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DAILY CURRENT AFFAIRS, 30 JANUARY 2024

SIMULTANEOUS ELECTIONS

 
 
1. Context
A High-Level Committee (HLC) headed by Ramnath Kovind, former President of India, was constituted in September 2023 to examine the issue of holding simultaneous elections for the Lok Sabha, State Legislative Assemblies and local bodies of all States. The HLC has invited responses from political parties, the Law Commission and other groups on the proposal to hold simultaneous elections.
 
2. About Simultaneous elections

Simultaneous elections(One Nation One Election) in India refer to the idea of holding the Lok Sabha (parliamentary) and state legislative assembly elections across the country at the same time, rather than the current system of staggered elections where polls are held at different times for different states and union territories. This concept has been a topic of discussion and debate in Indian politics for several years.

Key characteristics related to simultaneous elections in India:

  1. Current Election System: India follows a federal system of government, which means that elections are held separately for the Lok Sabha (federal parliament) and state legislative assemblies. Furthermore, the terms of different state assemblies can vary, leading to elections happening at different times across the country.

  2. Arguments in Favor:

    • Cost and Resource Efficiency: Conducting elections at different times is expensive and requires significant resources. Simultaneous elections could save time and money.
    • Stability and Governance: Proponents argue that simultaneous elections can provide more political stability and allow governments to focus on governance instead of frequent election campaigning.

  3. Challenges and Concerns:

    • Constitutional Hurdles: Implementing simultaneous elections would require constitutional amendments, as the terms of state assemblies cannot be easily synchronized with the Lok Sabha.
    • Logistical Challenges: Organizing simultaneous elections for a country as vast and diverse as India is a complex logistical challenge.
    • Impact on Regional Parties: Smaller regional parties are concerned that simultaneous elections might undermine their ability to campaign effectively.
2. Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs)
Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) are electronic devices used for voting in elections, primarily in India. EVMs have become an integral part of the electoral process in many countries, offering several advantages over traditional paper ballot systems
EVMs were introduced in India in the 1980s as a replacement for the traditional paper ballot system. The aim was to make the voting process more efficient, transparent, and less prone to electoral fraud
 
Key characteristics of EVMs:

Components of an EVM:

  • Control Unit: This is the main unit of the EVM. It is operated by a polling officer and manages the authentication of voters.
  • Balloting Unit: This unit is where voters cast their votes. It is connected to the control unit and displays the list of candidates and their respective symbols
Working of EVMs
  • When a voter casts their vote by pressing the button next to their chosen candidate's name, the EVM records the vote electronically.
  • EVMs are designed to ensure secrecy and prevent double voting.
  • After the election, the data stored in the EVMs is used to tally the votes
Challenges
  • EVMs are designed with multiple layers of security to prevent tampering or hacking.
  • They use a one-time programmable (OTP) chip to store voting data securely.
  • Before and after elections, EVMs are subject to rigorous testing and sealing to ensure their integrity
3.Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (or VVPAT)
  • Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) machines are used during election process to verify that the vote polled by a voter goes to the correct candidate.
  • VVPATs are a second line of verification and are particularly useful in the time when allegations around Electronic Voting Machines’ tampering crop up.
  • Parties have been making regular demands for VVPATs to be used during elections after alleging EVMs may not be completely secure and tamper proof.
    VVPAT system gives instant feedback to the voter showing that the vote polled has in fact been allotted against the candidate chosen.
  • After a voter presses the button on the EVM against the chosen candidate, the VVPAT prints a slip containing name of the candidate and the election symbol and drops it automatically into a sealed box. The machines give the chance for the voter to verify their vote.
  • The machine is placed in a glass case in a way that only the voter can see it. The slip is displayed to the voter for seven seconds after which the VVPAT machine cuts it and drops in into the storage box with a beep. The machines can be accessed, though, by the polling officials and not by the voter.
4. Way forward
If elections were to be held simultaneously in 2029, the EC would require a total of 53.76 lakh ballot units, 38.67 lakh control units, and 41.65 lakh VVPATs. The anticipated shortfall is 26.55 lakh ballot units, 17.78 lakh control units and 17.79 lakh VVPATs, for which the government would need to allocate close to Rs 8,000 crore. The increased demand for voting machines and VVPATs in 2029 is due to the growing number of voters and polling stations. The latter is expected to increase from 11.8 lakh in 2024 to 13.57 lakh in 2029
 
 
 
 
For Prelims:  Indian Polity and Governance
For Mains:  General Studies II: Salient features of the Representation of People’s Act
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1. The Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) system was used for the first time by the Election Commission of India in (UPSC CSE 2019)
A. North Paravur Assembly Constituency
B. Kerala Noksen Assembly Constituency
C. Nagaland Mapusa Assembly Constituency, Goa
D. Nambol Assembly Constituency, Manipur
Answer (B)
 
Source: indianexpress
LITHIUM-ION CELLS
 
 
 
1. Context
 
 
Last year was a good year for Electric Vehicles (EV) in India with sales recording a 50% growth compared to 2022. While actual volumes remain small (6% of vehicles registered in 2023), the industry is poised for phenomenal growth with the Indian EV market expected to reach $100 billion by 2030. The heart of an EV is its battery — with the battery system accounting for 40% of the vehicle cost. The projected growth of the EV market is dependent on advances in battery technology translating to better economics and enhanced user experience (longer range, faster charging and improved safety)
 
 
2. About Lithium
 
Lithium is a chemical element with the symbol Li and atomic number 3. It is a soft, silvery-white alkali metal. Under standard conditions, it is the least dense metal and the least dense solid element
Lithium is one of the key components in electric vehicle (EV) batteries. As the world transitions from gasoline and diesel to electric vehicles, the demand for lithium is going up rapidly too. Lithium is used not only in EVs but also in batteries for gadgets like laptops and mobile phones. It has also found application in the glass and ceramics industries
Lithium has been dubbed “white gold” for its widespread usage in items indispensable to modern-day living
 

3. QuantumScape's Brighter Battery
 
  • In the realm of technological advancements, QuantumScape's solid-state battery, featuring lithium metal with a solid electrolyte between the electrodes, stands out as a highly promising innovation in a crowded field.
  • Co-founded by Jagdeep Singh a decade ago and backed by financial support from Volkswagen and Bill Gates' venture fund, the company went public late last year, quickly attaining a valuation of nearly $50 billion.
  • This rapid ascent was fueled by the belief that QuantumScape's groundbreaking battery technology could present a safer and more cost-effective alternative to traditional lithium-ion batteries.
  • Unlike previous attempts to develop a solid-state separator compatible with lithium metal, which is often compromised on factors such as battery cycle life and operating temperature, QuantumScape claims to have overcome these challenges.
  • The company's utilization of solid-state separator technology effectively eliminates the undesirable side reactions between the liquid electrolyte and the carbon/graphite components in the anode of conventional lithium-ion cells.
  • Through its collaboration with QuantumScape, Volkswagen envisions achieving production of solid-state batteries by 2025, signalling a significant leap forward in the pursuit of advanced battery solutions.

4. Limits of Lithium-Ion's batteries

 
  • The energy density of contemporary lithium-ion cells, commonly used in mobile phones and electric vehicles, surpasses older nickel-cadmium batteries by nearly four times.
  • However, persistent issues such as long charging times and limited energy density continue to pose challenges.
  • While suitable for phones and laptops, lithium-ion batteries fall short of providing the range needed to make electric vehicles a compelling alternative to traditional internal combustion engines.
  • A significant hurdle in lithium-ion technology is the extreme reactivity of lithium metal.
  • Dendrites, branch-like lithium structures that can grow from the electrode, pose a major risk by potentially piercing through the separator and causing a short circuit.
  • In current lithium-ion batteries with flammable liquid electrolytes, dendrite formation can lead to hazardous fires.

