DRONE TECHNOLOGY
1. Context
India’s Operation Sindoor in the wake of the Pahalgam terror attack has marked a notable shift in the country’s adoption of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) in combat. In combination with standoff weapons, India’s use of UAVs in active combat represents a tactical shift in military doctrine — part of a global playbook
2. Key points
- Technology is truly transforming the world at a rapid rate and it has never been more relevant than now as its applications are solving some of the most pressing problems on the planet.
- India is increasingly leveraging technology to stay ahead of the curve.
3. Drone Technology in India
- Detailing the advancement in drone technology in India, during the Beating Retreat, the entire nation was mesmerised by the spectacular display of 1000 Made in India drones by Indian start-up Botlab Dynamics' led by the IIT alumni.
| As a part of the SWAMITVA scheme (Survey of villages and mapping with improvised technology in village areas), the survey of the land houses is being prepared through drones in the villages areas), and the survey of the land and houses being prepared through drones in the villages. |
- Drones are increasingly being used to sprinkle pesticides and nano fertilizers in the fields in rural villages.
- The Ministry of Civil Aviation and Directorate General of Civil Aviation had granted a conditional exemption to the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) for the deployment of drones for live aerial cinematography of the India Cricket Season in 2021.
4. Kisan Drone Yatra
- 100 Kisan Drones were sent to villages across the country to spray pesticides under the efforts of Garuda Aerospace, India's Largest Drone Manufacturing Facility.
- The government's commitment to promoting the use of technology in the agriculture sector to increase farm production
- It is envisaged that these drones will help in streamlining the use of pesticides on farms, which will further improve the profitability of our farmers.
5. Bharat Drone Mahotsav
- PM Modi inaugurated India's biggest Drone Festival-Bharat Drone Mahotsav 2022 in May.
- Drone technology is essential for various fields from defence to agriculture and health to entertainment.
- India is also moving towards creating a strong drone manufacturing ecosystem in the country through schemes like Production Linked Incentive (PLI)
- Government is to boost the demand for cutting-edge drone technology and services in a three-pronged approach An effective policy is the New Drone Rules 2021 to provide incentives in the form of PLI for Drones and Drone Components.
| Stating that India will require at least 1 lakh pilots in 2023, he said that each pilot will earn at least 50-80 thousand a month. If you take the Conservative Average even Rs 50,000 × 1 lakh youth × 12 months = Rs. 6000 crores a year of employment could be created in the Drone sector. |
- Apart from this, Industries and Government agencies which use Drones will also be impacted.
6. Drone Skilling & Training Conference
- Garuda's Drone Skilling & Training Conference which is to be conducted in 775 districts across the country hopes to reach 10 lakh YoutTo to train 1 lakh Youth to significantly impact not just the Drone ecosystem or generate employment for Youth but hopes to create a massive impact in Agriculture, Mining, Government departments & Other industries.
- While noting that currently, over 200 drone start-ups are operating in the country, which will increase to generate lakhs of new job opportunities for the youth.
- Effective policies, incentives to industry and "ease of doing business" are providing the much-needed impetus to the Drone Sector which shows its huge potential in India.
- ‘Atmanirbhar Bharat,’ is the growing innovation and cutting-edge drone technology ecosystem that will ensure a self-reliant and self-sustainable New India in the Amrit Kaal”.
For Prelims & Mains
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For Prelims: Drone technology, ease of doing business, Drone Skilling & Training Conference, Bharat Drone Mahotsav, Kisan Drone Yatra,
For Mains:
1. Discuss the impact of Drone technology in the Indian Agricultural sector. (250 Words)
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ELECTRIC VEHICLES
1. Context
2. What are Electric Vehicles?
- An E-vehicle or Electric Vehicle is one that needs an electric motor to generate power and function instead of an internal-combustion engine that generates power by burning a mix of gases and fuel.
- Electric Vehicles have a battery that can be charged by an electric supply.
- This electric energy is used to run the motor. There is a hybrid electric vehicle as well, which means a combination of an electric motor and a combustion engine.
3. Types of Electric Vehicles
- Plug-in electric – Such Electric Vehicles run purely on electricity, and it is powered when it is plugged in to charge. They don’t produce emissions like petrol or diesel.
- Plug-in hybrid – Their primary source of power is electricity, but these vehicles also have a fuel engine. These cars produce emissions only when they run on fuel engines but not when they run on electricity.
- Hybrid-electric – These Electric Vehicles primarily run on petrol or diesel, but they’re also fitted with an electric battery. One can charge the battery through regenerative braking. It comes with a button that lets you switch from using a fuel engine to using an electric battery (EV mode.)
- Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)– these vehicles use a highly efficient electrochemical process to convert hydrogen into electricity, and it powers the electric motor.
4. Initiatives by the Government
The government has set a target of 30% new sales of electric vehicles and two-wheelers by 2030. The government is working towards it by following the initiative and various government schemes.
National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP)
- It is a road map/document for India’s fuel security by promoting and faster adoption of electric vehicles in India with the initial allocation of Rs 75 crore. The ambition is to have around 6 million vehicles on the road by 2020.
- This plan is for affordable and environmentally friendly transportation in the country and to achieve automotive leadership in global manufacturing.
- The scheme was announced by the government in 2015 with the objective of market creation and developing a manufacturing ecosystem with sustainable development.
