jammu and Kashmir in piloting, verifying, and scaling up decentralized sewage treatment technology to address the input of untreated sewage from houseboats into Dal Lake.

Decentralized solid and liquid waste management

The Waste to Wealth Mission is engaging with Municipal Corporation Faridabad (MCF) to jointly deploy technologies in solid and liquid waste management to address Faridabad’s enormous waste challenges.

Swachhta Saarthi Fellowship

The fellowship is a program to empower young innovators participating in community waste management/awareness campaigns/waste surveys/studies.

Conclusion

Your conclusion should be short.

According to the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, about 4 lakh women are directly engaged in sanitation and waste management in cities.

The Waste to Wealth mission acts as a platform for technology providers, government stakeholders, urban local bodies and users to seek an appropriate solution.

Other Points to Consider

Challenges

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a general statement about solar energy.

India has enormous solar energy potential. Solar photovoltaic electricity may be successfully harnessed, giving enormous scalability in India. Solar also permits dispersed power generation and quick capacity increase with short lead periods. Off-grid decentralized and low-temperature applications will be helpful for rural applications as well as addressing other energy demands for electricity, heating, and cooling in both rural and urban locations.

Solar energy has had a noticeable influence on the Indian energy landscape in recent years. Millions of people in Indian communities have profited from solar energy-based decentralized and distributed applications that satisfy their cooking, lighting, and other energy demands in an environmentally benign manner.

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Initiatives taken by India

Development of Solar Parks and Ultra Mega Solar Power Projects

• It was rolled out in December 2014 with the objective to facilitate the solar project developers to set up projects expeditiously.
• The solar parks are developed in collaboration with the State Governments and their agencies, CPSUs, and private entrepreneurs.
• The scheme’s second phase has an objective to set up solar PV projects through Government Producers using domestic cells & modules in WTO compliant manner to facilitate national energy security and environmental sustainability for Government purposes.

Examples: NTPC Floating Solar Plant Ramagundam (100 MW), NTPC Floating Solar Plant Kayamkulam (92 MW), Rihand Dam Floating Solar Power Plant (50 MW), etc.

Grid Connected Solar Rooftop Programme

The objective of the scheme is to achieve a cumulative installed capacity of 40,000 MW from Grid Connected Rooftop Solar (RTS) projects.

Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan (KUSUM) scheme

The scheme has three components:

• Component-A: For Setting up 10,000 MW of Decentralized Grid Connected Renewable Energy Power Plants on barren land.
• Component-B: For Installation of 17.50 Lakh stand-alone solar agriculture pumps.
• Component-C: For Solarisation of 10 Lakh Grid Connected Agriculture Pumps.

One Sun One World One Grid (OSOWOG)

• The idea for the One Sun One World One Grid (OSOWOG) initiative was put forth by the Hon’ble Prime Minister of India Shri Narendra Modi, at the First Assembly of the International Solar Alliance (ISA) in October 2018.
• In May 2021, the United Kingdom and India agreed to combine forces of the Green Grids Initiative and the One Sun One World One Grid initiative and jointly launch GGI-OSOWOG at the COP26 summit being hosted by the UK at Glasgow in November 2021.

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a general statement about james webb telescope.

James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is an international collaboration between NASA, ESA (the European Space Agency), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA).

The James Webb Space Telescope (sometimes called JWST or Webb) will be a large infrared telescope with a 6.5-meter primary mirror. The telescope was launched on an Ariane 5 rocket from French Guiana in 2021.

It will explore every stage of our Universe’s history, from the first brilliant glows after the Big Bang to the development of solar systems capable of supporting life on planets such as Earth and the evolution of our own Solar System.

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Goals of James Webb Telescope

• The science goals for the Webb can be grouped into four themes:
• To look back around 13.5 billion years to see the first stars and galaxies forming out of the darkness of the early universe.
• To compare the faintest, earliest galaxies to today’s grand spirals and understand how galaxies assemble over billions of years.
• To see where stars and planetary systems are being born.
• To observe the atmospheres of extrasolar planets (beyond our solar system), and perhaps find the building blocks of life elsewhere in the universe.

Difference between James Webb and Hubble Telescopes

• James Webb will primarily look at the Universe in the infrared while Hubble primarily studied optical and ultraviolet wavelengths (though it has some infrared capability).
• Webb has a much bigger mirror than Hubble which means light collecting area of Webb can peer farther back into time than Hubble is capable of doing.
• Hubble is in a very close orbit around the earth, while Webb will be 1.5 million kilometers (km) away at the second Lagrange (L2) point.
• The JWST will be able to see right through and into massive clouds of dust that are opaque to earlier generation visible-light observatories like the Hubble Telescope.
• Webb is equipped with cameras and other instruments sensitive to infrared or “heat” radiation, and the Hubble is not

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a general statement about ground water resources.

Ground water has emerged as the backbone of India’s agriculture and drinking water security.

The contribution of ground water is nearly 62 per cent in irrigation, 85 per cent in rural water supply and 50 per cent in the urban water supply.

Ground water is an annually replenishable resource but its availability is non-uniform in space and time.

The availability of groundwater resources in a given area is determined by several factors such as rainfall intensity and duration, geological strata of the area, the number of existing recharge structures, and extraction by consumers for a variety of purposes such as industrial applications, drinking/domestic purposes, irrigation, and so on.

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Consequences of the depletion of the ground water

• According to the journal “Drift of Earth’s Pole Confirms Groundwater Depletion as a Significant Contributor to Global Sea Level Rise 1993–2010”, published in the journal Geophysical Research Letters, the excessive extraction of groundwater for drinking and irrigation has shifted the Earth’s axis of rotation.
• According to the Central Groundwater Board of India, around 17 per cent of groundwater blocks are overexploited (meaning the rate at which water is withdrawn exceeds the rate at which the aquifer can recharge), while 5 per cent and 14 per cent are at critical and semi-critical phases, respectively.
• The government’s support for the “green revolution” to ensure food security has increased the demand for groundwater for agriculture.
• The depletion of ground water resources will demand the extraction of water from deeper inside the Earth.
• The depletion of water resources will reduces the water bodies, lakes and will restrict the biodiversity
• The depletion of water resources will lead to salt contamination of the ground water.

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a general statement about monsoons in India.