5. The Rise of Solid-State Batteries

QuantumScape addresses these challenges with its solid-state lithium-metal battery. Unlike traditional lithium-ion batteries that use a polymer separator, QuantumScape replaces it with a solid-state separator. This innovation allows the integration of a lithium-metal anode instead of the conventional carbon/graphite anode.

The lithium metal anode in QuantumScape's design boasts higher energy density compared to traditional anodes. This enhancement enables the battery to store more energy within the same volume. Notably, the QuantumScape battery is 'anode-free,' manufactured in a discharged state, with the negative electrode forming in situ during the initial charge.

Key Advantages of QuantumScape's Technology

  • By eliminating the carbon anode, QuantumScape's technology achieves higher cell energy density, allowing for the storage of more energy in the same volume.
  • The elimination of the need for lithium diffusion into carbon particles in conventional lithium-ion cells results in reduced charge times.
  • The solid-state battery technology enables more charging cycles, leading to a longer battery life.
  • With a solid-state separator and the absence of a flammable liquid electrolyte, safety concerns associated with dendrite formation and potential fires are mitigated.
  • QuantumScape aims to lower battery costs by 15-20% relative to lithium-ion batteries, a potentially game-changing factor given that battery expenses constitute a significant portion (30%) of total vehicle costs.
 
Consumer Priorities Align with Solid-State

A study by Deloitte emphasizes that consumer considerations for purchasing electric vehicles include price, reliability, and the cost of charging. QuantumScape's technology aligns with these priorities by targeting lower battery costs, anticipating a significant impact on the overall adoption of electric vehicles. Current lithium-ion battery costs of around $137 per kWh are expected to decrease to $101/kWh by 2023, according to BloombergNEF data. 

 6. The Diverse Battery Landscape

 

Form Energy's Iron-Air Battery

In July, Form Energy Inc., based in the United States, introduced a rechargeable iron-air battery designed to deliver electricity for an impressive 100 hours. The company claims that its system cost is competitive with conventional power plants and is less than a tenth of the cost of lithium-ion batteries. Primarily intended for utility-scale applications, this front-of-the-meter battery enables continuous operation, ensuring round-the-clock functionality for renewable electricity grids. The innovative technology relies on the concept of 'reversible rusting,' using oxygen from the air to convert iron metal to rust during discharge and reversing the process during charging.

Toyota's Solid-State Battery

Toyota, leading in the realm of solid-state battery patents with over 1,000 global filings, is actively working on solid-state battery technology. The Japanese automaker aims to regain its position as a battery technology leader, challenging current lithium-ion pack leaders, particularly in China. Toyota is on track to be the first to commercialize an electric vehicle (EV) equipped with a solid-state battery and has plans to unveil a prototype. Nissan is also actively pursuing developments in this field.

Apple's Breakthrough Battery Tech

In the final weeks of 2020, Apple Inc. announced its venture into self-driving car technology, targeting a 2024 timeline for producing a passenger vehicle. A key element of Apple's strategy is a "breakthrough" battery design aimed at significantly reducing battery costs and increasing the vehicle's range. The innovative design is anticipated to have a radical impact on electric vehicle technology.

Tesla's Tabless Battery

In September of the previous year, Tesla revealed plans to develop a "tabless" lithium-ion battery, presenting advancements in electric car range and power. Unlike traditional batteries, Tesla's tabless cells eliminate the need for a tab, the part forming a connection between the cell and the powered device. Tesla claims that these tablet cells will enhance energy capacity by five times, increase power by six times, and extend the vehicle's range by 16 per cent. This development showcases Tesla's continuous efforts to push the boundaries of electric vehicle technology.

 
 

7. India's Ambitious Battery Initiatives

 

Government Blueprint for Grid-Scale Storage: The Indian government is formulating a comprehensive plan for a substantial project involving approximately 4,000 MWh of grid-scale battery storage systems. These installations will be strategically positioned at regional load dispatch centres, responsible for overseeing the nation's power grid. The primary objective is to address the challenges posed by the intermittent nature of renewable energy generation.

Reliance Industries' Energy Storage Giga Factory: Reliance Industries Ltd., a prominent Indian conglomerate, has unveiled plans to establish an Energy Storage Giga factory. This ambitious project reflects a strategic move toward advancing energy storage capabilities within the country. The facility is anticipated to play a crucial role in meeting the growing demand for reliable and efficient energy storage solutions.

NTPC's Global Tender for Grid-Scale Battery Project: The state-owned NTPC Ltd. has taken significant steps by issuing a global tender for a grid-scale battery storage project. This initiative aligns with broader efforts to enhance India's energy infrastructure and integrate sustainable practices. The global tender indicates a commitment to exploring cutting-edge technologies and solutions for large-scale battery storage systems.

Ministry of Heavy Industries' Call for Advanced Chemistry Cell (ACC) Manufacturing: The Ministry of Heavy Industries proactively issued a request for proposals on October 22, signalling the intent to establish manufacturing facilities for Advanced Chemistry Cell (ACC) battery storage in India. This move underscores the government's commitment to fostering indigenous manufacturing capabilities for advanced battery technologies. The proposal submission deadline, concluding on December 31, highlights the urgency and priority accorded to the development of ACC battery storage within the country.

 
8. The Way Forward
 
 
As the world transitions to a cleaner and more sustainable future, battery technology is at the heart of it all. With advancements in lithium-ion, the rise of solid-state batteries, and the exploration of diverse technologies, we can expect a future powered by safer, more efficient, and longer-lasting batteries. The future is bright, and it's powered by innovation.
 
 
For Prelims: Lithium-ion, Solid-state batteries, rare earth elements, Electronic Vehicles
 
For Mains: 
1. Critically analyze the potential of QuantumScape's solid-state battery technology compared to traditional lithium-ion batteries. Discuss its advantages and challenges in the context of electric vehicle adoption. (250 Words)
2. Discuss the economic implications of the growing battery market. Discuss the potential impact on battery costs, job creation, and the overall economic landscape. (250 Words)
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1. Which type of battery is used in the recently launched world's first fully electric cargo ship by change? (Delhi Police Constable 2017) 
A. Lead Acid
B. Manganese
C. Lithium ion
D. Nickel metal hydride
 
 
2. Recently, there has been a concern over the short supply of a group of elements called 'rare earth metals.' Why? (UPSC 2012)
1. China, which is the largest producer of these elements, has imposed some restrictions on their export.
2. Other than China, Australia, Canada and Chile, these elements are not found in any country. 3. Rare earth metals are essential for the manufacture of various kinds of electronic items and there is a growing demand for these elements.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?  
A. 1 only         B. 2 and 3 only    C.  1 and 3 only      D. 1, 2 and 3
 
 
3. With reference to India, consider the following statements : (UPSC 2022)
1. Monazite is a source of rare earths.
2. Monazite contains thorium.
3. Monazite occurs naturally in the entire Indian coastal sands in India.
4. In India, Government bodies only can process or export monazite.
Which of the statements given above are correct ?
A. 1, 2 and 3 only     B. 1, 2 and 4 only     C. 3 and 4 only       D. 1, 2, 3 and 4
 
 
4. With reference to 'fuel cells' in which hydrogen-rich fuel and oxygen are used to generate electricity, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2015) 
1. If pure hydrogen is used as a fuel, the fuel cell emits heat and water as by-products.
2. Fuel cells can be used for powering buildings and not for small devices like laptop computers.
3. Fuel cells produce electricity in the form of Alternating Current (AC)
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only        B.  2 and 3 only      C. 1 and 3 only           D. 1, 2 and 3
 
 
5. With the present state of development, Artificial Intelligence can effectively do which of the following?  (UPSC 2020) 
1. Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units.
2. Create meaningful short stories and songs.
3. Disease diagnosis.
4. Text-to-Speech Conversion.
5. Wireless transmission of electrical energy.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1, 2, 3 and 5 only       B. 1, 3 and 4 only      C.  2, 4 and 5 only      D. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
 

6. Which one of the following pairs of metals constitutes the lightest metal and the heaviest metal, respectively? (UPSC 2008)

A. Lithium and mercury
B. Lithium and osmium
C. Aluminum and osmium
D. Aluminium and mercury

Answers: 1-C, 2-C, 3-B, 4-A, 5-B, 6-B
 
Source: The Indian Express
 

DIRECTORATE OF ENFORCEMENT (ED)

1. Context

A team of Enforcement Directorate (ED) officials visited the Delhi residence of Jharkhand Chief Minister Hemant Soren on Monday for questioning him in connection with a land fraud case. While the ED team, which camped at the house for more than 12 hours, said the CM could not be located, Mr. Soren later sent a letter to the agency saying it is “motivated by political agenda”

2. About the Directorate of Enforcement 

  • The Directorate of Enforcement (ED) is an agency in India that primarily deals with the enforcement of economic laws and regulations to combat money laundering, foreign exchange violations, and financial fraud.
  • The ED is part of the Department of Revenue under the Ministry of Finance, Government of India.

