mRNA
1. Context
COVID-19 became the first-ever pandemic during which a vaccine could be quickly developed and deployed to prevent infections and deaths. Never-before-approved mRNA vaccines were used on humans and worked. The first two vaccines to be approved and deployed with this technology were rolled out by Pfizer and Moderna within a year. However, developing these vaccines would not have been possible without Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman, whose breakthrough research laid the template in 2005 and ensured that mRNA vaccines were safe and did not lead to excessive inflammatory immune response. Both are winners of the Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology, 2023
2. What is mRNA?
Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a type of genetic material that plays a crucial role in the process of protein synthesis within cells.
It serves as an intermediary between DNA and proteins in the cell, carrying the genetic instructions needed to build proteins from the cell's nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm, where protein synthesis occurs
Key features and functions of mRNA:
- mRNA carries genetic information from the DNA in the cell's nucleus to the ribosomes, which are the cellular machinery responsible for assembling proteins
- The process of creating mRNA from a DNA template is called transcription. During transcription, a specific segment of DNA is used as a template to synthesize a complementary mRNA strand.
- The mRNA strand is synthesized in such a way that it represents a copy of the genetic information encoded in the DNA, with thymine (T) in DNA being replaced by uracil (U) in mRNA
- mRNA consists of a series of nucleotide triplets called codons. Each codon corresponds to a specific amino acid or serves as a start or stop signal for protein synthesis.
- There are 64 possible codons, each specifying one of the 20 different amino acids used in protein synthesis
- Once mRNA is synthesized, it exits the nucleus and moves to the cytoplasm, where ribosomes read the codons on the mRNA strand to assemble amino acids in the correct order, forming a polypeptide chain. This chain eventually folds into a functional protein.
- mRNA is relatively short-lived within the cell. It is synthesized when needed for protein production and is then rapidly degraded once its role in protein synthesis is complete.
- mRNA sequences can vary among individuals and among cells within an individual. This variability allows cells to produce specific proteins in response to various signals and environmental conditions.
3.mRNA Vaccine
mRNA vaccines are a groundbreaking type of vaccine that use synthetic messenger RNA (mRNA) to trigger an immune response in the body. Unlike traditional vaccines, which often contain weakened or inactivated forms of the pathogen (such as a virus) or pieces of it (such as proteins), mRNA vaccines do not contain the pathogen itself.
Instead, they provide the body with the genetic instructions (mRNA) needed to produce a harmless piece of the pathogen, typically a protein, which then stimulates an immune response
The first mRNA vaccine to receive emergency use authorization (EUA) and widespread use was the Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine. It was co-developed by the American pharmaceutical company Pfizer and the German biotechnology company BioNTech. The vaccine is known as BNT162b2 or Comirnaty
3.1.Function of mRNA vaccine
- The function of an mRNA vaccine is to stimulate an immune response in the body against a specific pathogen, such as a virus, by introducing a small piece of synthetic messenger RNA (mRNA) that encodes a harmless piece of the pathogen's protein
- Scientists design and synthesize a short piece of mRNA in the laboratory. This synthetic mRNA contains the genetic instructions for producing a specific protein that is found on the surface of the target pathogen
- To protect the fragile mRNA and facilitate its entry into human cells, the synthetic mRNA is encapsulated in lipid nanoparticles. These lipid nanoparticles serve as delivery vehicles for the mRNA
- The mRNA vaccine is administered to the recipient through a standard intramuscular injection, usually into the upper arm
- The lipid nanoparticles containing the synthetic mRNA are taken up by host cells at the injection site
- Once inside the host cells, the synthetic mRNA is recognized by the cell's protein synthesis machinery, including ribosomes.
- The ribosomes read the mRNA sequence and start producing the specific protein encoded by the mRNA.
- In the case of mRNA vaccines, this protein is a piece of the pathogen (e.g., a part of the spike protein of the virus).
- The newly produced viral protein is displayed on the surface of the host cells. This protein is harmless and cannot cause the disease itself, but it serves as a marker for the immune system.
- The immune system of the recipient recognizes the displayed viral protein as foreign and potentially harmful. This recognition triggers a robust immune response, including the production of antibodies specific to the viral protein
4.Challenges to mRNA technology
- While mRNA (messenger RNA) technology has shown great promise, especially in the development of COVID-19 vaccines, it is not without its challenges and limitations
- mRNA molecules are inherently fragile and can degrade easily. This necessitates stringent storage and transportation requirements at very low temperatures for some mRNA vaccines, like the Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna COVID-19 vaccines.