- It is formulated by the Department of Heavy Industry, having 4 key areas- technology creation, demand creation, pilot projects, and infrastructure related to charging.
- Based on the result and experience of phase I of the scheme, phase II was launched with an allocation of Rs 10000 Crore over three years, recently approved by the cabinet.
- This scheme vision a holistic approach to the EV industry, including infrastructure for charging, manufacturing of batteries, market creation, public demand, and push for EVs in public transport.
- It also offers incentives to the manufacturer of electric vehicles and their components.
- It enables the creation of charging infrastructure in selected cities and major highways at an interval of 25 km.
5. Electric Vehicle Policy, 2020
Electric Vehicle Policy 2020 has been announced by the Delhi Government, where it put emphasis on the replacement of two-wheelers, shared vehicles, public transport, and private four-wheelers with Electric Vehicles. Some of the Features of EV Policy 2020 are given below:
- As per Electric Vehicle Policy, the focus is given to e-mobility, which includes e-buses and e-autos.
- The government has decided to give low-interest loans so that people can purchase Electric Vehicles easily.
- The main goal of the E-Vehicle Policy in India is to reduce pollution and curb health issues in Delhi.
- State EV Fund will be introduced for the expenditure of EV Policy.
6. Challenges in promoting Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) Adoption
- Subsidy Limitations: In contrast to countries like Norway, where extensive subsidies have spurred BEV adoption, India's subsidy structure primarily benefits the middle or upper middle classes. This inequality raises concerns about the effectiveness and fairness of upfront purchase subsidies, which tend to benefit those who can afford BEVs.
- Charging Network: Investing in comprehensive charging infrastructure is crucial for driving BEV adoption. Countries like Norway and China have seen success by expanding public charging stations while providing purchase subsidies. However, India's charging infrastructure remains insufficient, particularly for two- and three-wheelers, which dominate the vehicle mix. Adapting charging strategies to accommodate different vehicle types and power requirements is essential for promoting widespread adoption.
- Electricity Source: India's reliance on coal-fired thermal plants for electricity generation poses a challenge to the potential environmental benefits of BEVs. While EVs may reduce tailpipe emissions, continued reliance on thermal plants contributes to pollution. Shifting towards renewable energy sources is necessary to mitigate these concerns and achieve cleaner electric mobility.
- Limited Access to the Global Lithium Value Chain: India's heavy reliance on imports for lithium-ion batteries raises concerns about supply chain vulnerabilities. The concentration of global lithium production and key battery components in a handful of countries creates dependency risks. Diversification of the country's battery technology and exploring alternative options to lithium-ion batteries is crucial for long-term sustainability.
- Technology Agnostic Approach: While BEVs have gained traction in the two-wheeler and three-wheeler segments, the four-wheeler segment lags behind. Governments must adopt a technology-agnostic approach that encourages the adoption of various electrification technologies, including hybrids and fuel-cell vehicles. Such an approach promotes innovation, fosters competition, and allows manufacturers to meet emissions objectives irrespective of technology.
- Exploring Alternative Technologies: Hybrids serve as an intermediate step toward full electrification, offering improved fuel efficiency without relying solely on charging infrastructure. Additionally, exploring flex-fuel vehicles running on multiple fuel types, fuel cell electric vehicles, hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles, and synthetic fuels can provide alternative options for reducing emissions and promoting sustainable mobility.
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For Prelims: Electric Vehicles, Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs), Electric Vehicle Policy, 2020, National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP), Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (hybrid and) electric vehicles (FAME), Global Lithium Value Chain.
For Mains: 1. Analyze the challenges and opportunities in promoting the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) in developing countries like India. Discuss the key factors that hinder EV penetration and propose strategies to overcome them.(250 Words)
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Previous year Question1. Which of the following Indian States/Union Territories launched Electric Vehicle Policy on 7th August 2020? (UPPSC 2020)A. Madhya Pradesh
B. Uttar Pradesh
C. Delhi
D. Tamil Nadu
Answer: C
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FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT (FDI)
- India's net foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows experienced a decline, decreasing by nearly 31% to $25.5 billion during the first 10 months of the 2023-24 fiscal year. The Finance Ministry attributed this decline to a broader trend of slowing investments in developing countries, while expressing optimism for a potential increase in investments in the current calendar year.
- Although global FDI flows overall saw a 3% rise to approximately $1.4 trillion in 2023, economic uncertainty and elevated interest rates impacted global investment, resulting in a 9% decrease in FDI flows to developing nations, as outlined in the Ministry's February assessment of economic performance.
- Reflecting the global trend of reduced FDI flows to developing countries, gross FDI inflows to India also experienced a slight decline, from $61.7 billion to $59.5 billion during the period from April 2023 to January 2024. In terms of net inflows, the corresponding figures were $25.5 billion versus $36.8 billion. The decrease in net inflows was primarily attributed to an increase in repatriation, while the decline in gross inflows was minimal.
- While a modest uptick in global FDI flows is anticipated for the current calendar year, attributed to a decrease in inflation and borrowing costs in major markets that could stabilize financing conditions for international investment, significant risks persist, according to the Ministry. These risks include geopolitical tensions, elevated debt levels in numerous countries, and concerns regarding further fragmentation of the global economy
- FDI involves the transfer of funds and resources from one country to another. This capital inflow can help stimulate economic growth in the host country by providing funds for investment in infrastructure, technology, and other areas.