3. Establishment and History

  • The Directorate of Enforcement was established on 1st May 1956, as the "Enforcement Unit" within the Department of Economic Affairs.
  • Its primary focus was on preventing and detecting violations of the Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA) of 1947.
  • Over the years, the agency's role expanded, and in 1999, the Enforcement Directorate was established as a separate entity under the Ministry of Finance.
  • The enactment of the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) in 2002 further broadened its jurisdiction, giving it the power to investigate cases related to money laundering.
  • Since its establishment, the ED has played a crucial role in combating economic offences and ensuring compliance with economic laws in India.
  • It has been involved in several high-profile cases, including those related to financial scams, money laundering by influential individuals, and cross-border financial crimes.
  • The ED collaborates with various domestic and international agencies, including financial intelligence units, law enforcement agencies, and Interpol, to gather information, share intelligence, and effectively coordinate efforts to combat economic offences.

4. Functions and Roles of ED

4.1. Enforcing Economic Laws

  • The primary function of the ED is to enforce two key economic laws in India: the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) and the Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA).
  • It ensures compliance with these laws and investigates money laundering, foreign exchange violations, and economic fraud cases.

4.2. Money Laundering Investigations

  • The ED investigates cases involving money laundering, which is the process of concealing the origins of illegally obtained money to make it appear legitimate.
  • It identifies and seizes properties and assets derived from illicit activities and prevents their further use.

4.3. Foreign Exchange Violations

  •  The ED is responsible for investigating cases related to violations of foreign exchange laws and regulations.
  • It monitors and controls foreign exchange transactions to maintain the stability of the Indian rupee and prevent illegal activities such as smuggling and illegal money transfers.

4.4 Financial Frauds

  • The ED also investigates and takes action against financial frauds, including bank frauds, Ponzi schemes, and other fraudulent activities affecting the Indian financial system.
  • It works closely with other law enforcement agencies, such as the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), to tackle complex financial crimes.

5.  Challenges

5.1. The complexity of economic crimes.

  • Economic crimes are often complex and involve a variety of financial transactions.
  • This can make it difficult for the ED to trace the proceeds of crime and to build a case against the perpetrators.

5.2. The difficulty of tracing the proceeds of crime

  • The proceeds of crime are often hidden in complex financial structures, making it difficult for the ED to track them down.
  • The ED also faces challenges in obtaining information from foreign jurisdictions, where the proceeds of crime may have been transferred.

5.3. The lack of international cooperation

  • Economic crime is often transnational, making it difficult for the ED to cooperate with foreign law enforcement agencies.
  • This is due to differences in legal systems, as well as political and economic considerations.

5.4. Political interference

  • The ED has been accused of being used as a political tool by the ruling party to target its opponents and critics.
  • This has raised questions about the independence and impartiality of the ED.

5.5. Lack of transparency

  • The ED has been criticized for its lack of transparency.
  • The agency does not publish its annual reports, and it is difficult to obtain information about its investigations.
  • This has made it difficult for the public to hold the ED accountable.

5.6. Human rights violations

  •  The ED has been accused of violating the human rights of those it investigates.
  • The agency has been accused of using coercive tactics, such as prolonged detention and interrogation, to extract confessions from suspects.

5.7. The limited resources

  • The ED is a relatively small agency with limited resources.
  • This can make it difficult for the ED to investigate complex economic crimes and prosecute the perpetrators.

6. Conclusion

  • The Directorate of Enforcement in India plays a crucial role in enforcing economic laws, preventing money laundering, and combating financial crimes.
  • With its specialized expertise, investigative capabilities, and coordination with domestic and international partners, the ED contributes to the integrity of the financial system, national security, and the country's overall socio-economic development.
For Prelims: Directorate of Enforcement, Financial Action Task Force, Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA), the Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA), Supreme Court, Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA) of 1947, Central Bureau of Investigation, 
For Mains: 
1. Discuss the establishment and evolution of the Directorate of Enforcement in India. Explain its key functions and roles in combating economic offences. (250 Words)
 
 

Previous Year Questions

1. Which one of the following is not correct in respect of Directorate of Enforcement ? (CDS  2021)
A. It is a specialized financial investigation agency under the Department of Revenue, Ministry of Finance.
B. It enforces the Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999.
C. It enforces the Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002.
D. It enforces the Prohibition of Benami Property Transaction Act, 1988.
 
Answer: D
 
2. The Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002 become effective since which one of the following dates? (UKPSC RO/ARO 2012)
 
A. July 2002          B. August 2003        C. July 2004         D. July 2005
 
Answer: D
 
3. FEMA (Foreign Exchange Management Act) was finally implemented in the year (UPPSC  2013)
A. 1991         B. 1997         C. 2000             D. 2007
 
Answer: C
 
4. The Foreign Exchange Regulation Act was replaced by the ______ in India. (SSC Steno 2020) 
A. Foreign Exchange Currency Act
B. Foreign Exchange Finances Act
C. Foreign Exchange Funds Act
D. Foreign Exchange Management Act
 
Answer: D
 
5. "Central Bureau of Intelligence and Investigation" is listed in the __________ list given in the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution of India. (SSC CGL 2017) 
A. Union             B. State             C. Global          D. Concurrent
 
Answer: A
 
Source: The Indian Express
 

FIRST INFORMATION REPORT (FIR)

 

1. Context

The Chhattisgarh Economic Offence Wing/Anti-Corruption Bureau (EOW/ACB) has filed separate FIRs related to two alleged scams that occurred during the previous Congress administration in the State.

The FIRs — one each in connection with the alleged District Mineral Foundation (DMF) and custom rice milling scams — have been registered based on a complaint by the Enforcement Directorate which was probing corruption in both cases. A senior ACB official said the FIRs were registered

2. First Information Report (FIR)

  • The term first information report (FIR) is not defined in the Indian Penal Code (IPC), Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC), 1973, or in any other law, but in police regulations or rules, information recorded under Section 154 of CrPC is known as First Information Report (FIR).
  • Section 154 (“Information in cognizable cases”) says that “every information relating to the commission of a cognizable offence if given orally to an officer in charge of a police station, shall be reduced to writing by him or under his direction, and be read over to the informant; and every such information, whether given in writing or reduced to writing as aforesaid shall be signed by the person giving it, and the substance thereof shall be entered in a book to be kept by such officer in such form as the State Government may prescribe”.
  • Also, a copy of the information as recorded shall be given forthwith, free of cost, to the informant.

3. Important elements of an FIR

In essence, then, there are three important elements of an FIR:
  • the information must relate to the commission of a cognizable offence,
  • it should be given in writing or orally to the head of the police station and,
  • it must be written down and signed by the informant, and its key points should be recorded in a daily diary. 