The climate of India can broadly be classified as a tropical monsoon. The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) designates four official seasons out of which the Monsoon or rainy season is from June to September.

The Indian subcontinent receives around 80% of its annual rainfall during the summer monsoon, from June to September.

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Impact of Climate Change on Monsoons in India

The Indian monsoon is a complex phenomenon influenced by various internal and external factors:’

• El Nino is an external driver that modulates the monsoon’s intensity and spatial distribution. However, it is important to note that El Nino alone cannot account for all monsoonal variations.
• El Nino is associated with weak monsoons and lower-than-average rainfall in India.
• The location of the El Nino event also influences its effects on the Indian monsoon — warming in the Central Pacific Ocean affects it more than the warming in the Eastern Pacific Ocean.
• Indian Ocean Dipole significantly shape monsoon dynamics.
• The western coast of the country witnessed the high-intensity cyclone
• Central, Eastern and Northern parts experienced heat stress.
•  In India, heavy rainfalls “lasting from May to September triggered multiple landslides and river overflows and floods, resulting in casualties and damage
• According to the report by WMO, the rise in frequency and severity of extreme weather events has particularly impacted the agriculture sector in Asia.
• For climate-related disasters such as floods, droughts, and tropical storms, more than 25 per cent of all damage and losses is associated with the agriculture sector

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a general statement about parliamentary committees.

A Parliamentary Committee is a panel of MPs that is appointed or elected by the House or nominated by the Speaker, and which works under the direction of the Speaker. It presents its report to the House or to the Speaker.

Parliamentary Committees originated in the British Parliament. They derive their authority from Article 105, which deals with MPs’ privileges, and Article 118, which grants Parliament the ability to create rules to govern its process and conduct of business.

Parliamentary Committees can be classified into:

Financial Committees (includes the Estimates Committee, Public Accounts Committee, and the Committee on Public Undertakings)

Departmentally Related Standing Committees (to increase Parliamentary scrutiny)

Other Parliamentary Standing Committees

Ad hoc Committees (appointed for a specific purpose)

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Estimate Committee

• Estimates Committee consists of 30 Members who are elected by the Lok Sabha every year from among its Members.
• A Minister is not eligible for election to this Committee and in case any Member of the Committee becomes a Minister, he/she ceases to be a Member of the Committee.
• The term of the Committee is one year.

Role of Estimate Committee

• To report what economies, improvements in organisation, efficiency, or administrative reform, consistent with the policy underlying the estimates may be effected;
• To suggest alternative policies in order to bring about efficiency and economy in administration;
• To suggest the form in which the estimates shall be presented to Parliament;
• To examine whether the money is well laid out within the limits of the policy implied in the estimates.

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a general statement about cyber space and cyber security.

• Cyberspace is a global domain within the information environment consisting of the interdependent network of information technology infrastructures, including the Internet, telecommunications networks, computer systems, and embedded processors and controllers.
• Cyber Intrusions and Attacks have increased dramatically over the last decade, exposing sensitive personal and business information, disrupting critical operations, and imposing high costs on the economy.
• India ranks 3rd in terms of the highest number of internet users in the world after the USA and China which makes it more vulnerable to threats.
• The Cyber & Information Security (CIS) division of MHA deals with matters relating to cybersecurity, cybercrime, national information security policy and guidelines (NISPG) and its implementation, and the national intelligence grid.

The different types of threats which have been identified are:

Malware – Malicious software to disrupt computers

Viruses and worms

Theft of Intellectual Property or Data

Hacktivism – Cyber protests that are socially or politically motivated

Mobile Devices and applications and their associated Cyber Attacks

Social Engineering – Entice Users to click on malicious links

Spear Phishing – Deceptive Communications (e-mails, texts, tweets)

Domain Name System (DNS) Attacks

Router Security – Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) Hijacking

Denial of Service (DoS) – blocking access to websites

The motives are different for different cyber players such as:

Cybercriminals seek commercial gain from hacking banks and financial institutions as well as phishing scams.

Cyber terrorist seeks to penetrate and attack critical assets and national infrastructure.

Cyber espionage seeks to penetrate both corporate and military data using stealthy IT malware.

Cyber hacktivists have political agendas that hack sites and servers to virally communicate messages.

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Steps to Strengthen Cyber Security in India

1.Network Security: Protect your networks against external and internal attacks.

2.Malware Protection: Produce relevant policies and establish anti-malware defences that are applicable and relevant to all business areas.

3.Incident Management

• Establish an incident response and disaster recovery capability.
• Produce and test incident management plans.
• Provide specialist training to the incident management team.
• Report criminal incidents to law enforcement.

4.Monitoring: Establish a monitoring strategy and produce supporting policies. Continuously monitor all ICT systems and networks.

5.User Education and Awareness

• Produce user policies covering acceptable and secure use of the organisation’s systems.
• Establish a staff training programme.

6.Home and Mobile Working

• Develop a mobile working policy and train staff to adhere to it.
• Apply the secure baseline to all devices.

7.Secure Configuration: Apply security patches and ensure that the secure configuration of all ICT systems is maintained.

8.Removable Media Controls: Produce a policy to control all access to removable media.

9.Managing User Privileges: Establish account management processes and limit the number of privileged accounts.

10.Information Risk Management Regime: Establish and effective governance structure and determine your risk appetite.

Conclusion

Your conclusion should be short.

The government shall take appropriate steps for enhancing the awareness of citizens and small businesses for cybersecurity.

Cybersecurity Capacity building and training for professionals, extending the ISEA program, introducing curricula academia and organizing conferences.

Other Points to Consider

Cyber Security Challenges

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a general statement about agriculture and dryland farming.

Indian agriculture is regulated by an impossible trinity that asks it to achieve three goals simultaneously – global competitiveness, social inclusiveness and environmental sustainability.

Almost 65 per cent of India’s arable land area of around 140 million hectares is classified as rainfed. Farming activities in such areas are typically marked by low productivity, high risk, and a lack of adoption of current technology/agronomic methods.

Drylands are areas with low soil moisture and high evapotranspiration, resulting in water deficit prevailing throughout the year.

Dryland farming helps increase the amount of organic matter in the soil, improving its fertility and structure. It also helps to address the problem of hunger and malnutrition prevailing in society.