- FDI often leads to the creation of jobs in the host country. When foreign companies establish subsidiaries or invest in existing businesses, they typically hire local employees, which can help reduce unemployment and improve living standards
- Foreign investors often bring advanced technologies, processes, and management practices to the host country. This technology transfer can enhance the host country's productivity, competitiveness, and industrial capabilities
- FDI can provide access to new markets for both the host country and the investing company. Foreign investors can tap into the host country's consumer base, while the host country gains access to the investing company's global distribution networks.
- FDI can contribute to overall economic development in the host country by promoting industrialization, improving infrastructure, and fostering innovation and entrepreneurship.
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Automatic Route: Under the automatic route, FDI is allowed without the need for prior approval from the RBI or the government. Investors only need to notify the RBI within a specified time frame after the investment is made. This route is available for most sectors, except those that are prohibited or require government approval.
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Government Route: In sectors or activities that are not covered under the automatic route, FDI requires government approval. Investors must apply for approval through the Foreign Investment Facilitation Portal (FIFP) or the Foreign Investment Promotion Board (FIPB), depending on the sector.
- Under the automatic route, FDI of up to 100% is allowed for manufacturing of automobiles and components.
- For the manufacturing of electric vehicles (EVs), 100% FDI is allowed under the automatic route.
- In single-brand retail trading, 100% FDI is allowed, with up to 49% allowed under the automatic route. Beyond 49%, government approval is required.
- Multi-brand retail trading (supermarkets and department stores) with FDI is permitted in some states, subject to certain conditions and restrictions. The FDI limit is typically capped at 51%.
- FDI in the insurance sector is allowed up to 74%, with up to 49% under the automatic route. Beyond 49%, government approval is needed
- In the telecom sector, 100% FDI is allowed, with up to 49% under the automatic route. Beyond 49%, government approval is required
- In the defense sector, FDI up to 74% is allowed under the automatic route, with government approval required for investments beyond 49%
- In most segments of the media and broadcasting sector, including print and digital media, 100% FDI is allowed, with up to 49% under the automatic route
- FDI is prohibited in the atomic energy sector, which includes activities related to the production of atomic energy and nuclear power generation.
- FDI is generally prohibited in the gambling and betting industry, which includes casinos and online betting platforms
- FDI is not allowed in the lottery business, except for state-run lotteries
- FDI is prohibited in chit funds, which are traditional Indian savings and credit schemes.
- Nidhi companies are non-banking finance companies (NBFCs) that facilitate mutual benefit funds. FDI is typically not permitted in these entities
- While FDI is allowed in single-brand retail trading, it is generally prohibited in multi-brand retail trading of agricultural products. Some states have allowed it under specific conditions, but this remains a highly regulated area.
- FDI is not allowed in the trading of transferable development rights (TDRs) pertaining to the construction of real estate
- FPIs invest in a country's financial markets, primarily by buying and selling securities traded on stock exchanges and fixed-income instruments like bonds and government securities
- FPIs often seek to diversify their investment portfolios by spreading their investments across different asset classes, sectors, and countries. This diversification helps manage risk and enhance returns
- FPIs have the flexibility to buy and sell securities in the secondary market, providing liquidity to the market and contributing to price discovery
- FPIs typically have a shorter investment horizon compared to Foreign Direct Investors (FDIs). They may engage in short-term trading or hold securities for a few months to a few years.
- FPIs are subject to regulatory frameworks and restrictions in the countries where they invest. These regulations are designed to ensure that foreign investments do not pose undue risks to the local financial markets and economy.
| FPI (Foreign Portfolio Investment) | FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) |
| FPI involves the purchase of financial assets such as stocks, bonds, mutual funds, and other securities in a foreign country. These investments are typically made with the intention of earning returns on capital and do not result in significant control or ownership of the underlying businesses | FDI entails making an investment in a foreign country with the primary objective of establishing a lasting interest and significant control or influence over a business enterprise or physical assets. FDI often involves the acquisition of a substantial ownership stake (typically at least 10%) in a company or the establishment of new business operations. |
| FPI is generally characterized by a shorter investment horizon. Investors in FPI may engage in trading and portfolio rebalancing activities, and their investments are often more liquid. The focus is on earning capital gains and income from investments. | FDI is characterized by a longer-term commitment. Investors in FDI intend to engage in the day-to-day management or decision-making of the business, contribute to its growth and development, and generate profits over an extended period. |
| FPI investors typically have little to no influence or control over the companies in which they invest. They are passive investors who participate in the financial markets and rely on market dynamics to drive returns. | FDI investors actively participate in the management and decision-making of the businesses they invest in. They often seek to exercise control over company operations and strategy, which may include appointing board members or key executives. |
| FPI investments are often made through financial instruments like stocks, bonds, and securities. Investors may use instruments like mutual funds or exchange-traded funds (ETFs) to gain exposure to foreign markets | FDI investments involve a direct equity stake in a company, either through share acquisition or the establishment of a subsidiary or branch in the host country. FDI can also involve the purchase of real assets such as land, factories, or infrastructure |
| FPI can provide short-term capital inflows, but it may be more susceptible to market volatility and sudden capital outflows. It may not have as direct an impact on job creation and economic development as FDI. | FDI often contributes to long-term economic development by creating jobs, stimulating infrastructure development, transferring technology and expertise, and enhancing the competitiveness of local industries |
| FPI investments are subject to regulations that vary by country and may include foreign ownership limits, reporting requirements, and tax considerations. | FDI is subject to regulations that can be more stringent and may involve government approval, sector-specific conditions, and investment protection measures |
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For Prelims: Economic and Social Development-Sustainable Development, Poverty, Inclusion, Demographics, Social Sector Initiatives, etc
For Mains: General Studies III: Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization, of resources, growth, development and employment
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Previous Year Questions
1. Both Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) and Foreign Institutional Investor (FII) are related to investment in a country. (UPSC CSE 2011)
Which one of the following statements best represents an important difference between the two?