4. What is a cognizable offence?

  • A cognizable offence/case is one in which a police officer may, in accordance with the First Schedule of the CrPC, or under any other law for the time being in force, make an arrest without a warrant.
  • In the First Schedule, “the word ‘cognizable’ stands for a police officer may arrest without warrant’; and the word ‘non-cognizable’ stands for a police officer shall not arrest without warrant.” 

5. What is the difference between a complaint and an FIR?

  • The CrPC defines a “complaint” as “any allegation made orally or in writing to a Magistrate, with a view to his taking action under this Code, that some person, whether known or unknown, has committed an offence, but does not include a police report.”
  • However, an FIR is a document that has been prepared by the police after verifying the facts of the complaint. The FIR may contain details of the crime and the alleged criminal.
  • If, on the basis of a complaint, it appears that a cognizable offence has been committed, then an FIR under Section 154 CrPC will be registered, and police will open an investigation. If no offence is found, the police will close the inquiry.
  • In case of non-cognizable offences, an FIR under Section 155 CrPC, commonly called “NCR”, is registered, and the complainant will be asked to approach a court for an order. The court may then direct the police to conduct an investigation of the complaint.

6. Section 155

Section 155 (“Information as to non-cognizable cases and investigation of such cases”) says: “When information is given to an officer in charge of a police station of the commission within the limits of such station of a non-cognizable offence, he shall enter or cause to be entered the substance of the information in a book and refer the informant to the Magistrate. No police officer shall investigate a non-cognizable case without the order of a Magistrate having the power to try such case or commit the case for trial.”

7. Zero FIR

  • When a police station receives a complaint regarding an alleged offence that has been committed in the jurisdiction of another police station, it registers an FIR and then transfers it to the concerned police station for further investigation. This is called a Zero FIR.
  • No regular FIR number is given. After receiving the Zero FIR, the concerned police station registers a fresh FIR and starts the investigation.

8. What if the Police refuse to register an FIR?

  • Under Section 154(3) CrPC, if any person is aggrieved by the refusal on the part of the officer in charge of a police station to register an FIR, she can send the complaint to the Superintendent of Police/DCP concerned who, if satisfied that such information discloses the commission of a cognizable offence, will either investigate the case or direct an investigation by a subordinate police officer.
  • If no FIR is registered, the aggrieved persons can file a complaint under Section 156(3) CrPC before a concerned court which, if satisfied that a cognizable offence is made out from the complaint, will direct the police to register an FIR and conduct an investigation. 

9. What happens after an FIR is filed?

  • The police will investigate the case and will collect evidence in the form of statements of witnesses or other scientific materials.
  • They can arrest the alleged persons as per law.
    If there is sufficient evidence to corroborate the allegations of the complainant, then a chargesheet will be filed. Or else, a Final Report mentioning that no evidence was found will be filed in court.
  • If it is found that no offence has been committed, a cancellation report will be filed. If no trace of the accused persons is found, an ‘untraced’ report will be filed.
  • However, if the court does not agree with the investigation report, it can order further investigation.
For Prelims: First information report (FIR), Indian Penal Code (IPC), Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC), Cognizable offence, Non-Cognizable offence, Zero FIR, Section 154 CrPC, and Section 155 of CrPC.
Source: The Indian Express
 

INDIAN JUDICIARY 

 
 
 
 
1. Context
 
 
The Supreme Court of India has made continuous efforts to protect the principles of freedom, equality and justice and “has strengthened India’s vibrant democracy”, Prime Minister Narendra Modi said recently.
 
 
2. The History of the Supreme Court of India
 
  • On January 28, 1950, two days after India became a sovereign democratic republic, the Supreme Court of India came into being.
  • The inauguration took place in the Chamber of Princes in the Parliament building which was the home to the Federal Court of India for 12 years preceding the Supreme Court's establishment.
  • The Parliament House was to be the home of the Supreme Court for years that were to follow until the court acquired its present building with lofty domes and its signature spacious collonaded verandas in 1958.
  • The inaugural proceedings on the 28th began at 9.45 a.m. when the Judges of the Federal Court Chief Justice Harilal J.Kania and Justices Saiyid Fazl Ali, M. Patanjali Sastri, Mehr Chand Mahajan, Bijan Kumar Mukherjea and S.R. Das took their seats.
  • The inaugural proceedings ensured that the rules of the court were published and the names of all the advocates and agents of the Federal Court were brought on the rolls of the Supreme Court.

 Evolution of the Supreme Court

  • In 1958, when the court shifted its premises, the building was shaped to project the image of scales of justice, in the central wing.
  • In 1979, two new wings the East wing and the West wing were added to the complex.
  • In all, there are 19 Courtrooms in the various wings of the building.
  • The Chief Justice's Court is the largest of the Courts at the Central Wing's Centre.
  • The original Constitution of 1950 envisaged a Supreme Court with a Chief Justice and 7 puisne judges leaving it to Parliament to increase this number.
  • In the early years, all the judges of the Supreme Court sat together to hear the cases presented before them.
  • As the work of the Court increased and arrears of cases began to accumulate, Parliament increased the number of Judges from 8 in 1950 to 11 in 1956, 14 in 1960, 18 in 1978, 26 in 1986, 31 in 2009 and 34 in 2019 (Current Strength).
  • As the number of Judges has increased, they sit in smaller benches of two and three coming together in larger benches of 5 and more only when required to do so or to settle a difference of opinion or controversy.
 
3. Articles 124 to 147 in Part V of the Constitution 
 
  • Article 124 establishes the Supreme Court of India, consisting of a Chief Justice and other judges. It outlines the composition and jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.
  • Article 125 empowers Parliament to determine the salaries, allowances, and other conditions of service for the judges of the Supreme Court.
  • Article 126 allows the President to appoint an acting Chief Justice when the office of the Chief Justice is vacant or when the Chief Justice is unable to perform duties.
  • Article 127 The President has the authority to appoint a person who has been a judge of the Supreme Court or High Court as an ad hoc judge for a temporary period.
  • Article 128 Retired judges may be requested by the Chief Justice of India to sit and act as judges of the Supreme Court, emphasizing the importance of their experience.
  • Article 129 Declares the Supreme Court as a court of record with the power to punish for contempt of itself, highlighting its authority.
  • Article 130 The Supreme Court shall sit in Delhi, or in such other place or places as the Chief Justice of India may, with the approval of the President, appoint.
  • Article 131 Grants the Supreme Court original jurisdiction in disputes between the Government of India and States or between different States.
  • Article 131A Originally provided exclusive jurisdiction to the Supreme Court in constitutional matters related to Central laws; however, it has been repealed.
  • Article 132 Details the appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in certain cases coming from High Courts.
  • Article 133 Specifies the appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in civil matters.
  • Article 134 Outlines the Supreme Court's appellate jurisdiction in criminal matters.
  • Article 134A Deals with the certification required for an appeal to the Supreme Court in certain cases.
  • Article 135 Confers the jurisdiction and powers of the former Federal Court on the Supreme Court.
  • Article 136 Grants the Supreme Court the discretionary power to grant special leave to appeal from any judgment or order.
  • Article 137 Empowers the Supreme Court to review its own judgments or orders.
  • Article 138 Allows Parliament to extend the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.
  • Article 139 Grants the Supreme Court the power to issue writs for the enforcement of fundamental rights.
  • Article 139A Provides for the transfer of certain cases from one High Court to another or from a High Court to the Supreme Court.
  • Article 140 Empowers the Supreme Court to exercise ancillary powers necessary for the effective discharge of its jurisdiction.
  • Article 141 Declares that the law declared by the Supreme Court is binding on all courts within the territory of India.
  • Article 142 Grants the Supreme Court the power to pass decrees and orders necessary for doing complete justice in any cause or matter.
  • Article 143 Allows the President to refer questions of law or fact to the Supreme Court for its opinion.
  • Article 144 Requires all authorities to act in aid of the Supreme Court.
  • Article 144A Originally provided special provisions for the disposal of questions regarding the constitutional validity of laws but has been repealed.
  • Article 145 Grants the Supreme Court the authority to make rules regulating the practice and procedure of the court.
  • Article 146 Deals with the appointment of officers and servants of the Supreme Court and the expenses associated with it.
  • Article 147 Provides for the interpretation of the expression "existing law" about the jurisdiction, powers, and authority of the Supreme Court under this chapter.
 