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Problems Associated with Dryland Agriculture

Soil and Moisture

• In semiarid regions, the alfisols and vertisols predominate, whereas in river basins inceptisols and entisols are seen and in desert regions.
• Crops grown in alfisols are subjected to severe drought stress, whereas those produced in vertisols have less severity to drought, due to their better water-holding capacity.
• Soil erosion by water is found to be the primary cause in mountainous areas and in undulating terrains in Central India.
• Salinization has turned out to be a significant cause of the degradation of soils.
• Watershed-based approaches are found to be more productive regarding water and soil conservation.

Environmental changes in water logging and salinity

• Soil degradation has a close link with water logging and salinity problems. Irrigation salinity has a major impact on dryland crops.
• The major causes of water logging and salinity are overirrigation, poor drainage, improper irrigation for damaged soils etc.
• These environmental changes result in the reduction of yields and abandonment of lands which has facilities for irrigation.

Dietary habits and nutritional characteristics of crops grown

• The choices of crops that are to be grown in drylands are very limited such as oilseed pulses and coarse grains like bajra are grown.
• The dryland crops are not much remunerative leading to an economic imbalance. Crop substitution is another alternative.

Conclusion

Your conclusion should be short.

From a larger perspective, dryland farming helps conserve water resources, minimises soil erosion and promotes sustainable agriculture.

Several technologies for dryland farming can help to mitigate the adverse impacts of climate change by reducing greenhouse emissions and promoting soil carbon sequestration.

Other Points to Consider

Contribution of Drylands to Indian Agriculture

Importance of dry land farming

The wise win before the fight while the ignorant fight to win

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a general statement about direct benefit transfer.

Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) was created with the aim of reforming the Government delivery system by re-engineering the existing process in welfare schemes for a simpler and faster flow of information/funds and to ensure accurate targeting of the beneficiaries, de-duplication and reduction of fraud.

DBT Mission was created in the Planning Commission to act as the nodal point for the implementation of the DBT programmes.

This Framework is to be followed by all Ministries/ Departments and their attached Institutions/PSUs. It is applicable on all Central Sector (CS)/ Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS) and to all schemes where components of cash is transferred to individual beneficiaries.

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Importance of DBT

• It evolved the Public Finance Management System and created the Aadhaar Payment Bridge to enable instant money transfers from the government to people’s bank accounts.
• It not only allowed all rural and urban households to be uniquely linked under varied government schemes for receiving subsidies directly into their bank accounts but also transferred money with ease.
• In rural regions, it has become the backbone for supporting the growth of the agricultural economy by allowing the government to provide financial assistance effectively and transparently to farmers with lower transaction costs – be it for fertilisers or any of the other schemes including the PM Kisan Samman Nidhi, PM Fasal Bima Yojana, and PM Krishi Sinchayi Yojana.
• In urban India, the PM Awas Yojana and LPG Pahal scheme successfully use DBT to transfer funds to eligible beneficiaries.
• There are various scholarship schemes and the National Social Assistance Programme use the DBT architecture to provide social security.
• DBT under rehabilitation programmes such as the Self Employment Scheme for Rehabilitation of Manual Scavengers opens new frontiers that enable social mobility of all sections of society.
• During the pandemic, it aided the government to reach the last mile and support the most deprived in bearing the brunt of the lockdown.

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a general statement about 2+2 dialogue.

The 2+2 dialogue is a format of meeting of the foreign and defence ministers of India and its allies on strategic and security issues.

A 2+2 ministerial dialogue enables the partners to better understand and appreciate each other’s strategic concerns and sensitivities considering political factors on both sides, to build a stronger, more integrated strategic relationship in a rapidly changing global environment.

India has 2+2 dialogues with four key strategic partners: the US, Australia, Japan, and Russia. Besides Russia, the other three countries are also India’s partners in the Quad.

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India-US (2+2 Dialogue)

As natural and trusted partners celebrating 75 years of diplomatic relations between the United States and independent India, with a shared commitment to democracy and pluralism, a multifaceted bilateral agenda, and growing convergence of strategic interests, both countries seek to continue to promote a resilient, rules-based international order that safeguards sovereignty and territorial integrity, upholds democratic values, and promotes peace and prosperity for all.

The first 2+2 dialogue between the two countries was held during the Trump Administration, when then Secretary of State Michael Pompeo and then Secretary of Defence James Mattis met the late Sushma Swaraj and then Defence Minister Nirmala Sitharaman in New Delhi in September 2018.

Global Partnership and Indo-Pacific Cooperation

The Ministers discussed mutual efforts to respond to Ukraine’s deepening humanitarian catastrophe and assessed its larger ramifications. They demanded an immediate halt to hostilities. Civilian casualties were categorically condemned by the Ministers.

Mutual Prosperity, Innovation, and Resilient Supply Chains

The Ministers underlined the importance of strengthening the commercial and economic pillar of the U.S.-India partnership to advance economic growth and deliver mutual prosperity for both countries.

Climate, Environment, and Clean Energy

The Ministers praised the ongoing engagement under the two main tracks of the US-India Climate and Clean Energy Agenda 2030 Partnership – the Climate Action and Finance Mobilization Dialogue (CAFMD) and the Strategic Clean Energy Partnership (SCEP) – to explore and identify low carbon pathways to develop and undertake joint research and development projects, mobilize finance, develop and promote green technologies, and enhance technical collaboration aimed at building on previous achievements.

Science, Technology, Cybersecurity, and Space

Reflecting on the positive science and technology cooperation between the two countries, the Ministers welcomed the announcement of a Joint Commission Meeting on Science and Technology in 2022, to discuss future science and technology collaboration.

Global Health

The Ministers recognized the pivotal role of the U.S.-India partnership in combating the COVID-19 pandemic and other contemporary global health challenges.

Defence and Security

The Ministers commended the significant and continuing progress in the U.S.-India Major Defence Partnership.

India and the US have signed a troika of “foundational pacts” for deep military cooperation, beginning with the Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA) in 2016, followed by the Communications Compatibility and Security Agreement (COMCASA) after the first 2+2 dialogue in 2018, and then the Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement (BECA) in 2020.

Education and People-to-People Ties

The Ministers also appreciated the contribution of the Fulbright-Nehru program in furthering the exchange of outstanding academics and professionals between both countries and the special role the four million-strong Indian-American diaspora play in deepening U.S.-India relations.

Conclusion

Your conclusion should be short. You may use some of the following points.