- Maintaining the "cold chain" can be logistically challenging, especially in regions with limited infrastructure.
- The production of mRNA vaccines, particularly for novel vaccines, can be costly. This cost can impact access to these vaccines, especially in lower-income countries
- mRNA vaccines typically have a shorter shelf-life compared to some other types of vaccines. This can pose challenges in terms of distribution and administration, particularly in regions with limited healthcare infrastructure
|
For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance.
For Mains: General Studies III: Science and Technology- developments and their applications and effects in everyday life
|
|
Previous Year Questions
1.In the context of vaccines manufactured to prevent COVID-19 pandemic,
consider the following statements : (UPSC CSE 2022)
1. The Serum Institute of India produced COVID-19 vaccine named Covishield using mRNA platform.
2. Sputnik V vaccine is manufactured using vector based platform.
3. COVAXIN is an inactivated pathogen based vaccine.
Which of the statements given above are correct ?
A. 1 and 2 only
B. 2 and 3 only
C. 1 and 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer (B)
|
Source: indianexpress
CIRCULAR MIGRATION
1. Introduction
Recently, SBI released a report showing that internal migration in India has added Rs 15 lakh crore to states' gross domestic product (GDP). The report states that the increase in productivity due to the redistribution of human resources far outweighs the loss in GDP of states that are seeing people leave.
2. About Circular Migration
- Circular migration is a repetitive form of migration wherein people move to another place (the destination country) and back (country of origin) according to the availability of employment.
- This effectively means that instead of migrating permanently or temporarily (moving for some time to complete any contract-based labour) to another location, people move to different locations for a brief period when work is available.
- It is a phenomenon mostly among low-income groups who migrate to avail of seasonally available jobs in another country, city, place etc.
3. Public Policy
- With the increasingly fluid movement of people, policy around migration is one of the biggest debates in the world.
- The movement of citizens from the Global South to the West in search of more employment opportunities or a better standard of living creates a brain drain for their origin countries and competition for the citizens of the destination countries.
- Similarly, the flow of people moving from rural areas to more urban areas of the same country, results in the breakdown of infrastructure and agrarian stagnation. Therefore, migration of any kind has become a policy hazard.
4. Benefits of Circular Migration
- Circular migration is now seen as the best way forward, as the needs of development and individual economic advancement can be balanced out.
- It is seen as a balanced migration method which looks at migration not only from the point of view of the receiving country but also of the sending nation.
- For the country of origin, migration, especially international migration, is beneficial due to the flow of remittances which will boost and aid the domestic economy.
- The flow of foreign capital will enhance the economy ensuring more infrastructure, more jobs and by association, a better standard of living.
- However, large-scale transnational migration will also lead to brain drain, wherein the most talented people of the country will use their intellect and innovation for the advancement of another country.
- From the perspective of the host countries, especially those of the West, a lesser population and higher access to education has resulted in a large dearth of low-income low-skill jobs which migrants have been able to fill.
- However, the influx of migrants has caused a wide range of anxieties and cultural conflicts in the host populations with most of them now calling for restrictions and outright bans on migration.
- Circular migration aims to quell all these fears. The negative effects of brain drain will be reduced and a sort of brain circulation will be encouraged, wherein the individual can use his talents in both countries and still contribute to remittances.
Image Source: Research Gate5. Circular Migration in India
- In India, internal migration, which is migration within a particular country or State, has almost always been circular.
- With the advent of jobs in the manufacturing, construction and services sectors, there has been a huge flow of migrants from rural areas to urban cities.
- Between 2004–2005 and 2011–2012, the construction sector witnessed one of the largest net increases in employment for all workers, specifically for rural males.
- This has led to rural populations and their economy dwindling and urban spaces, while booming, witnessing infrastructural collapse as they are unable to properly house incoming populations.
- In India, the uneven development post-liberalisation has led to a lot of inter-state migration, with States like West Bengal, Odisha and Bihar having some of the highest rates of out-migration.
- Initially, while most of the migration was to Delhi, nowadays it has increased to southern States as well.