A.FII helps bring better management skills and technology, while FDI only brings in capital
B.FII helps in increasing capital availability in general, while FDI only targets specific sectors C.FDI flows only into the secondary markets, while FII targets primary market
D.FII is considered to the more stable than FDI
Answer (B)
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INDIA'S POPULATION
2. Reassessing IHME Population Projections
- Recalling the notable misalignment in early COVID-19 projections, a recent scrutiny of population forecasts by the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME) prompts a cautious reevaluation. IHME's projections for India's population, indicating a significant decline by the end of the century, warrant careful examination given the potential discrepancies in underlying assumptions.
- The IHME model projects an average fertility rate of 1.29 children per woman in India by 2100, a figure notably lower than replacement levels. This stark prediction contrasts with projections for the United States and France, raising questions about the validity of the assumptions underpinning such forecasts.
- Until 2050, IHME's population estimates for India closely mirror those of the United Nations. However, a notable divergence emerges in the latter half of the century, with IHME projecting a significantly smaller population by 2100 compared to UN estimates.
- IHME's reliance on National Family Health Survey (NFHS) data, particularly regarding contraceptive usage, is called into question. Research suggests potential inaccuracies in estimating contraceptive prevalence, which may lead to underestimated unmet contraceptive needs and consequently, implausibly low fertility projections for 2100.
- In light of these observations, a critical review of IHME's population projections becomes imperative, urging a more nuanced understanding of the underlying data and assumptions shaping future demographic trajectories.
3. Unraveling India's Fertility Decline
- India's demographic landscape has undergone a profound shift, marked by a significant decline in fertility rates.
- From nearly six children per woman in the 1950s, the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) has plummeted to 2.2 today.
- Notably, the coercive family planning measures during the Emergency era only marginally impacted fertility, showcasing a mere 17% decrease from 1960 to 1980.
- However, the period between 1992 and 2015 witnessed a substantial 35% decline, with 18 States and Union Territories now boasting TFRs below the replacement level of 2.
- While the success of family planning programs may seem a logical explanation, the contemporary discourse in Indian policy circles has shifted away from prioritizing such initiatives.
- The era between 1975 and 1994 witnessed the implementation of coercive measures, where family planning workers faced targets for sterilizations, condom distribution, and intrauterine device (IUD) insertions.
- However, the abandonment of these targets post the Cairo conference on Population and Development in 1994 signified a shift away from coercive tactics.
- In the absence of coercive measures, policies aimed at incentivizing smaller families and penalizing larger ones have yielded mixed results.
- While punitive measures such as the denial of maternity leave for third and subsequent births, limitations on maternity benefits, and disqualification from local body elections for individuals with large families have been in place, their practical enforcement has been lacking.
4. The Rise of Aspirational Parenthood
- In dissecting the shift away from large family ideals in India, it becomes evident that the socioeconomic landscape, particularly since the 1990s, has been a pivotal force.
- With agriculture's diminishing role in the economy and a marked increase in school and college enrollment, coupled with lucrative opportunities in government, multinational corporations, and software services, individuals have witnessed unprecedented financial prospects.
- Consequently, this transformation has prompted a reevaluation of family-building strategies among parents.
- Traditionally, the agrarian mindset equated more children with additional labor for farming tasks. However, the emergence of aspirational parenting has redefined this narrative.
- Rather than viewing children solely as labor assets, modern parents see their offspring as potential beneficiaries of education and upward mobility.
- Enrollment in coaching classes, once perceived as a pathway to academic success, now embodies the aspirations of parents keen on securing a prosperous future for their children.
- Contrary to the Western narrative of declining fertility linked to a retreat from familial commitments, Indian parents showcase heightened dedication to family values by opting for smaller family sizes.
- Research conducted in collaboration with demographer Alaka Basu at Cornell University underscores this phenomenon.
- Comparing families of similar income levels, our findings reveal that both small and large families exhibit comparable leisure activities, women's workforce participation, and material possessions.
- However, smaller families distinguish themselves by channeling greater financial resources into their children's education, epitomizing a shift towards child-centric aspirations rather than self-centric motives driving fertility decline.
5. Addressing India's Fertility Shift
- Paradoxically, despite the evident decline in fertility rates across Indian society, public discourse remains entrenched in the rhetoric of the 1970s, often fixating on perceived high fertility rates, particularly in regions like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, or among specific demographics such as women with limited education or the Muslim community. This outdated narrative occasionally prompts policymakers to advocate for measures aimed at coercing these purportedly uninformed or indifferent parents into reducing family sizes.
- Demographic indicators, however, signal the onset of an aspirational revolution. To expedite the decline in fertility rates, it is imperative to align policy discourse with this evolving reality.
- Rather than enforcing antiquated measures, the focus should shift towards bolstering the healthcare and family welfare infrastructure. This entails providing comprehensive contraception and sexual and reproductive health services, empowering individuals to make informed choices regarding the size of their families.