The strengthening of cooperation mechanisms between the two militaries is important in the context of an increasingly aggressive China, which threatens a large number of countries in its neighborhood and beyond and has challenged several established norms and aspects of international relations.

Delhi and Washington are now focused on finding ways to collaborate on the critical technologies of the 21st century and work with their partners in setting new global rules for managing them.

The latest political investments in the relationship have benefited both Delhi and Washington significantly. As the regional and global order shifts, the incentives for Delhi and Washington to maintain and expand the India-US cooperation are stronger than ever and will persist through the next administration.

Other Points to Consider

2+2 dialogue with Australia, Japan and Russia

QUAD

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a general statement about the digital currency launched by Reserve Bank of India and how is is different from cryptocurrencies.

Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC) is a digital legal tender issued by the RBI. It is the same as the fiat currency and is exchangeable one-to-one with the fiat currency. Only its form is different — it is not paper (or polymer) like physical cash.

It is a fungible legal tender, for which holders need not have a bank account. CBDC will appear as a ‘liability’ (currency in circulation) on the RBI’s balance sheet.

The CBDCs are backed by the RBI, and the e-rupee is not comparable to private virtual currencies like Bitcoin. The cryptocurrencies are not commodities or claims on commodities as they have no intrinsic value; claims that they are akin to gold seem opportunistic.

The cryptocurrencies are not backed by the Central Banks and there is no issuer, they do not represent any person’s debt or liabilities.

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Need for e-rupee

— To reduce the operational costs in managing physical cash and bring efficiency in payment systems.

— To boost innovations in cross-border payments.

— To quell concerns over money laundering, terror financing and tax evasion with private cryptocurrencies.

Benefits

CBDC has the potential to provide significant benefits such as reduced dependency on cash, higher seigniorage due to lower transaction costs, and reduced settlement risk.

According to the RBI, it will reduce the cost of printing, transporting, storing and distributing currency.

CBDC can also enable more real-time and cost-effective globalization of payment systems.

It will also enhance settlement efficiency and spur innovation in cross-border payments and offer the public the same uses as any private virtual currency without the risks associated with it.

The digital rupee based on transparent and efficient technology will provide customers with continuous access to the payment system, whether wholesale or retail.

Conclusion

Your conclusion should be short.

Central banks around the globe have been studying and working on digital versions of their currencies for retail use to avoid leaving digital payments to the private sector amid an accelerating decline in cash.

The introduction of CBDC would also possibly lead to a more robust, efficient, trusted, regulated and legal tender-based payments option.

Other Points to Consider

How can an individual use the e-rupee?

How is this different from other wallets?

Limitations in the adoption of CBDC

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a general statement about sustainable farming.

Agriculture, with its allied sectors, is the largest livelihood provider in India. It also contributes a significant figure to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP).

On the other hand, Sustainable farming is a method that considers the long-term health of the soil, environment and community. It is critical to meet the demands of rising food while protecting natural resources.

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Role of Technology in Sustainable Farming

Precision Farming

It involves sensors, GPS mapping and data to monitor and optimise crop performance.

It reduces the use of fertilisers and pesticides. It improves yields and water management.

In India, the adoption depends on various factors such as the availability of technology, agricultural practice and the policies of the government.

Vertical Farming

In his type of farming, crop cultivation takes place in stacked layers usually under controlled conditions.

It can increase local food production while reducing water consumption which will be beneficial for Indian urban agriculture.

This method can reduce the need for pesticides and herbicides. This will also reduce the transportation costs.

Hydroponics

It allows for efficient water and nutrient use. It reduces the dependence on the traditional agricultural practices.

It involves growing plants in nutrient-rich water without soil. This approach increases yields and allows for year-round crop production.

Agroforestry

It is a land-use integrated management system that combines trees and shrubs with crops and livestock to make productive and sustainable farming.

There are various benefits of this approach including soil conservation, biodiversity conservation and carbon sequestration.

Renewable Energy

These technologies such as solar power and wind power can be used to operate power farming. It will also reduce greenhouse gas emissions and dependence on fossil fuels.

Robotics and Artificial Intelligence (AI)

It can help to reduce labour costs, and reduce in use of fertilisers and pesticides.

Conclusion

Your conclusion should be short.

Farmers can develop sustainable farming systems that promote social, economic, and environmental sustainability by adopting advanced technologies.

Most of the crops are grown without the use of pesticides, which leads to a positive contribution towards better public health as well over time; hence consumers can expect zero-pesticide produce, which is also healthy, fresh, and sustainable for the planet.

Other Points to Consider

Gaps in adopting sustainable agriculture development

Climate Smart Agriculture

Green Agriculture

Dryland Farming

Influence on Tax Treatment of HUFs under Indian Law:

• The Hindu Undivided Family holds significant importance in the context of Indian tax laws. Before 1986, HUFs enjoyed several tax benefits, and the income earned by the HUF was taxed separately from the income of its individual members.
• However, in 1986, the Indian government introduced the concept of the "Hindu Undivided Family" in the Income Tax Act to tax HUFs as a separate entity, but with certain limitations.
• Under Indian tax law, HUFs have their own tax slab rates, similar to individual taxpayers. They are entitled to various deductions, exemptions, and rebates, similar to individual taxpayers, which helps in reducing the tax liability of the HUF.
• However, certain tax benefits that were available to HUFs earlier, like the exemption from wealth tax and lower tax rates, have been gradually phased out.
• One crucial aspect of HUF taxation is the concept of the "clubbing of income." According to this provision, any income transferred by the Karta to his wife or minor child is clubbed with the income of the Karta and taxed as his own income.
• This provision prevents tax evasion by diverting income to family members in lower tax brackets.

The Kanwar Yatra is a major annual pilgrimage in India, with millions of devotees participating each year. The pilgrimage takes place in the months of July and August, and it traverses through the states of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar.

The Kanwar Yatra has a significant socio-cultural and economic impact on the regions it traverses. The pilgrimage brings in a lot of revenue for local businesses, such as hotels, restaurants, and transportation providers. It also helps to promote tourism in the region, and it can help to preserve religious heritage.