6. Challenges of Circular Migration
- In such migration, especially to southern States where the language barrier is a big obstacle, rural circular migrants are often at the mercy of middlemen or brokers.
- They are made to work in unhygienic and unsafe conditions with little to no protective equipment.
- They are routinely exploited and suffer significant ‘unfreedoms’ in host States.
- Additionally, indigenous wage groups and unions resent these migrants as they are seen as taking away their jobs by agreeing to work for lower wages.
- The study also says that this kind of migration is merely subsistence migration it’s the bare minimum.
- The migrants can barely provide for themselves and their families, with no scope for further asset creation or savings.
- There is also a certain precarity associated with these jobs as they are seasonal and often irregular.
- A lack of jobs in the host States means that they will either have to go back home or look for work in other.
7. Conclusion
- Circular migration is a dynamic phenomenon with significant implications for individuals, communities, and countries.
- It offers a potential solution to balance development needs and economic advancement.
- To address the challenges faced by circular migrants, policymakers must formulate comprehensive strategies that protect their rights and integrate them effectively into destination areas.
|
For Prelims: Circular Migration, Remittances, migration, GDP,
For Mains:
1. Discuss the potential solutions and policy initiatives that can address the challenges associated with circular migration in India. How can circular migration contribute to sustainable development in the country? (250 Words)
|
|
Previous Year Questions
Prelims
1. In the context of India, which of the following factors is/are contributor/contributors to reducing the risk of a currency crisis? (UPSC CSE 2019)
1. The foreign currency earnings of India's IT sector.
2. Increasing government expenditure.
3. Remittances from Indians abroad.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
A. 1 only B. 1 and 3 only C. 2 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
2. Read the following passage and answer the item that follows. Your answers to this item should be based on the passage only.
Climate change is likely to expose a large number of people to increasing environmental risks forcing them to migrate. The international community is yet to recognize this new category of migrants. There is no consensus on the definition and status of climate refugees owing to the distinct meaning the term refugees carry under international laws. There are still gaps in understanding how climate change will work as the root cause of migration. Even if there is recognition of climate refugees, who is going to provide protection? More emphasis has been given to international migration due to climate change. But there is a need to recognize the migration of such people within the countries also so that their problems can be addressed properly.
Which of the following is the most rational inference from the above passage? (UPSC CSE 2017)
A. The world will not be able to cope with large-scale migration of climate refugees.
B. We must find the ways and means to stop further climate change.
C. Climate change will be the most important reason for the migration of people in the future. D. Relation between climate change and migration is not yet properly understood.
Answer: D
3. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of a country is (SSC CGL 2022)
A. Total value of tradable goods produced in a year.
B. Total value of monetary and non-monetary goods and services within a year.
C. Total value of economic transactions done within a country within a year.
D. None of the above
Answer: D
4. With reference to India economy, consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2015)
1. The rate of growth of Real Gross Domestic Product has steadily increased in the last decade. 2. The Gross Domestic Product at market prices (in rupees) has steadily increased in the last decade.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: B
Mains
1. What are the main socio-economic implications arising out of the development of IT industries in major cities of India? (UPSC 2021)
2. Discuss the changes in the trends of labour migration within and outside India in the last four decades. (UPSC 2015)
|
Source: The Hindu
FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT (FDI)
1. Context
The Indian economy grew at 7.8 per cent in the first quarter of the ongoing financial year. Forecasts by most analysts, including those by the RBI, indicate that the country is likely to grow at around 6-6.5 per cent over the full year. Medium-term assessments, such as those by the IMF, peg growth at roughly 6 per cent between 2023 and 2028.
2. FDI in India
- In 2022-23, FDI inflows (including reinvested earnings and other capital) stood at $71.3 billion, down 16 per cent from $84.8 billion in 2021-22. Flows in 2022-23 were, in fact, below levels seen in 2019-20
- The disaggregated data shows that much of the fall during this period has been in fresh equity flows.
- Equity flows dropped from roughly $59.6 billion in 2021-22 to around $47.6 billion in 2022-23, and, in the first four months of the ongoing year, plunged to $13.9 billion from $22 billion last year
- This drop in FDI is not just concentrated in the tech space. Between 2021-22 and 2022-23, FDI fell not only in the computer software and hardware sector, but also in the automobile industry, construction (infrastructure activities), and metallurgical industries
3. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) refers to the investment made by individuals, businesses, or governments from one country (the home country) into another country (the host country) with the objective of establishing a lasting interest or significant degree of influence in the foreign business or enterprise
Key Aspects:
- FDI involves the transfer of funds and resources from one country to another. This capital inflow can help stimulate economic growth in the host country by providing funds for investment in infrastructure, technology, and other areas.