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For Prelims: Total Fertility Rate, Population, National Family Health Survey,
For Mains:
1. Analyze the potential impact of India's demographic transition on its economic growth and development. Discuss the challenges and opportunities that this transition presents. (250 words)
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SOLAR ENERGY
- Quantum dot solar cells have reached a new efficiency milestone of 18.1%, presenting an innovative solution to improve solar energy capture and support atmospheric water harvesting technologies.
- Scientists are also developing self-repairing solar panels to enhance durability and minimize maintenance requirements in current solar technologies.
- Another advancement, solar-powered phyto-mining, utilizes solar energy to extract valuable metals from soil through plants, providing a sustainable alternative to conventional mining methods.
- Additionally, solar paver blocks and Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV), such as transparent solar panels, are being incorporated into infrastructure to facilitate light transmission and visibility.
- These emerging technologies aim to reduce dependence on critical materials like lithium and rare earth elements. The solar industry is also focusing on recycling solar panels and adopting circular economy principles to mitigate environmental impacts
- Global employment in the solar PV sector surged to 7.1 million jobs in 2023, up from 4.9 million in 2022, highlighting its growing impact on job creation and economic growth. Solar-powered irrigation systems are revolutionizing agriculture, with the global solar pump market projected to expand at a CAGR of 5.8% between 2021 and 2027.
- This growth is fueled by decreasing solar PV costs, the affordability of solar pumps compared to diesel alternatives, and increased awareness among farmers. Beyond traditional farming, agrivoltaic systems are being utilized in livestock management, where solar panels installed in grazing areas provide shade for animals while generating electricity.
- The adoption of solar systems has also been boosted by innovative pay-as-you-go business models, enabling users to make small, manageable payments over time. Advances in technology have made solar energy more accessible and affordable, while new applications continue to drive its uptake.
- To ensure inclusive progress, it is crucial to prioritize the transfer of technology and financial resources to least-developed countries and small island developing states, leaving no one behind in the transition to renewable energy
| Category | China | U.S.A | Japan / Germany / India | Brazil / Australia / Italy / Spain | Global Overview |
| Share of Global Solar PV Installed Capacity (2023) | 43% (609 GW) | 10% (137.73 GW) | 5-6% | ~2% | Total global solar PV capacity distributed. |
| Solar PV Manufacturing (2023) | - | - | - | - | Manufacturing capacity nearly doubled. |
| Share in Component Manufacturing (2023) | 97% (wafers) | - | - | - | China leads: 97% (wafers), 89% (cells), 83% (modules). |
Key Objectives of ISA:
- Promoting Solar Energy: The ISA aims to increase the use of solar energy in its member countries, especially in developing nations.
- Reducing Dependency on Fossil Fuels: By promoting solar energy, the ISA seeks to reduce reliance on fossil fuels and mitigate climate change.
- Attracting Investments: The alliance works to attract investments in solar energy projects, particularly in developing countries.
- Technological Innovation: The ISA fosters research and development in solar technologies to reduce costs and improve efficiency.
- Capacity Building: The organization provides technical and financial support to member countries to build capacity in solar energy
| Initiative/Program | Description |
|---|---|
| National Solar Mission (NSM) |
- Launched in 2010 under the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)
- Aims to achieve 280 GW of solar capacity by 2030 and reduce the cost of solar power generation
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| KUSUM Scheme (PM-KUSUM) |
- Focuses on solar-powered irrigation by providing financial support for solar pumps and grid-connected solar power plants
- Targets the installation of 30.8 GW of solar capacity in the agricultural sector by 2025-26
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| Solar Park Scheme |
- Aims to establish large-scale solar parks to facilitate investments in solar energy projects
- Targets the development of 40 GW capacity in solar parks across various states
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| Rooftop Solar Scheme |
- Provides financial incentives for installing rooftop solar panels in residential and commercial buildings
- Offers 40% subsidy for systems up to 3 kW and 20% subsidy for systems between 3 kW and 10 kW
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| Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI) |
- A public sector enterprise responsible for implementing solar energy projects, auctions, and tenders
- Plays a critical role in achieving national renewable energy targets
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| International Solar Alliance (ISA) |
- Promotes international collaboration to scale up solar energy deployment globally
- Supports member nations with technology transfer and financial assistance
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| Development of Solar Cities Program | - Assists urban areas in reducing conventional energy consumption by up to 10% through solar energy solutions |
| Renewable Energy Certificates (REC) | - Encourages states and entities to meet their Renewable Purchase Obligations (RPOs) via trading of solar energy certificates |
| Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme |
- Provides incentives to domestic manufacturers of solar PV modules to boost indigenous production
- Aims to reduce dependence on imports, particularly from China
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| Green Energy Corridor | - Supports the development of transmission infrastructure for evacuating renewable energy, including solar power |
| Tax Benefits and Subsidies | - Offers customs duty exemptions, accelerated depreciation benefits, and financial subsidies for solar projects |
| State-Level Solar Policies | - States like Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka have their own solar energy policies offering incentives for solar adoption |
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For Prelims: General issues on Environmental ecology, Bio-diversity & climate change For Mains: GS-III: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment. |
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Previous Year Questions
1.Consider the following statements: (2016)
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only Answer (a)
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HIGH SEAS TREATY
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Covering 64% of the ocean's surface and approximately 43% of the Earth's area, the high seas are home to around 2.2 million marine species and up to a trillion types of microorganisms. These international waters are open to all, granting equal rights for navigation, overflight, economic ventures, scientific research, and the establishment of infrastructure such as undersea cables.