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The socio-cultural and economic impact of the Kanwar Yatra on these regions can be significant and multifaceted:

1. Socio-cultural impact: a. Religious significance: The Kanwar Yatra holds immense religious importance for devotees, primarily those belonging to the Hindu faith. It fosters a sense of devotion, spirituality, and religious unity among the participants and the communities they encounter along the way.

   b. Social cohesion: The Yatra brings together people from diverse backgrounds and regions, fostering a sense of social cohesion and cultural exchange. It reinforces a shared identity and strengthens social bonds, as people participate collectively in the pilgrimage.

   c. Folk traditions and cultural heritage: The Kanwar Yatra is deeply rooted in traditional and folk practices. As the pilgrimage passes through various regions, it promotes and preserves local cultural heritage, art forms, and customs.

2. Economic impact: a. Boost to local economies: The Yatra's massive scale translates to increased economic activity in the regions it traverses. Local businesses such as vendors, shops, restaurants, and hotels witness a surge in demand as pilgrims need food, accommodation, and other essentials during their journey.

   b. Employment opportunities: The influx of pilgrims creates employment opportunities for locals, such as in transportation services, tourism-related jobs, and temporary stalls or shops set up to cater to the pilgrims' needs.

   c. Infrastructure development: Local authorities and governments often invest in improving infrastructure, including roads, sanitation facilities, and crowd management systems, to accommodate the large number of pilgrims. This can have long-term benefits for the regions' infrastructure and development.

3. Tourism impact: a. Promoting regional tourism: The Kanwar Yatra attracts a significant number of domestic and sometimes international tourists, depending on the locations it passes through. This influx of visitors can help promote lesser-known tourist destinations and highlight the cultural richness of those regions.

   b. Economic benefits to the tourism sector: The pilgrimage season can become a peak tourist season for the regions involved. Tourist attractions, hotels, and local tour operators witness increased business during this period.

4. Preservation of religious heritage: a. Protection of sacred sites: The Yatra often includes visits to ancient temples, rivers, and other sacred sites, drawing attention to the need for their preservation and maintenance. This can lead to greater efforts to protect these heritage sites.

   b. Revival of rituals and traditions: The Kanwar Yatra involves the performance of age-old rituals and practices. By keeping these traditions alive, the pilgrimage contributes to the preservation of religious heritage and cultural identity.

India must feed a growing population while dealing with hazards such as climate change, pandemics, and supply chain disruptions. The agriculture industry must become more adaptable and efficient to meet these difficulties.

Technology investments further enhance this growth in agricultural output and productivity. Disruptive technologies like AI are making significant positive changes across Indian agriculture.

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The Artificial Intelligence (AI) for Agriculture Innovation initiative is transforming the agriculture sector in India by promoting the use of artificial intelligence and other technologies.

Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Agriculture in India

• The World Economic Forum’s Artificial Intelligence for Agriculture Innovation (AI4AI) initiative aims to transform the agriculture sector in India by promoting the use of artificial intelligence (AI) and other technologies.
• AI applications in agriculture reached a valuation of $852.2 million in 2019 and this is estimated to grow to almost $8.38 billion by 2030, a nearly 25 per cent growth.
• The use of technology in agriculture will improve farmers’ access to markets, inputs, data, advisory, credit and insurance.
• AI can play a catalytic role in improving farm productivity, removing supply chain constraints and increasing market access.
• Greater use of AI would increase mechanisation of Indian agriculture. It would increase productivity by introducing precision agriculture.
• In predictive agricultural analytics, various AI and machine learning tools are used to predict the right time to sow seeds, get alerts on impending pest attacks etc.
• AI in agriculture enables the most efficient use of farming data, allowing equipment such as smart drones, autonomous tractors, soil sensors, and Agri-bots to work and deliver superior farming efficiency.
• Imaging and AI, traceability solutions are being developed for large scale quality testing and post-harvest produce handling and monitoring.

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a general statement about E-waste and E-waste management rules, 2022.

The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) has notified the E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022 and these rules will replace E-waste (Management) Rules, 2016 and are effective from April 1, 2023.

These rules will launch a new Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) regime for e-waste recycling.

According to the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, India recycled only 32.9 per cent of the e-waste generated in 2021-2022 while 67 per cent of e-waste remained unprocessed.

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Features of New E-Waste Management Rules, 2022

It is applicable to every manufacturer, producer, refurbisher, dismantler and recycler.

All the manufacturers, producers, refurbishers and recyclers are required to register on portal developed by CPCB.

Management of solar PV modules /panels/ cells added in new rules.

The quantity recycled will be computed on the basis of end products.

Provision for generation and transaction of EPR Certificate has been introduced.

Provisions for environmental compensation and verification & audit has been introduced.

Provision for the constitution of Steering Committee to oversee the overall implementation of these rules.

Provision for reduction of hazardous substances in manufacturing of Electrical and Electronic Equipment (EEE) has been provided.

The E-Waste (Management) Rules also provide recognition and registration, skill development, monitoring and ensure the safety and health of workers involved in dismantling and recycling e-waste.

Conclusion

Your conclusion should be short.

Unprocessed e-waste is hazardous to human health and the environment since it contains toxic substances like as lead, cadmium, mercury, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), etching chemicals, arsenic, and asbestos, which can be dangerous if not disposed of properly.

According to the data provided by the ministry in 2021-22, Haryana collected and processed the largest amount of e-waste at 2,45,015.82 tonnes.

A 2020 report by the Global E-Waste Monitor notes that India has the highest e-waste generation in South Asia.

The E-Waste (Management) Rules 2022, which replaced the 2016 rules, make it mandatory for every manufacturer, producer, refurbisher and recycler to register on an online portal developed by the Central Pollution Control Board.

Other topics to Consider

Difference between processed and unprocessed e-waste.

Article 153 of the Constitution says “There shall be a Governor for each State.” A constitutional amendment in 1956 laid down that “nothing in this article shall prevent the appointment of the same person as Governor for two or more States”.

The Governor of a State is appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal and he/she shall hold office during the pleasure of the President”, but his normal term of office will be five years.

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Relationship between the Governor and the State Government

The Governor is an apolitical head who must act on the advice of the council of ministers. The Governor enjoys certain powers granted under the Constitution, such as giving or withholding assent to a Bill passed by the state legislature, or determining the time needed for a party to prove its majority, or which party must be called first do so, generally after a hung verdict in an election.

The executive power of the State shall be vested in the Governor and shall be exercised by him either directly or through officers subordinate to him in accordance with this Constitution.