 
4. The organisational structure of the Supreme Court of India
 

The Supreme Court of India has a well-defined organizational structure, which includes the Chief Justice of India, other judges, and various administrative and supporting staff. 

Chief Justice of India (CJI)

  • The Chief Justice of India is the head of the Supreme Court.
  • The CJI is appointed by the President of India and is responsible for the overall functioning of the court.
  • The CJI presides over important matters, assigns cases to other judges, and represents the judiciary in various capacities.

Judges

  • The Supreme Court can have a maximum strength of 34 judges, including the Chief Justice.
  • Judges are appointed by the President of India based on recommendations from the collegium (a group of top judges).
  • Judges of the Supreme Court hear and decide cases, contribute to the formulation of legal principles, and may also be involved in administrative responsibilities.
  • Registry: The Registry is the administrative wing of the Supreme Court responsible for handling administrative and procedural aspects. It is headed by the Secretary-General, who is an officer appointed by the Chief Justice of India.
  • Court Officers and Staff: Various court officers and staff assist in the day-to-day functioning of the Supreme Court. This includes Registrars, Deputy Registrars, Assistant Registrars, and other administrative staff who manage the filing of cases, scheduling, and other administrative tasks.
  • Advocates and Legal Professionals: Advocates and legal professionals, including Senior Advocates and Advocates-on-Record, play a crucial role in presenting cases before the Supreme Court. Advocates-on-Record are registered practitioners who are eligible to file cases and plead on behalf of litigants.
  • Library and Research Staff: The Supreme Court library is an integral part of the institution, providing extensive legal resources to judges and legal professionals. Research staff may assist judges in legal research and analysis.
  • Security and Support Staff: The Supreme Court has security personnel to ensure the safety of the premises and those present. Support staff includes personnel responsible for maintenance, cleaning, and other logistical aspects.
  • Committees and Commissions: Various committees and commissions may be constituted by the Chief Justice or the Supreme Court for specific purposes, such as judicial reforms, ethics, or other administrative matters.
  • Supreme Court Bar Association (SCBA) is an association of lawyers who are authorized to practice in the Supreme Court. It plays a role in addressing the concerns of lawyers practising in the Supreme Court.
  • Legal Aid and Pro Bono Services: The Supreme Court may have mechanisms in place to provide legal aid to those who cannot afford legal representation.
  • Judicial Committees and Panels: Special committees or panels may be formed for specific tasks, inquiries, or recommendations related to the functioning of the judiciary.

 

5. The Process of appointment of Judges of the Supreme Court of India
 
According to Article 124(2) of the Constitution, Every Judge of the Supreme Court shall be appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal after consultation with such of the Judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts in the States as the President may deem necessary for the purpose and shall hold office until he attains the age of sixty-five years.

Collegium System

  • The Collegium system is not rooted in the Constitution. Instead, it has evolved through judgments of the Supreme Court.
  • Under the system, the Chief Justice of India along with four senior-most Supreme Court judges recommend appointments and transfers of judges.
  • A High Court Collegium, meanwhile, is led by the incumbent Chief Justice and the two senior-most judges of that court.
  • In this system, the government’s role is limited to getting an inquiry conducted by the Intelligence Bureau (IB) if a lawyer is to be elevated as a judge in a High Court or the Supreme Court.
  • The government can also raise objections and seek clarifications regarding the Collegium’s choices, but, if the Collegium reiterates the same names, the government is bound, under Constitution Bench judgments, to appoint them to the post. 

 Evolution of Collegium System

The system evolved in the three Judge's cases:
  • In the First Judges case, the court held that the consultation with the CJI should be "full and effective".
  • The Second Judges Case introduced the collegium system in 1993, as they ordered the CJI to consult a collegium of his two senior judges in the apex court on judicial appointments, such a "collective opinion" of the collegium would have primacy over the government.
  • The Third Judges case in 1998, expanded the judicial collegium to its present composition of the CJI and four of its senior-most judges.

Procedure for replacement of Collegium System

  • Replacing the Collegium system calls for a Constitutional Amendment Bill.
  • It requires a majority of not less than two-thirds of MPs (Members of Parliament) present and voting in Lok Sabha as well as Rajya Sabha.
  • It also needs the ratification of legislatures of not less than one-half of the states.

The concerns associated with the Collegium system

  • Constitutional Status: The Collegium is not prescribed in the Constitution. Article 124 mentions consultation, which the SC interpreted as ‘concurrence’ in the Second Judges Case (1993). During the hearing against the NJAC, the then SC Bar President had argued that the Constituent Assembly had considered a proposal for making Judges’ appointment ‘in concurrence’ with the CJI but had eventually rejected it. 
  • Transparency: There is no official procedure for selection or any written manual for the functioning of the Collegium. The parameters considered for selection (or rejection) are not available in the public domain.
  • Accountability: The selection of Judges by the Judges is considered undemocratic. Judges are not accountable to the people or any other organ of the State (Legislature or Executive). It can add an element of arbitrariness in functioning.
  • Criticism by Judges: Many retired Judges have criticized the working of the Collegium, especially the lack of transparency. Several controversial appointments have been made despite objections by the members of the Collegium.
  • No Checks: There are no checks on the process. Nor has there been any review regarding the effectiveness of the process. Critics of the system argue the phenomena of ‘Uncle Judges’ wherein near relatives, kith, and kin of sitting Judges are appointed to the higher judiciary leading to nepotism. Law Commission in its 230th Report (2012) recommended that the Judges, whose kith and kin are practising in a High Court, should not be appointed in the same High Court. The absence of transparency, accountability, and external checks creates space for subjectivity and individual bias in appointments. In some cases, the principle of seniority has been ignored.
  • No Reforms: The Supreme Court did not amend the contentious provisions of the NJAC Act or add safeguards to the Act. Instead, it struck down the whole Act. The Supreme Court reverted to the old Collegium System. However, the Court did not take any steps to address the concerns associated with the Collegium System.
 
 

6. About the National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC)

  • The Constitution (99th Amendment) Act, which established the NJAC and the NJAC Act, was passed by Parliament in 2014 to set up a commission for appointing judges,
    replacing the Collegium system.
  • This would essentially increase the government’s role in the appointment of judges. 
  • The laws were repealed in October 2015 after the Supreme Court struck them down.

Composition of NJAC

  • The Chief Justice of India as the ex officio Chairperson.
  • Two senior-most Supreme Court Judges as ex officio members.
  • The Union Minister of Law and Justice as ex officio members. 
  • Two eminent persons from civil society (one of whom would be nominated by a committee consisting of the CJI, Prime Minster, and the Leader of Opposition in the Lok Sabha, and the other would be nominated from the SC/ST/OBC/minority communities or women.
 
Article 124A created the NJAC, a constitutional body to replace the collegium system, Article 124B conferred the NJAC with the power to make appointments to Courts and Article 124C accorded express authority to Parliament to make laws regulating the manner of the NJAC's functioning.

 Recommendations 

  • Under the NJAC Act, the Chief Justice of India and Chief Justices of the HCs were recommended by the NJAC on seniority while SC and HC judges were recommended based on ability, merit and "other criteria specified in the regulations".
  • Notably, the Act empowered any two members of the NJAC to veto a recommendation if they did not agree with it.
  • In the collegium system, senior judges make appointments to the higher judiciary.