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The lack of designated responsibility for the high seas has led to widespread issues such as resource overexploitation, biodiversity loss, pollution—including plastic waste—and ocean acidification. According to the United Nations, an estimated 17 million tonnes of plastic were dumped into oceans in 2021, a figure projected to rise in the years ahead.
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Concluded in March 2023, the treaty focuses on ocean areas beyond any nation's jurisdiction. National jurisdictions typically extend up to 200 nautical miles (370 km) from the coastline, known as exclusive economic zones (EEZs). Beyond these zones lie the high seas or international waters. This treaty, formally titled the Agreement on Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biological Diversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction, addresses the conservation and sustainable use of marine resources in these global commons
➤ Sustainable utilization of marine genetic resources and fair distribution of benefits derived from them.
➤ Implementation of environmental impact assessments for significant oceanic activities.
➤ Promotion of capacity-building initiatives and technology transfer
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Marine-Protected Areas (MPAs): MPAs are zones in the ocean where ecosystems and biodiversity are under stress from human activities or climate change. They are akin to national parks or wildlife sanctuaries on land. Activities within these areas will be strictly regulated, with conservation measures similar to those implemented in forest and wildlife reserves. Currently, only about 1.44% of high seas are protected, according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
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Marine Genetic Resources: Oceans are home to an immense variety of life forms, many of which hold potential for applications like drug development. Genetic data from these organisms is being extracted and studied for potential benefits. The treaty aims to ensure that any resulting benefits, including financial ones, are equitably shared and not restricted by stringent intellectual property rights. Additionally, knowledge gained from these explorations is to remain openly accessible to all.
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Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs): The treaty mandates conducting prior environmental impact assessments for activities that could harm marine ecosystems or conservation efforts. These assessments must be made publicly available. EIAs are also required for activities within national jurisdictions if their impact extends to the high seas.
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Capacity Building and Technology Transfer: Emphasis is placed on capacity building and technology transfer to support countries, particularly small island nations and landlocked states, that lack the resources or expertise to participate effectively in conservation or sustainable exploitation of marine resources. The treaty seeks to alleviate the additional burden these nations might face, such as conducting environmental impact assessments
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Ratification and Treaty
Ratification refers to the formal process through which a country commits to being legally obligated by the provisions of an international law. This is distinct from simply signing the law. Signing signifies a country’s agreement with the law's principles and its intention to adhere to them. However, until the country completes the ratification process— which differs across nations— it is not legally required to comply with the provisions of that law
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The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) is a comprehensive international legal framework that establishes guidelines for the proper use and governance of seas and oceans globally. It outlines nations' rights and responsibilities concerning oceanic activities and addresses issues such as sovereignty, navigation, and exclusive economic rights. Territorial waters and Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) are demarcated based on UNCLOS provisions.
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According to UNCLOS, the Territorial Sea (TS) extends up to 12 nautical miles from a nation’s coastline. While a state exercises complete sovereignty over the waters within its TS, the EEZ grants the state exclusive economic rights over the resources beneath the sea's surface without full sovereignty.
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UNCLOS provides overarching principles for fair access to ocean resources and the conservation of biodiversity and marine ecosystems. However, it does not detail the methods for achieving these goals. This gap is addressed by the High Seas Treaty, which functions as an implementation agreement under UNCLOS, similar to how the Paris Agreement operates within the framework of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
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For Prelims: UN high seas, UN high seas treaty, UNCLOS, Biodiversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBJN), Exclusive Economic Zone, Territorial Waters.
For Mains: 1. Discuss the significance of the Treaty of High Seas and explain how to save our high seas from overfishing and pollution.
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Previous year Question
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1. Concerning the United Nations Convention on the Law of Sea, consider the following statements: ( UPSC 2022)
Which of the statements given above is correct? A. 1 and 2 only
B. 2 and 3 only
C. 1 and 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer : D
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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN DRUG DEVELOPMENT
The process of developing a drug begins with identifying and validating a target. A target is typically a biological molecule, such as a gene or a protein, to which a drug binds to exert its effect. Most targets are proteins, and only those with ideal docking sites for drug molecules are considered "druggable" proteins.
- In the discovery phase, target proteins are identified, and their sequences are fed into a computer. The computer then searches for the best-fitting drug from a library of millions of small molecules, whose structures are stored in the system. This process relies on known structures of both the target protein and the drug. If these structures are unknown, the computer uses models to predict potential binding sites. This computational approach bypasses the need for time-consuming and costly laboratory experiments that often have a high failure rate.
- Once a suitable protein target and its corresponding drug are identified, the research progresses to the pre-clinical phase. During this stage, potential drug candidates are tested outside of biological systems, typically using cells and animals, to evaluate the drug's safety and toxicity.
- Following successful pre-clinical testing, the drug enters the clinical phase. Initially, it is tested on a small group of human patients to assess its safety. If successful, the testing is expanded to a larger group of patients to evaluate both efficacy and safety.
- After passing clinical trials, the drug undergoes regulatory approval. Once approved, the drug is marketed and continues to be monitored through post-market surveillance to ensure ongoing safety and efficacy.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) has the potential to revolutionize target discovery and drug-target interaction analysis by significantly reducing the time required, increasing prediction accuracy, and saving costs. Recent advancements in AI-based prediction tools, such as AlphaFold and RoseTTAFold, represent breakthroughs in computational drug development.