The Governor of a State shall have the power to grant pardons, reprieves, respites or remissions of punishment or to suspend, remit or commute the sentence of any person convicted of any offence against any law relating to a matter to which the executive power of the State extends.

There shall be a Council of Ministers with the Chief Minister at the head to aid and advise the Governor in the exercise of his functions, except in so far as he is by or under this Constitution required to exercise his functions or any of them in his discretion.

The Chief Minister shall be appointed by the Governor and the other Ministers shall be appointed by the Governor on the advice of the Chief Minister, and the Ministers shall hold office during the pleasure of the Governor.

The Governor of each State shall appoint a person who is qualified to be appointed a Judge of a High Court to be Advocate-General for the State.

All executive action of the Government of a State shall be expressed to be taken in the name of the Governor.

The Governor shall from time to time summon the House or each House of the Legislature of the State to meet at such time and place as he thinks fit, but six months shall not intervene between its last sitting in one session and the date appointed for its first sitting in the next session.

Conclusion

Your conclusion should be short.

Over the decades, Governors have been seen as acting on the behest of the central government in power at the time, and have been accused by state governments, especially those in opposition, as acting as “agents of the Centre”.

Other Points to Consider

Qualifications for Appointment as Governor

Conditions of the Governor’s office

Abortion in India is legal as per the Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) Act passed in 1971. The Act allows termination of pregnancy up to 20 weeks for a broad range of indications. The MTP Act was amended in December 2002, and the Rules, in June 2003.

The MTP Act requires only the consent of the woman for an abortion (if she is of sound mind and not a minor). Spousal or any other consent is not required.

However, in the case of a minor who has not completed the age of 18 years or a mentally ill woman, the consent of the guardian is required.

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It was introduced to “liberalise” access to abortion since the restrictive criminal provision was leading to women using unsafe and dangerous methods for the termination of pregnancy.

The act allowed termination of pregnancy by a medical practitioner in two stages:

For termination of pregnancy up to 12 weeks from conception, the opinion of one doctor was required.

For pregnancies between 12 and 20 weeks old, the opinion of two doctors was required.

In 2021, Parliament amended the law and allowed for a termination under the opinion of one doctor for pregnancies up to 20 weeks. For pregnancies between 20 and 24 weeks, the amended law requires the opinion of two doctors.

The following categories of women shall be considered eligible for termination of pregnancy under clause (b) of subsection (2) Section 3 of the Act, for a period of up to twenty-four weeks, namely:

(a) survivors of sexual assault or rape or incest;

(b) minors;

(c) change of marital status during the ongoing pregnancy (widowhood and divorce);

(d) women with physical disabilities [major disability as per criteria laid down under the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016

(e) mentally ill women including mental retardation;

(f) the foetal malformation that has substantial risk of being incompatible with life or if the child is born it may suffer from such physical or mental abnormalities to be seriously handicapped; and

(g) women with pregnancy in humanitarian settings or disaster or emergency situations as may be declared by the Government.

Indian Penal Code, 1860

Section 312 of the Indian Penal Code, 1860, criminalises voluntarily “causing miscarriage” even when the miscarriage is with the pregnant woman’s consent, except when the miscarriage is caused to save the woman’s life. This means that the woman herself, or anyone else including a medical practitioner, could be prosecuted for an abortion.

UNFPA

According to the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)’s State of the World Population Report 2022. Between 2007-2011, 67 per cent of abortions in India were classified as unsafe.

Supreme Court Judgement

The Supreme Court said it is unconstitutional to distinguish between married and unmarried women for allowing termination of pregnancy on certain exceptional grounds when the foetus is between 20-24 weeks.

Conclusion

Your conclusion should be short and should end on a positive note.

The report released by United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) states that both the Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act of 1971, and the Medical Termination of Pregnancy (Amendment) Act 2021, which expands the scope of the Act and provides impetus for safer abortions, are progressive and encouraging.

The MTP Act is a provider protection law, that seeks to shield the Registered Medical Practitioner (RMP) from criminal liability, and as such it does not centre the pregnant woman’s needs, reproductive autonomy, and agency.

Other Points to Consider

What are the conditions required to be fulfilled in order to obtain an abortion?

Recent amendments in the Act

Resource Sharing and Capacity Building: Developing nations, often more vulnerable to infectious diseases, require support from economically stronger countries. International cooperation facilitates resource sharing, including financial aid, medical supplies, and expertise, to strengthen healthcare systems and response capabilities.

Mitigation Strategies and Preparedness:

Early Warning Systems: Implementing early warning systems based on climate and disease surveillance data helps predict outbreaks and facilitates timely responses.

Vector Control Measures: Adopting effective vector control strategies, such as vector surveillance, vector reduction programs, and public health interventions, curtails disease transmission.

Healthcare Infrastructure Strengthening: Enhancing healthcare infrastructure and training healthcare professionals to manage CCHF cases ensures efficient patient care during outbreaks.

Conclusion

Conclude the answer in a positive way

In conclusion, international cooperation and coordination are indispensable in combatting the spread of diseases like CCHF in a changing climate scenario. By working together, nations can share knowledge, resources, and expertise to enhance global surveillance, strengthen healthcare systems, and implement effective mitigation strategies. A united effort will lead to better preparedness and response measures, ultimately protecting public health and fostering a safer and healthier world.

Challenges in Achieving a Successful Soft Landing:

Precision Navigation and Propulsion: Landing a spacecraft softly on the Moon demands precise navigation and propulsion control. The descent trajectory must be accurately calculated and continuously adjusted to avoid hazards and ensure a controlled touchdown.

Lunar Terrain and Hazards: The Moon's surface is pockmarked with craters, boulders, and uneven terrains, making the selection of a safe landing site critical. Avoiding potential hazards during descent requires real-time analysis and decision-making.

Lunar Dust and Regolith: Lunar regolith, a layer of loose dust and rocks covering the Moon, poses challenges during landing. Dust clouds can interfere with spacecraft instruments, while regolith compaction can impact the landing's stability.

Significance of Chandrayaan-3 for India's Lunar Exploration:

Learning from Chandrayaan-2: Chandrayaan-3 is a crucial opportunity for India to learn from the challenges faced during Chandrayaan-2's landing attempt. The lessons gleaned will enable the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) to refine its approach and enhance the mission's chances of success.