- FDI often leads to the creation of jobs in the host country. When foreign companies establish subsidiaries or invest in existing businesses, they typically hire local employees, which can help reduce unemployment and improve living standards
- Foreign investors often bring advanced technologies, processes, and management practices to the host country. This technology transfer can enhance the host country's productivity, competitiveness, and industrial capabilities
- FDI can provide access to new markets for both the host country and the investing company. Foreign investors can tap into the host country's consumer base, while the host country gains access to the investing company's global distribution networks.
- FDI can contribute to overall economic development in the host country by promoting industrialization, improving infrastructure, and fostering innovation and entrepreneurship.
4.FDI Routes in India
India has several routes through which Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) can enter the country. These routes are regulated by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), and they define the conditions, limits, and sectors in which FDI is allowed
-
Automatic Route: Under the automatic route, FDI is allowed without the need for prior approval from the RBI or the government. Investors only need to notify the RBI within a specified time frame after the investment is made. This route is available for most sectors, except those that are prohibited or require government approval.
-
Government Route: In sectors or activities that are not covered under the automatic route, FDI requires government approval. Investors must apply for approval through the Foreign Investment Facilitation Portal (FIFP) or the Foreign Investment Promotion Board (FIPB), depending on the sector.
4.1. Examples
- Under the automatic route, FDI of up to 100% is allowed for manufacturing of automobiles and components.
- For the manufacturing of electric vehicles (EVs), 100% FDI is allowed under the automatic route.
- In single-brand retail trading, 100% FDI is allowed, with up to 49% allowed under the automatic route. Beyond 49%, government approval is required.
- Multi-brand retail trading (supermarkets and department stores) with FDI is permitted in some states, subject to certain conditions and restrictions. The FDI limit is typically capped at 51%.
- FDI in the insurance sector is allowed up to 74%, with up to 49% under the automatic route. Beyond 49%, government approval is needed
- In the telecom sector, 100% FDI is allowed, with up to 49% under the automatic route. Beyond 49%, government approval is required
- In the defense sector, FDI up to 74% is allowed under the automatic route, with government approval required for investments beyond 49%
- In most segments of the media and broadcasting sector, including print and digital media, 100% FDI is allowed, with up to 49% under the automatic route
4.2.Sectors where FDI Prohibited
- FDI is prohibited in the atomic energy sector, which includes activities related to the production of atomic energy and nuclear power generation.
- FDI is generally prohibited in the gambling and betting industry, which includes casinos and online betting platforms
- FDI is not allowed in the lottery business, except for state-run lotteries
- FDI is prohibited in chit funds, which are traditional Indian savings and credit schemes.
- Nidhi companies are non-banking finance companies (NBFCs) that facilitate mutual benefit funds. FDI is typically not permitted in these entities
- While FDI is allowed in single-brand retail trading, it is generally prohibited in multi-brand retail trading of agricultural products. Some states have allowed it under specific conditions, but this remains a highly regulated area.
- FDI is not allowed in the trading of transferable development rights (TDRs) pertaining to the construction of real estate
5. Foreign Portfolio Investors (FPIs)
Foreign Portfolio Investors (FPIs) refer to foreign individuals, institutions, or funds that invest in financial assets in a country, such as stocks, bonds, mutual funds, and other securities. FPIs are distinct from Foreign Direct Investors (FDIs), who typically make long-term investments in companies and assets to establish a lasting interest
Key Aspects:
- FPIs invest in a country's financial markets, primarily by buying and selling securities traded on stock exchanges and fixed-income instruments like bonds and government securities
- FPIs often seek to diversify their investment portfolios by spreading their investments across different asset classes, sectors, and countries. This diversification helps manage risk and enhance returns
- FPIs have the flexibility to buy and sell securities in the secondary market, providing liquidity to the market and contributing to price discovery
- FPIs typically have a shorter investment horizon compared to Foreign Direct Investors (FDIs). They may engage in short-term trading or hold securities for a few months to a few years.