AlphaFold and RoseTTAFold: A Scientific Breakthrough
Developed by researchers at DeepMind, a Google company, and the University of Washington, U.S., respectively, AlphaFold and RoseTTAFold are based on deep neural networks. These networks utilize vast amounts of input data to generate three-dimensional structures of proteins. In recent years, the upgraded versions of these tools, AlphaFold 3 and RoseTTAFold All-Atom, have further advanced this field.
Capabilities of Upgraded AI Tools
AlphaFold 3, developed jointly by Isomorphic Labs (a DeepMind spinoff), and RoseTTAFold All-Atom, have significantly enhanced capabilities compared to their predecessors. These new versions can predict not only static structures of proteins and protein-protein interactions but also structures and interactions involving any combination of proteins, DNA, RNA, modifications, small molecules, and ions. They employ generative diffusion-based architectures, a type of AI model, to predict structural complexes.
Improved Prediction Accuracy
In a test involving 400 interactions between targets and their small molecule drugs, AlphaFold 3 accurately predicted interactions 76% of the time, compared to 40% accuracy by RoseTTAFold All-Atom. This marked improvement highlights the potential of these AI tools to streamline the drug development process by enhancing the accuracy of drug-target interaction predictions.
4. Drawbacks of AI in Drug Development
Despite the promise and potential AI brings to drug development, there are several limitations and challenges associated with its use.
Limited Accuracy
AI tools, while advanced, can only achieve up to 80% accuracy in predicting drug-target interactions. The accuracy significantly decreases for protein-RNA interaction predictions, highlighting a limitation in the scope of reliable predictions.
Restricted to Early Phases
These AI tools are primarily beneficial for the initial phase of drug development—target discovery and drug-target interaction. They do not eliminate the need for the pre-clinical and clinical development phases, where there is no assurance that AI-derived molecules will succeed.
Model Hallucinations
Diffusion-based architectures, employed by these AI tools, are susceptible to model hallucinations. This issue arises when there is insufficient training data, leading the tool to generate incorrect or non-existent predictions.
Limited Accessibility
Unlike earlier versions of AlphaFold, DeepMind has not released the code for AlphaFold 3. This restriction limits independent verification, broad utilization, and its application for studying protein-small molecule interactions. This lack of transparency and accessibility is a significant drawback for the scientific community.
5. India's AI Landscape in Drug Discovery
Developing advanced AI tools for drug development requires substantial computing infrastructure, particularly high-speed Graphics Processing Units (GPUs) capable of running multiple complex tasks involving long sequences. These GPU chips are expensive and rapidly become obsolete as newer, faster models are released annually.
Infrastructure and Expertise Challenges
India currently lacks the necessary large-scale computing infrastructure to support the development of AI tools in drug development. Additionally, there is a shortage of skilled AI scientists in India, unlike in countries like the U.S. and China. This shortage has hindered Indian researchers from establishing a first-mover advantage in developing AI tools for drug development, despite India's rich history in protein X-ray crystallography, modelling, and other structural biology fields.
Opportunities for Growth
However, India has a growing number of pharmaceutical organizations, which positions the country well to become a leader in applying AI tools for target discovery, identification, and drug testing. By investing in advanced computing infrastructure and cultivating AI expertise, India can leverage its strong foundation in structural biology to make significant contributions to AI-driven drug development.
6. Way Forward
By addressing the critical areas, India can transform its role from a spectator to a frontrunner in the exciting field of AI-driven drug discovery. This will not only benefit the country's own healthcare sector but also contribute to global efforts in developing life-saving medications faster and more efficiently.
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For Prelims: Artificial Intelligence, RNA, AlphaFold, RoseTTAFold, Graphics Processing Units
For Mains:
1. India has a strong foundation in structural biology but lacks the necessary infrastructure for developing cutting-edge AI tools. Suggest a roadmap for India to become a leader in applying AI for drug target discovery and drug testing. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. What is the Cas9 protein that is often mentioned in the news? (upsc 2019) (a) A molecular scissors used in targeted gene editing Answer: A |
CASTE CENSUS
A caste census is a comprehensive survey or data collection effort that aims to gather detailed information about the caste composition of a population. This typically involves:
- Counting individuals belonging to different caste groups
- Collecting socio-economic data related to caste categories
- Assessing the representation of various castes in different sectors
The caste system is particularly relevant in India, where it has historically played a significant role in social stratification. A caste census can provide insights into:
- Population distribution across caste groups
- Economic status of different castes
- Educational levels and employment patterns
- Representation in government jobs and political positions
In India, the last comprehensive caste census was conducted in 1931 during British rule. Since then, calls for a new caste census have been made periodically, with proponents arguing it would help in formulating more targeted welfare policies and ensuring equitable representation.
3. Why the Caste Census?
Historically, British India’s censuses from 1881 to 1931 recorded all castes. Post-Independence, the 1951 census excluded caste enumeration, except for SCs and STs, which continued to be recorded in every census. In 1961, the government allowed states to conduct their own OBC surveys and create state-specific OBC lists, as there were no central reservations for OBCs at that time
A caste census is essential for several reasons:
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Social Necessity: Caste remains a fundamental social framework in India. Inter-caste marriages were just 5% in 2011-12. Caste surnames and markers are common, residential areas are segregated by caste, and caste influences the selection of election candidates and cabinet ministers.