National Pride and Scientific Advancement: Chandrayaan-3 represents India's determination and resolve to advance its space exploration capabilities. A successful landing will boost national pride and reaffirm India's position as a significant player in space exploration.

Contributing to Global Space Community: Chandrayaan-3's success will further India's collaboration with the global space community. Sharing data and research findings can help scientists worldwide to gain a better understanding of the Moon and its history.

Conclusion

Conclude the answer in a positive way

The challenges of achieving a successful soft landing on the Moon's surface are numerous, but they are essential steps in advancing human knowledge and exploration beyond our home planet. Chandrayaan-3 represents India's determination to overcome these obstacles and contribute to the global quest for lunar exploration. Its success will have far-reaching implications, inspiring future space missions and fostering international collaboration in the pursuit of scientific discovery and exploration.

Expansion of NATO:

Post-Cold War Enlargement: After the end of the Cold War, NATO began admitting former Eastern Bloc countries, including Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic, in the late 1990s. This expansion aimed to foster democratic governance, stability, and mutual defense among member states.

Baltic States and Eastern Europe: The inclusion of the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania) and other Eastern European countries, such as Romania and Bulgaria, further expanded NATO's presence eastward, consolidating the alliance's reach closer to Russia's borders.

Challenges and Controversies:

Russia's Security Concerns: Russia perceives NATO's expansion as a security threat, viewing it as a move to encircle and contain its influence. Moscow argues that NATO's enlargement violates commitments made after the Cold War not to expand "one inch" to the east.

Instability in Non-Member States: The expansion of NATO into regions with unresolved conflicts, such as the Balkans, has raised concerns about exacerbating tensions and potential entanglements in these areas.

Concerns Raised by Russia:

Strategic Encirclement: Russia perceives NATO's expansion as a strategic encirclement, where the alliance's military presence moves closer to its borders, potentially compromising its national security.

Ballistic Missile Defense System: NATO's deployment of a ballistic missile defense system in Eastern Europe has been a significant concern for Russia. Moscow fears it could undermine its nuclear deterrent and upset the regional balance of power.

Impact on Regional Security: Russia's concerns about NATO's expansion have contributed to heightened tensions in the region. The perceived security threats have prompted Russia to respond by bolstering its military capabilities, conducting military exercises, and enhancing its presence along its western borders. This escalation of military activities has raised concerns about accidental escalations and the potential for miscalculations, affecting regional security and stability.

Conclusion:

Conclude your answer in a balanced way

NATO's expansion over the years has been a double-edged sword, providing security and stability to new member states while generating challenges and controversies, particularly in relation to Russia's apprehensions about its regional security. Addressing these concerns and finding ways to build mutual trust and cooperation between NATO and Russia remain essential for fostering lasting peace and stability in Europe and beyond.

Promoting Afforestation and Reforestation: The Bill emphasizes the promotion of afforestation and reforestation activities. It introduces measures to incentivize and facilitate private and community participation in afforestation efforts, encouraging the plantation of trees on degraded lands and promoting forest restoration.

Easing Land Use Change for Specific Projects: The amendments aim to simplify the process of land use change for specific projects, particularly those with significant public interest, such as infrastructure development, renewable energy projects, and strategic defense installations. The objective is to strike a balance between conservation and developmental needs.

Strengthening Forest Governance: The Bill seeks to strengthen forest governance by enhancing the role of local communities and tribal populations in forest management decisions. It promotes community-based approaches, recognizing the traditional knowledge and practices of indigenous communities.

Promoting Green Credit Mechanisms: The amendments propose the introduction of green credit mechanisms to incentivize sustainable forest management practices by the private sector. Companies engaged in responsible forest management and conservation efforts would be eligible for green credits, encouraging positive contributions to forest conservation.

Enhanced Penalties for Offenses: The Bill proposes higher penalties for violations of the Forest (Conservation) Act to act as a deterrent against illegal activities such as encroachments, unauthorized tree felling, and illegal mining. The objective is to protect and conserve forests by ensuring strict enforcement of the law.

Integration of Climate Change Considerations: The proposed amendments integrate climate change considerations into forest management strategies. It emphasizes the role of forests in mitigating climate change by sequestering carbon and preserving biodiversity.

Conclusion

Conclude the answer in a balanced way

The Forest (Conservation) Amendment Bill, 2023, presents a comprehensive approach to balance conservation and development imperatives. By promoting afforestation, strengthening forest governance, integrating climate change considerations, and streamlining approval processes, the amendments seek to enhance forest conservation efforts while accommodating the country's developmental needs. The proposed changes emphasize the importance of sustainable forest management, community involvement, and responsible corporate practices to safeguard India's invaluable forest resources for the present and future generations.

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a general statement about education and national education policy, 2020.

Education is fundamental for achieving the potential of humans, developing an equitable and just society, and promoting national development.

Access to quality education is the key to India’s continued ascent, and leadership on the global stage in terms of economic growth, social justice and equality, scientific advancement, national integration, and cultural preservation.

The global education development agenda reflected in Goal 4 (SDG4) of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted by India in 2015 – seeks to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” by 2030.

National Education Policy is a comprehensive framework to guide the development of education in the country.

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National Education Policy (Key Takeaways)

• Ensuring quality early childhood care and education for all children between 3-6 years
• New Curricular and Pedagogical Structure (5+3+3+4)
• Establishing National Mission on Foundational Literacy and Numeracy
• A separate Gender Inclusion fund and Special Education Zones for disadvantaged regions and groups
• It aim to increase the GER to 100 per cent in preschool to secondary level by 2030 whereas GER in Higher Education including vocational education to 50 per cent by 2035.
• Setting up of National Research Foundation
• Achieving 100% youth and adult literacy.
• The Centre and the States will work together to increase public investment in the Education sector to reach 6% of GDP at the earliest.

The Constitution specifies offices like those of the President, Vice President, Chief Justice of India, and Comptroller and Auditor General of India, as well as Speakers and Deputy Speakers.

Article 93 of the Constitution of India provides for Lok Sabha and Article 178 for state Assemblies states that these Houses “shall, as soon as may be”, choose two of its members to be Speaker and Deputy Speaker.