NJAC challenged

  • In early 2015, the Supreme Court Advocates-on-Record Association (SCAORA) fled a plea challenging the provisions which had by then become laws.
  • The SCAORA Contended in its petition that both the Acts were "Unconstitutional" and "invalid".
It argued that the 99th Amendment which provided for the creation of the NJAC took away the "Primacy of the collective opinion of the Chief Justice of India and the two Senior-most Judges of the Supreme Court of India" as their collective recommendation could be vetoed or "suspended by a majority of three non-Judge members".
 
  • It invoked the Second Judge Case to say that CJI primacy had to be protected.
  • It also stated that the amendment "severely" damaged the basic structure of the Constitution, of which the independence of the judiciary in appointing judges was an integral part.
 
7. The Way Forward
 
The Indian judiciary's journey from its inception to the current scenario reflects a dynamic evolution. The debate between the Collegium system and the proposed NJAC underscores the ongoing quest for a balanced, transparent, and accountable judicial appointment process in India. The complexities of this system highlight the need for continuous dialogue and potential reforms to uphold the judiciary's integrity and independence.
 
 
For Prelims: Collegium system, National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC), Supreme court, Article 124, 99th Constitutional Amendment Act
For Mains: 
1. Discuss the evolution of the Supreme Court of India from its inauguration in 1950 to the present day. How has its structure and capacity evolved to meet the changing demands of the legal landscape? (250 Words)
2. Examine the constitutional provisions that govern the Supreme Court of India. How do these provisions delineate the powers, jurisdiction, and composition of the Supreme Court? (250 Words)
3. What are the key features of the National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC) Act, and how did it differ from the Collegium system? (250 Words)
4. How does the appointment process of judges in the Supreme Court of India, emphasise the role of the Collegium system? What are the concerns associated with this system, and do you believe reforms are necessary? (250 Words)
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1. With reference to the Indian judiciary, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2021)
1. Any retired judge of the Supreme Court of India can be called back to sit and act as a Supreme Court judge by the Chief Justice of India with the prior permission of the President of India.
2. A High Court in India has the power to review its own judgment as the Supreme Court does.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A.  1 only      B. 2 only            C. Both 1 and 2                   D. Neither 1 nor 2
 
 
2. In India, Judicial Review implies (UPSC 2017)
A. the power of the Judiciary to pronounce upon the constitutionality of laws and executive orders
B. the power of the Judiciary to question the wisdom of the laws enacted by the Legislatures
C. the power of the Judiciary to review all the legislative enactments before they are assented to by the President
D. the power of the Judiciary to review its own judgments given earlier in similar or different cases
 
 
3. Consider the following statements:
1. The motion to impeach a Judge of the Supreme Court of India cannot be rejected by the Speaker of the Lok Sabha as per the Judges (Inquiry) Act, 1968.
2. The Constitution of India defines and gives details of what constitutes 'incapacity and proved misbehaviour' of the Judges of the Supreme Court of India
3. The details of the process of impeachment of the Judges of the Supreme Court of India are given in the Judges (Inquiry) Act, of 1968.
4. If the motion for the impeachment of a Judge is taken up for voting, the law requires the motion to be backed by each House of the Parliament and supported by a majority of the total membership of that House and by not less than two-thirds of total members of that House present and voting.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 
A. 1 and 2           B. 3 only               C. 3 and 4 only                         D. 1, 3 and 4
4.The power to increase the number of judges in the Supreme Court of India is vested in (UPSC  2014)
A. the President of India
B. the Parliament
C. the Chief Justice of India
D. the Law Commission
5.The power of the Supreme Court of India to decide disputes between the Centre and the States falls under its (UPSC P 2014)
A. advisory jurisdiction
B. appellate jurisdiction.
C. original jurisdiction
D. writ jurisdiction
Answers: 1-A, 2-A, 3-C, 4-B, 5-C
 
 Source: The Indian Express

HUMBOLDT'S ENIGMA

 
 
 
1. Context
While we expect diversity to decrease away from the tropics, mountains are an exception. This is the essence of Humboldt’s enigma. But scientific evidence has been hard to acquire, requiring the use of complex analytical methods and large datasets, but is still incomplete
 
2. Where is biodiversity concentrated?
 
  • Throughout centuries, explorers and naturalists have posed the question about the factors influencing biodiversity, particularly why certain areas exhibit greater biodiversity than others. Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859), a versatile scholar with interests spanning geography, geology, meteorology, and biology, delved into this inquiry during his exploration of South America.
  • Notably, he documented the distribution of plants on a mountain and observed similarities in climates across mountains worldwide, noting that specific features varied with elevation.
  • Humboldt's extensive studies led him to propose a correlation between temperature, altitude, humidity, and the occurrence patterns of species, shaping their biodiversity. He exemplified this relationship using Chimborazo mountain in Ecuador, now a key illustration of mountain diversity.
  • In the present day, a group of biogeographers, scientists specializing in exploring the relationship between diversity and geography, employed modern tools to reexamine the drivers of biodiversity. Drawing on their findings, they put forth their interpretation of the connection between biodiversity and mountains, coining it as 'Humboldt’s enigma

3.What is Humboldt’s enigma?

 

  • The Sun's angle of inclination results in higher solar energy reaching the world's tropical regions, leading to increased primary productivity.
  • Consequently, the tropics exhibit greater diversity by providing more ecological niches, fostering complex ecosystems, and enhancing biological diversity.
  • Supporters of Humboldt's enigma argue that biodiversity is not solely confined to the Earth's tropical areas; many biodiverse regions exist beyond the tropics, particularly in mountainous areas.
  • Despite the general expectation of decreasing diversity away from the tropics, mountains represent a notable exception, forming the core of Humboldt's enigma.
  • However, gathering scientific evidence to support this idea is challenging, involving intricate analytical methods and extensive datasets across various taxonomic groups, and it remains an ongoing effort.
  • To illustrate Humboldt's enigma in the context of India, one can consider the biodiversity in tropical regions south of the Tropic of Cancer, spanning Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.
  • These areas are presumed to be the country's most diverse, housing the Western Ghats plus Sri Lanka biodiversity hotspot.
  • Surprisingly, the eastern Himalaya region surpasses them in diversity. Some researchers even propose that this section of the mountain range ranks as the second-most diverse area globally for perching birds, with the highest diversity for river birds

4.What drives biodiversity?

 

  • The diversity of mountains is primarily shaped by the Earth's history, geography, and climate, with variations in biodiversity across locations arising from the intricate interplay of these factors over time and space.
  • Mountain ecosystems contribute to biodiversity through two key processes. Firstly, geological activities such as uplifts create new habitats, acting as 'cradles' where new species emerge. Secondly, some mountains serve as 'museums,' hosting species that persist over extended periods due to climatic stability.
  • Coastal tropical sky islands, like the Shola Sky Islands in the Western Ghats, exemplify this, where ancient lineages endure on mountain tops amid changing climates and habitats in lower elevations.
  • A single mountain can simultaneously function as a cradle for some species and a museum for others, depending on their ecological characteristics.
  • The northern Andes range, including Chimborazo, stands out as the world's most biodiverse area. Ascending from the foothills to the summit reveals diverse temperature and rainfall levels, supporting various biomes and contributing to the remarkable biodiversity of mountain regions globally.
  • Geological factors play a critical role in biodiversity formation, as the foundation of mountains differs from that of low-elevation regions. Mountains with higher geological heterogeneity tend to be more biodiverse.
  • This pattern holds true globally, especially in the tropics. Even within tropical regions, mountains with lower rock diversity may exhibit relatively lower biodiversity.
  • The geological composition influences soil type, affecting plant life, creating unique habitat patches, and promoting diversification.
  • In the context of the eastern Himalaya, climate dissimilarity remains a crucial factor influencing biodiversity. Observations from Humboldt's study of Chimborazo support this paradigm.
  • Additionally, researchers have identified bird groups that evolved elsewhere and dispersed to the Himalaya, contributing to the region's higher diversity