- FPIs are subject to regulatory frameworks and restrictions in the countries where they invest. These regulations are designed to ensure that foreign investments do not pose undue risks to the local financial markets and economy.
6.Foreign Portfolio vs. Foreign Direct Investment
| FPI (Foreign Portfolio Investment) | FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) |
| FPI involves the purchase of financial assets such as stocks, bonds, mutual funds, and other securities in a foreign country. These investments are typically made with the intention of earning returns on capital and do not result in significant control or ownership of the underlying businesses | FDI entails making an investment in a foreign country with the primary objective of establishing a lasting interest and significant control or influence over a business enterprise or physical assets. FDI often involves the acquisition of a substantial ownership stake (typically at least 10%) in a company or the establishment of new business operations. |
| FPI is generally characterized by a shorter investment horizon. Investors in FPI may engage in trading and portfolio rebalancing activities, and their investments are often more liquid. The focus is on earning capital gains and income from investments. | FDI is characterized by a longer-term commitment. Investors in FDI intend to engage in the day-to-day management or decision-making of the business, contribute to its growth and development, and generate profits over an extended period. |
| FPI investors typically have little to no influence or control over the companies in which they invest. They are passive investors who participate in the financial markets and rely on market dynamics to drive returns. | FDI investors actively participate in the management and decision-making of the businesses they invest in. They often seek to exercise control over company operations and strategy, which may include appointing board members or key executives. |
| FPI investments are often made through financial instruments like stocks, bonds, and securities. Investors may use instruments like mutual funds or exchange-traded funds (ETFs) to gain exposure to foreign markets | FDI investments involve a direct equity stake in a company, either through share acquisition or the establishment of a subsidiary or branch in the host country. FDI can also involve the purchase of real assets such as land, factories, or infrastructure |
| FPI can provide short-term capital inflows, but it may be more susceptible to market volatility and sudden capital outflows. It may not have as direct an impact on job creation and economic development as FDI. | FDI often contributes to long-term economic development by creating jobs, stimulating infrastructure development, transferring technology and expertise, and enhancing the competitiveness of local industries |
| FPI investments are subject to regulations that vary by country and may include foreign ownership limits, reporting requirements, and tax considerations. | FDI is subject to regulations that can be more stringent and may involve government approval, sector-specific conditions, and investment protection measures |
|
For Prelims: Economic and Social Development-Sustainable Development, Poverty, Inclusion, Demographics, Social Sector Initiatives, etc
For Mains: General Studies III: Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization, of resources, growth, development and employment
|
|
Previous Year Questions
1. Both Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) and Foreign Institutional Investor (FII) are related to investment in a country. (UPSC CSE 2011)
Which one of the following statements best represents an important difference between the two?
A.FII helps bring better management skills and technology, while FDI only brings in capital
B.FII helps in increasing capital availability in general, while FDI only targets specific sectors C.FDI flows only into the secondary markets, while FII targets primary market
D.FII is considered to the more stable than FDI
Answer (B)
|
Source: indianexpress
PURCHASING MANAGERS INDEX (PMI)
1. Context
India's manufacturing performance activity showed a five-month low in September 2023 as per the seasonally adjusted S&P Global India Manufacturing Purchasing Managers Index (PMI)
2. What is the Purchasing Managers Index (PMI)?
The Purchasing Managers' Index (PMI) is an economic indicator that provides insights into the health of a country's manufacturing or services sector.
PMI is widely used by businesses, economists, and policymakers to gauge the economic performance and future trends in these sectors.
It is usually expressed as a numerical value that reflects the prevailing business conditions.
2.1. Key Aspects of PMI
- PMI is typically calculated through surveys of purchasing managers in various industries. These managers are asked about their perception of different aspects of business activity, including new orders, production levels, employment, supplier deliveries, and inventories.
- PMI is usually reported as a number between 0 and 100.
- A PMI value above 50 generally indicates expansion in the sector, while a value below 50 suggests contraction. The farther the PMI is from 50, the stronger the perceived expansion or contraction.
- PMI is considered a leading indicator because it provides insights into economic conditions before official economic data, such as GDP growth or employment figures, are released. It can be used to anticipate changes in economic activity.