The Constitution neither sets a time limit nor specifies the process for these elections. It leaves it to the legislatures to decide how to hold these elections. In Lok Sabha and state legislatures, the President/Governor sets a date for the election of the Speaker, and it is the Speaker who decides the date for the election of the Deputy Speaker.

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Role of Speaker in the robust functioning of parliamentary business in India

The final authority for adopting rules for regulating its procedure rests with each House, but a perusal of the rules of the Indian Parliament would indicate that the Presiding Officers in the two Houses are given vast powers by the rules.

The presiding officer decides:

(i) The admissibility of a Question.

(ii) When a member shall speak and how long he/she shall speak

• If he/she is satisfied, the Speaker can direct a member to withdraw from the House for a specific period of time.
• The Speaker is the guardian of the rights and privileges of the House, its Committees and members. It depends solely on the Speaker to refer any question of privilege to the Committee of Privileges for examination, investigation and report.
• It is the Speaker who decides the form and manner in which the proceedings of the House is published.
• He/She also issues warrants to execute the orders of the House, wherever necessary, and delivers reprimands on behalf of the House.
• When a decision of the House is to be ascertained on a motion made by a member, the question is put by the Speaker before the House to obtain the decision. On questions of points of order, it is he/she who finally decides whether the matter raised is in order or not.
• The Speaker also has certain residuary powers under the Rules of Procedure.
• The Speaker issues from time to time directions which are generally treated as sacrosanct as the Rules of Procedure.
• On matters regarding interpretation of constitutional provisions relating to the House or the Rules of Procedure, he/she often gives rulings which are respected by members and are binding in nature.
• He/She certifies Money Bills and decides finally what are money matters by reason of the Lok Sabha’s overriding powers in financial matters
• The Speaker does not vote in the House except on those rare occasions when there is a tie at the end of a decision.

Conclusion

Your conclusion should be short.

According to the book Practice and Procedure of Parliament, published by the Lok Sabha Secretariat, the Speaker is “the principal spokesman of the House, he represents its collective voice and is its sole representative to the outside world”.

The Speaker is the constitutional and ceremonial head of the House. He/She is the principal spokesperson of the House. It is in him/her that the responsibility of conducting the business of the House in a manner befitting the place of the institution in a representative democracy is invested.

Other Important Topics

Other Powers of Speaker

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a general statement about Primary Agricultural Credit Societies.

Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (PACS) are village-level cooperative credit societies that serve as the last link in a three-tier cooperative credit structure headed by the State Cooperative Banks (SCB) at the state level.

The credit from the Scheduled Commercial Banks is transferred to the district central cooperative banks, or District Co-operative Central Banks (DCCBs), that operate at the district level. The DCCBs work with PACS, which deals directly with farmers.

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Role and contribution of Primary Agricultural Credit Societies

• They are involved in short-term lending — or what is known as crop loans. At the start of the cropping cycle, farmers avail credit to finance their requirement of seeds, fertilisers, etc.
• Banks extend this credit at 7 per cent interest, of which 3 per cent is subsidised by the Centre, and 2 per cent by the state government. Effectively, farmers avail the crop loans at 2 per cent interest only.
• Since these are cooperative bodies, individual farmers are members of the PACS, and office-bearers are elected from within them. A village can have multiple PACS.
• The attraction of the PACS lies in the last mile connectivity they offer. For farmers, timely access to capital is necessary at the start of their agricultural activities.
• PACS have the capacity to extend credit with minimal paperwork within a short time.
• PACS can also be employed as drone entrepreneurs for spraying fertilisers and pesticides.
• A Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) of this effect was signed between the Ministry of Cooperation, Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology, NABARD and CSC e-Governance Services India Limited for providing services offered by Common Service Centres (CSC).
• PACS are the soul of cooperatives and will increase employment opportunities in rural areas.
• It will ensure speedy disposal of loans, lower transition cost, faster audit and reduction in imbalances in payments and accounting with State Cooperative Banks and District Central Cooperative Banks.

A simple introduction to this answer can revolve around a general statement about floods and urban floods.

Floods can be defined as ‘the submergence of the usually dry area by a large amount of water that comes from sudden excessive rainfall, an overflowing river or lake, melting snow or an exceptionally high tide’.

People living in susceptible locations suffer as a result of flooding, which can sometimes end in fatalities. Not only does flooding occur, but the secondary consequence of infection also has a cost in terms of human misery, loss of livelihood, and, in extreme circumstances, loss of life.

Urban flooding is significantly different from rural flooding as urbanization leads to developed catchments which increases the flood peaks from 1.8 to 8 times and flood volumes by up to six times.

There has been an increasing trend of urban flood disasters in India over the past several years whereby major cities in India have been severely affected like in Hyderabad in 2000, Ahmedabad in 2001, Delhi in 2002 and 2003, Chennai in 2004, Mumbai in 2005, Srinagar in 2014 and Chennai in 2015.

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Flash Floods:

In India, flash floods are often associated with cloudbursts – sudden, intense rainfall in a short period of time. Himalayan states further face the challenge of overflowing glacial lakes, formed due to the melting of glaciers, and their numbers have been increasing in the last few years.

They can occur in urban areas located near small rivers since hard surfaces such as roads and concrete do not allow the water to absorb into the ground.

Strategies to Tackle Urban Flooding

Standard Operating Procedures (SOP)

The SOP lays down, in a comprehensive manner, the specific actions required to be undertaken by various departments and agencies in a city/town and also organizations under the district administration as well as State Government for responding to urban flooding/disaster of any magnitude.

It covers the following three phases of disaster management for effective and efficient response to urban flooding:

(i) Pre-Monsoon Phase: Preparedness – Planning for Disaster Reduction.

Improving drainage system in the cities, declog existing networks, adopt better solid waste management practices, and regulate new construction in low-lying areas.

(ii) During Monsoon Phase: Early Warning System, Effective Response and Management and Relief planning and execution.

(iii) Post-Monsoon Phase: Restoration and Rehabilitation.

Conclusion

Your concluding remark should be short. You may use some of the following points.

Most of these lakes and drains in this series are either encroached or not desilted leading to flooding.

In order to check the threat of urban flooding, each city should have their Flood mitigation plans (floodplain, river basin, surface water, etc.) strongly embedded within the overall land use policy and master planning of a city.

Other Important related topics to Consider

Difference between floods and flash floods.

Impacts of Floods in the Himalayas

The drainage system of India