5.Humboldt Enigma Across the World

  • Various factors contribute to the diversification and the Humboldt's enigma in different regions worldwide. Scientists have put forth over a hundred hypotheses to explain the variation in diversity across different parts of the world, approaching the enigma in diverse ways. This article aims to provide an overview of the broader context.
  • A significant challenge in explaining biodiversity patterns lies in the limited availability of detailed data on species distribution. Currently, birds are the most extensively studied group globally, and their diversity patterns indicate the pivotal role of mountains.
  • There is a pressing need for further research, especially in understudied areas within India. Comprehensive understanding of true biodiversity requires the application of modern tools like genetics.
  • For instance, the absence of endemic passerine birds in the Eastern Ghats could be attributed to a lack of scientific study, particularly with contemporary methodologies, over the past century.
  • National programs such as the National Mission on Himalayan Studies, the National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem, and the National Mission on Biodiversity and Human Wellbeing aim to address these knowledge gaps.
  • However, these initiatives require strengthening, supported by a commitment to fund basic research on diversity.
  • Humboldt's enigma represents just one of the numerous puzzles surrounding mountain biodiversity. Our local environments serve as excellent locations for studying these puzzles, offering insights that contribute to addressing global challenges related to climate and landscape change

6.Way forward

Explorers and scientists have long wondered why some areas are more biodiverse than others. The variation in biodiversity among regions, along with the extreme species richness of some tropical mountains, has proven challenging

 

Source: The Hindu

ANAEMIA MUKT BHARAT (AMB)

 
 
 
 
1. Context
 
Government programmes to fortify staples should be supplemented with initiatives on balanced diets One of the many causes of anaemia or low haemoglobin is iron deficiency. 
 
 

2. About Anaemia Mukt Bharat (AMB)

Anaemia Mukt Bharat (AMB), launched in 2018 by the Government of India, aims to reduce the prevalence of anaemia among women, children, and adolescents. To Reduce the prevalence of anaemia among all six target groups by 3 percentage points per year between 2018 and 2022. Achieve a national prevalence of anaemia below 5% by 2030.

 

2.1. The key features of Anaemia Mukt Bharat (AMB)

Target Beneficiaries

Six Age Groups: Children (6-59 months), children (5-9 years), adolescents (10-19 years), pregnant women, lactating women, and women of reproductive age (15-49 years).

Interventions

  1. Iron and folic acid supplementation: Biweekly 1 ml syrup for children, weekly tablets for adolescents and adults.
  2. Intensified Behaviour Change Communication (BCC): Raising awareness about anaemia, its causes, and preventive measures.
  3. Dietary diversification: Promoting consumption of iron-rich foods and micronutrient-rich fruits and vegetables.
  4. Deworming: Addressing intestinal worm infections that can contribute to anaemia.
  5. Management of pregnant women: Early registration, antenatal checkups, iron and folic acid supplementation, nutritional counselling.
  6. Testing and Treatment: Early diagnosis and management of anaemia through haemoglobin testing and treatment with iron-folic acid or other appropriate interventions.

Institutional Mechanisms

  1. Mission Convergence: Collaboration between various ministries and departments.
  2. Convergence at the State and District Level: Coordinating efforts through State Nutrition Missions and District Nutrition Action Plans.
  3. Strengthening Community Participation: Engaging local communities through Anganwadi workers, ASHAs, and others.
  4. Monitoring and Evaluation: Regular data collection and analysis to track progress and identify areas for improvement.
  5. Capacity Building: Training healthcare workers and other stakeholders on anaemia prevention and management.
  6. Innovation and Technology: Utilizing technology for data management, communication, and monitoring.
  • The program follows a "6X6X6" strategy, targeting six beneficiary groups with six interventions through six institutional mechanisms.
  • AMB focuses on a life cycle approach, addressing anaemia across different stages of life from childhood to adulthood.
  • The program prioritises prevention through preventive IFA supplementation and behaviour change communication.
  • AMB aims to reduce the prevalence of anaemia by 3 percentage points per year across target groups.
  • The program allows for customisation of interventions based on local needs and contexts.
  • AMB encourages community involvement in program implementation and monitoring.
  • The program utilises digital tools for data collection, monitoring, and communication.

 

2.2. Challenges faced by Anaemia Mukt Bharat (AMB)

Despite its comprehensive approach, Anaemia Mukt Bharat (AMB) faces various challenges in achieving its goals. 

Implementation

  • Shortages of healthcare workers, especially in rural areas, can hinder program implementation and access to services.
  • Ensuring regular and timely availability of iron-folic acid supplements and other essential supplies across the country remains a challenge.
  • Lack of awareness and active participation from communities can hinder behaviour change and the adoption of preventive measures.
  • Seamless integration of AMB with existing health initiatives like Anganwadi services and National Health Mission programs is crucial for optimal impact.

Programmatic challenges

  • AMB primarily focuses on nutritional interventions but needs to address other causes like malaria, parasitic infections, and hemoglobinopathies.
  • Ensuring adherence to iron-folic acid supplementation schedules among beneficiaries can be difficult due to various factors.
  • Promoting consumption of iron-rich and micronutrient-rich foods requires tackling affordability, accessibility, and cultural preferences.
  • Ensuring accurate and timely data collection and analysis is crucial for tracking progress and identifying gaps.

Sustainability and long-term impact

  • The program relies heavily on government funding and ensuring long-term financial sustainability is critical.
  • Factors like poverty, sanitation, and lack of education can contribute to anaemia and require broader interventions.
  • Continuous training and capacity building of healthcare workers and community leaders are essential for sustained program effectiveness.
  • Collaboration with private sector players and civil society organizations can leverage additional resources and expertise.

 

3. What is wasting and stunting?

Wasting and stunting are terminologies used in the context of child malnutrition and growth assessment. They refer to different forms of undernutrition and indicate distinct aspects of a child's nutritional status.

Wasting

  • Wasting is a form of acute malnutrition characterized by rapid weight loss or a failure to gain weight at the expected rate for a child's age.
  • It is typically assessed by measuring a child's weight about their height. A child is considered wasted if their weight-for-height is significantly below the established standards.
  • Wasting is indicative of recent and severe nutritional deficiency, often resulting from acute food shortage, illness, or other factors leading to a rapid decline in nutritional status.
  • Wasted children are at an increased risk of mortality and are generally more susceptible to infections and illnesses due to the compromised immune system.

Stunting

  • Stunting is a form of chronic malnutrition characterized by impaired growth and development resulting in short stature for a child's age.
  • It is assessed by comparing a child's height to the established height-for-age standards. A child is considered stunted if their height-for-age is significantly below the reference values.
  • Stunting reflects long-term nutritional deprivation, often starting in utero or during the early years of life. It is an indicator of persistent inadequate nutrition and chronic health issues.
  • Stunted children may experience cognitive and developmental delays, reduced physical capabilities, and increased susceptibility to various health problems. Stunting is associated with long-term consequences that can affect the individual's well-being into adulthood.

 

4. What are the Various forms of malnutrition?

Malnutrition is a condition that results from an inadequate or imbalanced intake of nutrients, leading to health problems. There are several forms of malnutrition, each with its specific characteristics. The major forms of malnutrition include:

Undernutrition

  • Stunting is characterized by impaired growth and development, leading to short stature for a child's age. It indicates chronic malnutrition and is associated with long-term health and developmental issues.
  • Wasting involves a rapid weight loss or failure to gain weight at the expected rate for a child's age. It is a sign of acute malnutrition and is associated with increased vulnerability to infections and higher mortality risk.
  • Underweight is a composite measure reflecting a child's weight about their age. It considers both stunting and wasting and provides an overall assessment of undernutrition.