- PMIs are calculated separately for manufacturing and services sectors. A Manufacturing PMI focuses on the manufacturing sector, while a Services PMI provides insights into the services sector. These sector-specific PMIs can give a more detailed view of the economy.
Components: PMI is composed of several components, including:
- New Orders: This component measures the number of new orders received by businesses. An increase in new orders often signals growing demand and economic expansion.
- Production: This component reflects changes in production levels. An increase suggests increased economic activity.
- Employment: The employment component indicates changes in the level of employment within the sector. An increase typically means job growth.
- Supplier Deliveries: This measures the speed at which suppliers can deliver materials. Slower deliveries may indicate supply chain issues or increased demand.
- Inventories: Inventory levels can be an indicator of expected demand. A decrease in inventories might suggest an expectation of rising demand.
3. Significance of PMI
- The Purchasing Managers' Index (PMI) is a significant economic indicator with several important implications and uses
- PMI serves as a barometer of the economic health of a country or region. A PMI above 50 generally indicates economic expansion, while a PMI below 50 suggests contraction.
- This provides a quick and easily understandable snapshot of the direction of economic activity, making it a valuable tool for assessing the overall economic climate.
- PMI is a leading indicator, meaning it often provides insights into economic conditions ahead of other official economic data, such as GDP growth or employment figures. As such, it is used by businesses, investors, and policymakers to anticipate changes in economic activity and make informed decisions
4. Way forward
Purchasing Managers' Index (PMI) is a valuable economic indicator that helps gauge the economic health and trends in the manufacturing and services sectors. It provides timely insights into business activity and is widely used by businesses and policymakers for decision-making and economic forecasting
|
Previous Year Questions
1.What does S & P 500 relate to? (UPSC CSE 2008) (a) Supercomputer Answer: (d) |
Source: The Hindu
NAGORNO-KARABAKH
1. Context
On September 20, 2023, Azerbaijan claimed full control over the disputed Nagorno-Karabakh region after local forces, mostly Armenians, agreed to disarm and disband. Hundreds of local Armenians fled the area overnight, fearing ethnic cleansing by Azerbaijan.
2. History of the Conflict
- The conflict between Azeris and Armenians over Nagorno-Karabakh goes back a century.
- The region is located within the international borders of Azerbaijan, but it has a majority ethnic Armenian population.
- In 1920, the region was incorporated into the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic.
- However, when the Soviet Union was formed in 1922, Nagorno-Karabakh was made an autonomous Oblast (administrative region) within Azerbaijan.
- When the Soviet Union disintegrated in 1991, full-scale fighting again broke out between Azerbaijan and Armenia as Armenian rebels declared Nagorno-Karabakh an independent territory. The war lasted till 1994 and killed around 30,000 people.
- In 1994, Azerbaijan and Armenia entered a ceasefire brokered by Russia, but international borders for the countries were not demarcated.
- In 2016, a four-day war reignited hostilities between Armenia and Azerbaijan, but a lasting resolution remained elusive.
- In 2020, Azerbaijani President Ilham Aliyev launched a military offensive to reclaim Nagorno-Karabakh, resulting in a six-week-long, deadly conflict that claimed over 2,000 lives.
- Azerbaijan, backed by Turkey, recaptured 40% of Nagorno-Karabakh. Despite a ceasefire brokered by Russia, Azerbaijan continued its efforts to control the region.
- In December 2022, Azerbaijan blockaded the Lachin Corridor, the vital road connecting Nagorno-Karabakh to Armenia and the rest of the world, citing environmental concerns. This move added to the region's economic hardship.
Image Source: Wikipedia
3. Lachin Corridor
- The Lachin Corridor is a narrow strip of land, approximately 13-15 kilometres wide and around 178 kilometres long, located in the South Caucasus.
- It is considered a humanitarian corridor or "lifeline" to the Armenian population of Nagorno-Karabakh, as it is the only road connecting the region to Armenia and the rest of the world.
- The Lachin Corridor is of immense importance due to its role as the primary land route connecting Nagorno-Karabakh, a predominantly ethnic Armenian region, to Armenia proper.
- Without access to this corridor, Nagorno-Karabakh becomes geographically isolated from Armenia.
4. Factors Behind the Recent Developments
- Experts suggest that Turkey played a significant role in the latest developments, although it denied direct involvement in Azerbaijan's offensive.
- Turkey is a political and military supporter of Azerbaijan.