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Legal Necessity: Effective implementation of constitutionally mandated social justice policies, including reservations in elections, education, and public employment, requires detailed caste data. Despite the Constitution using the term 'class,' Supreme Court rulings have established caste as a significant criterion for defining a backward class, necessitating comprehensive caste-wise data to uphold reservation policies.
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Administrative Necessity: Detailed caste data helps correct wrongful inclusions and exclusions within reserved categories, prevents dominant castes from monopolizing reserved benefits, and is essential for sub-categorizing castes and determining the creamy layer's income/wealth criteria.
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Moral Necessity: The lack of detailed caste data has allowed a small elite among upper castes and dominant OBCs to disproportionately control the nation's resources, income, and power
There are several arguments against conducting a caste census:
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Social Division: Some argue that a caste census would exacerbate social divisions, although India's social hierarchies have existed for nearly 3,000 years, predating census efforts. Since 1951, counting SCs and STs has not led to conflicts among these groups. Moreover, India’s census already includes data on religion, language, and region, which are equally, if not more, divisive than caste. Ignoring caste in the census will not eliminate casteism any more than excluding religion, language, and region data will eradicate communalism and regionalism.
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Administrative Challenge: Some claim that a caste census would be administratively complex. However, unlike the concept of race, which can be ambiguous but is still counted in many countries like the U.S., caste identification in India is relatively clear. The government has successfully enumerated 1,234 SC castes and 698 ST tribes. Therefore, counting the approximately 4,000 other castes, most of which are specific to certain states, should not pose an insurmountable challenge.
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Increased Reservation Demands: Critics suggest that a caste census could lead to more demands for reservations. However, detailed caste data could actually help manage these demands more effectively by providing a factual basis for discussions. This would enable policymakers to address reservation claims more objectively, such as those from Marathas, Patidars, and Jats. In contrast, governments often prefer vague data because it allows them to make arbitrary reservation decisions for electoral gain
- The Constitution allows reservations for OBCs in education (Article 15(4)) and public employment (Article 16(4)), similar to SCs and STs. Following the Mandal Commission's recommendations, OBCs also benefit from reservations in the Central government and its undertakings. The Supreme Court's ruling in the Indra Sawhney case (1992) emphasized that the OBC list, originally based on the 1931 Census, should be updated regularly.
- Unlike SCs and STs, OBCs do not have reserved electoral constituencies for MPs and MLAs. However, the 73rd and 74th Constitutional amendments (1993) introduced reservations for OBCs in panchayats and municipalities (Articles 243D(6) and 243T(6)). To implement this effectively, detailed caste and area-wise Census data of OBCs is necessary, which the government should have collected in the 2001 Census but did not.
- When states like Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Odisha, and Jharkhand attempted to implement OBC reservations in local elections, courts halted these efforts due to the lack of caste-wise OBC data. The judiciary demands this data to uphold reservations, while the executive has avoided collecting it.
- In contrast, the Supreme Court upheld the 10% reservation for economically weaker sections (EWS) among non-OBCs, SCs, and STs (mainly upper castes) in 2022 without empirical support. Given the EWS reservation, the Census should now include all castes, as it did until 1931.
- Though the Census is a Union subject, the Collection of Statistics Act, 2008, allows States and local bodies to collect relevant data. States like Karnataka (2015) and Bihar (2023) have conducted caste surveys, but Census data holds more authority and is less disputed. The government's reluctance to include caste in the Census is both legally indefensible and administratively imprudent
- After extensive lobbying by OBC leaders, Parliament unanimously resolved in 2010, with support from both Congress and BJP, to include caste enumeration in the 2011 Census. The last such enumeration was in the 1931 Census, which recorded 4,147 castes in India, excluding the depressed classes/untouchables.
- However, the Socio-Economic and Caste Census (SECC) of 2011 was poorly designed and executed, resulting in an absurd figure of 4.6 million castes, and its results were never released.
- The failure of SECC-2011 can be attributed to its conduct outside the framework of the Census Act, 1948, which was not amended to include caste as a parameter. Instead, it was managed by the Union Ministries of Rural Development and Urban Development, which lacked experience in conducting sociological surveys.
- Additionally, the questionnaire was poorly designed with open-ended questions about caste, causing confusion among enumerators who struggled to differentiate between genuine castes, alternative names, larger caste groups, sub-castes, surnames, clan names, and gotras. In contrast, Bihar's 2023 Caste Survey provided a list of 214 specific caste names, with a 215th category labeled "Other Castes," resulting in more accurate data.
- Despite the 2010 unanimous Parliamentary resolution, the Central government announced in 2021 that it would not include caste enumeration in the next Census.
- It maintained this stance before the Supreme Court in response to a case filed by the Maharashtra government seeking the inclusion of OBCs in the 2021 Census. The Supreme Court's dismissal of Maharashtra's plea in December 2021 is contentious, given its own previous rulings
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For Prelims: Socio-economic and caste census (SECC), Mandal Commission, Justice G Rohini's Commission, NITI Aayog, Article 341 and Article 342.
For Mains: 1. General Studies II: Welfare schemes for vulnerable sections of the population by the Centre and States and the performance of these schemes; mechanisms, laws, institutions and Bodies constituted for the protection and betterment of these vulnerable sections
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