 

Micronutrient Deficiency

  • Iron Deficiency Anemia Results from insufficient iron intake, leading to reduced production of haemoglobin and impaired oxygen transport in the blood.
  • Vitamin A Deficiency Can cause night blindness, increase susceptibility to infections, and negatively impact vision and immune function.
  • Iodine Deficiency Disorder (IDD) is a Lack of iodine can lead to goitre, mental retardation, and other developmental issues.

Overnutrition

Results from excessive calorie intake, often high in fats and sugars, combined with a sedentary lifestyle. Overweight and obesity are associated with various health problems, including cardiovascular diseases and diabetes.

Protein-Energy Malnutrition (PEM)

  • Kwashiorkor is A type of PEM characterized by protein deficiency, leading to oedema (fluid retention), skin lesions, and impaired growth.
  • Marasmus is Another type of PEM characterized by severe energy deficiency, resulting in emaciation, muscle wasting, and overall body weakness.

Eating Disorders

  • Anorexia Nervosa involves an extreme fear of gaining weight, leading to self-imposed starvation and excessive weight loss.
  • Bulimia Nervosa is characterized by episodes of overeating followed by compensatory behaviours such as vomiting or excessive exercise.

Hidden Hunger

Many individuals suffer from deficiencies in essential vitamins and minerals without displaying immediate symptoms. This is often referred to as "hidden hunger" and can contribute to various health issues over time.
 
 
 
5. Hunger and Nutrition
 
Hunger refers to the physiological sensation or feeling of discomfort caused by a lack of food. It is the body's signal that it needs nourishment.
 Nutrition is a broader concept that encompasses the intake and utilization of nutrients by the body to maintain health and support growth, development, and overall well-being.

The difference between hunger and nutrition

Features Hunger Nutrition
Definition Physiological sensation caused by a lack of food. Intake and utilization of nutrients for health and well-being.
Immediate Need Immediate response to an empty stomach or nutrient deficiency. Broader focus on long-term health and growth.
Short-Term Focus Addresses short-term need for caloric intake. Focuses on the quality and variety of food over time.
Quantitative Aspect Often associated with the quantity of food consumed. Emphasizes qualitative aspects of food and nutrient content.
Time Horizon Short-term response to the immediate need for food. Long-term focus on overall health and well-being.
Scope Limited to the immediate physiological need for calories. Extends to essential nutrients required for overall health.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative Emphasizes the quantity of food needed. Emphasizes the quality and composition of the diet.
Survival vs. Thriving Associated with survival and basic energy needs.

Aims at optimal growth, development, and disease prevention.

 

6. The beneficiaries of the Integrated Child Development Service (ICDS) Scheme

The Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme in India primarily targets the holistic development of children under the age of six and pregnant and lactating mothers. The beneficiaries under the ICDS Scheme include:

  1. Children (0-6 years): The primary focus of the ICDS is on young children, especially those in the age group of 0 to 6 years. The services aim to provide a package of six services, including supplementary nutrition, immunization, health check-ups, referral services, pre-school non-formal education, and nutrition and health education.
  2. Pregnant Women: Pregnant women are among the beneficiaries as the scheme aims to ensure their well-being during pregnancy. This includes providing nutritional support, health check-ups, and awareness of maternal and child health.
  3. Lactating Mothers: The ICDS Scheme extends its services to lactating mothers to promote proper nutrition and health during the breastfeeding period. It includes support for the mother's health, nutrition, and breastfeeding practices.
  4. Adolescent Girls: Some components of the ICDS Scheme also target adolescent girls, addressing their nutritional needs and providing awareness about health and hygiene.

The ICDS Scheme operates through Anganwadi Centers, which are community-based centres providing these services at the grassroots level. The services offered aim to break the cycle of malnutrition and ensure the overall well-being and development of children in their early years.

 

7. The Way Forward

Anaemia Mukt Bharat plays a crucial role in addressing anaemia in India. Understanding different forms of malnutrition and its distinction from hunger is essential for promoting healthy eating habits and overall well-being.

 

For Prelims: Anaemia Mukt Bharat, Malnutrition, Integrated Child Development Services, Iron Deficiency, Vitamin Deficiency

For Mains: 
1. Critically examine the strengths and weaknesses of Anaemia Mukt Bharat (AMB) in addressing anaemia in India. Suggest measures to improve its effectiveness in achieving its target of reducing anaemia prevalence to below 5% by 2030. (250 words)
2. The Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) scheme plays a vital role in early childhood development and nutrition interventions. Discuss the specific contributions of ICDS in addressing anaemia among children and pregnant women. (250 words)

 

Previous Year Questions

1. Consider the following statements in the context of interventions being undertaken under Anaemia Mukt Bharat Strategy:  (UPSC 2023)

1. It provides prophylactic calcium supplementation for pre-school children, adolescents and pregnant -women.
2. It runs a campaign for delayed cord clamping at the time of child-birth.
3. It provides for periodic deworming to children and adolescents.
4. It addresses non-nutritional causes of anaemia in endemic pockets with special focus on malaria, hemoglobinopathies and fluorosis.

How many of the statements given above are correct?

A. Only one        B. Only two        C. Only three        D. All four

 

2. Which of the following are the objectives of 'National Nutrition Mission'? (UPSC 2017) 

1. To create awareness relating to malnutrition among pregnant women and lactating mothers. 2. To reduce the incidence of anaemia among young children, adolescent girls, and women.
3. To promote the consumption of millets, coarse cereals, and unpolished rice.
4. To promote the consumption of poultry eggs.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

A. 1 and 2 only        B. 1, 2 and 3 only       C. 1, 2 and 4 only         D. 3 and 4 only

 

3. Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow. Your answers to these items should be based on the passage only.

India is among the fastest-growing global economies and home to the largest number of malnourished children in the world. There are regions where malnutrition is not the exception but the norm. And across the country, malnutrition is the cause of death for roughly half the 1.3 million children who die before their fifth birthday each year. Even those children who survive suffer permanently from the damage that has already been done to their bodies and minds from not getting enough of the right foods and nutrients. Around 44 million children under 5 are stunted. That makes it harder for them to learn in school and subsequently earn a living as adults. Their lifetime earnings potential is almost a quarter less than that of their healthy peers.

With reference to the above passage, which of the following is/are the most rational and practical implication/implications? (UPSC 2020)

1. India's Public Distribution System should be monitored by the Union Government.

2. Girls should be encouraged to delay marriage and first pregnancy.

3. Mothers should be encouraged to breastfeed their children immediately after birth.

4. The supply of safe drinking water and proper sanitation facilities to all should be ensured.

5. Authorities should ensure the vaccination as prescribed.

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

A. 1, 2, 3 and 4           B. 2, 3, 4 and 5       C.  1 only           D. 3 and 5 only

4. Integrated Child Development services (ICDS), launched in 1975 in India, is a scheme implemented by (Jharkhand Civil Service 2015)

A. the Ministry of Education
B. the Ministry of HRD
C. the Ministry of Finance
D. the Ministry of Women and Child Development

5. Which disease is caused due to deficiency of Iron? (SSC GD Constable 2023) (Soldier Tradesman 2020)

A. Beriberi        B. Tetany         C. Kwashiorkor        D. Anaemia

 

6. Consider the following pairs: (UPSC 2014)

Vitamin                      Deficiency disease

1. Vitamin C              Scurvy

2. Vitamin D              Rickets

3. Vitamin E              Night blindness

Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

A. 1 and 2 only         B. 3 only      C. 1, 2 and 3         D. None

Answers: 1-C, 2-A, 3-B, 4-D, 5-D, 6-A

Mains

1. Public health system has limitations in providing universal health coverage. Do you think that private sector could help in bridging the gap? What other viable alternatives would you suggest? (UPSC 2015)

Source: The Indian Express

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