- Russia's focus on its conflict in Ukraine limited its involvement in the Caucasus.
- Armenia's frustration with Russia's lack of support led it to vote to join the International Criminal Court (ICC), despite Russia's warnings.
- The ICC has issued a warrant for the arrest of Russian President Vladimir Putin.
- Over 100,000 ethnic Armenians from Nagorno-Karabakh have fled to Armenia in response to the recent events, triggering a massive humanitarian crisis.
5. Conclusion
The Nagorno-Karabakh conflict remains a complex and volatile issue with a deep historical legacy. Recent developments, marked by Azerbaijan's control over the region and the displacement of Armenians, underscore the urgent need for a sustainable and peaceful resolution to this long-standing dispute.
|
For Prelims: Nagorno-Karabakh, International Criminal Court, Azerbaijan, Soviet Union, Armenia, Lachin Corridor, Turkey, Caucasus,
For Mains:
1. Examine the potential lessons that India can learn from the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict in managing its border disputes. (250 Words)
|
|
Previous Year Questions
1. Which of the following characterise International Criminal Court (ICC)? (UGC NET 2020)
(A) The Rome statute established ICC as 'Court of last resort'
(B) ICC can exercise jurisdiction only when national courts are unwilling or unable to investigate or prosecute
(C) It can not prosecute acts of war crimes
(D) ICC is not located in the Hague
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
1. (A) and (B) only 2. (B) and (C) only 3. (C) and (D) only 4. (A) and (D) only
Answer: 1
2. Consider the following countries: (UPSC CSE 2022)
1. Azerbaijan
2. Kyrgyzstan
3. Tajikistan
4. Turkmenistan
5. Uzbekistan
Which of the above have borders with Afghanistan?
A. 1, 2 and 5 only B. 1, 2, 3 and 4 only C. 3, 4 and 5 only D. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
Answer: C
3. The Soviet Union broke down in the year _______. (SSC GD 2019)
A. 1991 B. 1880 C. 2000 D. 1900
Answer: A
4. Turkey is located between (UPSC CSE 2014)
A. Black Sea and Caspian Sea
B. Black Sea and Mediterranean Sea
C. Gulf of Suez and Mediterranean
D. Gulf of Aqaba and Dead Sea
Answer: B
5. Which one of the following mountains separates Black Sea and Caspian Sea? (CDS GK 2019)
A. Urals B. Caucasus C. Carpathians D. Balkan mountains
Answer: B
6. Consider the following pairs: Region often in news Country (UPSC CSE 2014)
1. Chechnya Russian Federation
2. Darfur Mali
3. Swat Valley Iraq
Which of the above pair is/are correctly matched?
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: A
|
Source: The Hindu
CASTE CENSUS
1. Context
Choosing Gandhi Jayanti to make the announcement, the Nitish government revealed the results of its caste survey, putting the combined OBC strength in the state at 63% – a 10% leap over their share estimated by the 1931 census, the last time caste enumeration was done in the country – and adding fresh vigour to the Opposition’s demand for a caste census.
2. Caste Census
- The socio-economic and caste census (SECC) was conducted in 2011 for the first time since 1931.
- SECC is meant to canvass every Indian Family, both in rural and urban India, and ask about their economic status to allow central and state authorities to come up with a range of indicators of deprivation, permutations, and combinations that could be used by each authority to define a poor or deprived person.
- It is also meant to ask every person their specific caste name to allow the government to re-evaluate which caste groups were economically worse off and which were better off.
- SECC has the potential to allow for a mapping of inequalities at a broader level.
3. Takeaways from Bihar Survey
According to data released by Development Commissioner Vivek Singh, Bihar’s total population now stands at a little over 13.07 crore, up from 10-odd crore in the 2011 Census. The EBCs make up 36.01% of this, and OBCs an additional 27.13%. The survey also found that Yadavs, the main vote base of the RJD, are the largest group, accounting for 14.27% of the total population.
The Dalits, or Scheduled Castes, account for 19.65%, higher than expected, while STs comprise 1.68%.
The Dalits, or Scheduled Castes, account for 19.65%, higher than expected, while STs comprise 1.68%.
4. History of Caste Census
The caste census is the demand to include the caste-wise tabulation of India's population in the upcoming exercise.
4.1 Caste census in Colonial Era:
- The First Census conducted in 1871 included questions about caste. This data was then used to divide and conquer India.
- It first privileged Brahmins are interpreters of Indian culture and then targeted them as the root of caste-based oppression and inequality.
- This classification was also a source of anti-Brahmin movements of the 20th century.
- Every census until 1931 had data on caste.
- The practice was stopped by the British with the 1941 Census, citing financial constraints. The Indian government did not pick up the dropped parameter.
4.2 Caste data published in the Census post-independence:
- Since the first exercise in independent India in 1951, India has published separate data on Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST).
- The Census does not include data on other castes.
- The Government of India had decided on the policy of official discouragement of Caste.
- It was decided that in general, no race/caste/tribe inquiries should be made and such enquires should be restricted to the Scheduled Castes and Tribes notified by the President of India in pursuance of Articles 341 and 342 of the Constitution.
5. Importance of Caste Census
5.1 Promote Rational Decision Making
- A caste census, which will generate exhaustive data will allow policymakers to develop better policies, and implementation strategies, and will also enable a more rational debate on sensitive issues.
5.2 Promotes Democratic Policymaking
- Advocates of its inclusion believe that the activity will be a pro-poor exercise that will help plan better and more targeted welfare schemes in the country.
- A caste census would bring forward a large number of issues that any democratic country needs to pay attention to.
- For instance, this census will reveal information regarding caste-based marginalization, deprivation, the kind of jobs pursued by a caste, etc.
- So, the caste census is nothing but the collection of data that is necessary for any democratic policymaking.
5.3 The rationale for the Reservation Policy
- Some proponents also suggest that a Caste Census will also help reservation policymakers have a more accurate idea of the affirmative action needed.
- While this data is currently available for SC and ST populations, the OBC population is estimated widely as per the number noted by the Mandal Commission at 52%.
- The Justice Rohini Committee was appointed in 2017 to look into the sub-categorization of the OBC communities; however, in the absence of data, there can be no data bank or any proper sub-categorization.
- All commissions have had to rely on data from the last caste census (1931). There have been substantive demographic changes since then and therefore, the data has to be updated.
5.4 Constitutional Mandate
- Indian Constitution also favors conducting a caste census.
- Article 340 mandates for appointment of a commission to investigate the conditions of socially and educationally backward classes and make recommendations as to the steps that should be taken by the governments.
6. Last Cast Census and redundancy
- A separate Socio-Economic and Caste Census (SECC) was conducted by the Ministry of Rural Development in rural areas and the Ministry of Housing & Urban Poverty Alleviation in urban areas in 2011.
- It was the largest exercise of the listing of castes and has the potential of finding inequalities at a broader level.
- SECC was a tool to identify beneficiaries of state support and it is open for use by Government departments to grant and/ or restrict benefits to households.
- However, the SECC data excluded caste data and was published by the two ministries in 2016.
- The raw caste data was handed over to the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment.
- The ministry formed an Expert Group under the Former NITI Aayog Vice-Chairperson Arvind Pangaria for the classification and categorization of data.
- The Pubic data eventually released gave numbers of different castes in India but not the population-wise data as was the demand.
- Only the details of the economic conditions of the people in rural and urban households were released. The caste data has not been released till now.
- The Centre says that an analysis of the data showed "that the caste enumeration...was fraught with mistakes and inaccuracies" and "is not reliable".
7. Way Forward
- A Caste census without data integrity would be much worse. Instead of going behind the caste bases census, the government can subclassify the Backward classes like in Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, etc. This will provide the benefit to intended beneficiaries.
- Since the government has already appointed Justice G Rohini's panel on the sub-categorization of OBCs. The panel has to fast-pace the sub-classification process.
- The Government can use technologies like Artificial Intelligence and machine learning to assess the SECC data and condense them into meaningful categories and some important caste-based information. This will provide the necessary time to analyze the need for a caste census.
|
For Prelims: Socio-economic and caste census (SECC), Mandal Commission, Justice G Rohini's Commission, NITI Aayog, Article 341 and Article 342.
For Mains: 1. General Studies II: Welfare schemes for vulnerable sections of the population by the Centre and States and the performance of these schemes; mechanisms, laws, institutions and Bodies constituted for the protection and betterment of these vulnerable sections.
|
Source: The Hindu
