• The NEP provides a broad direction and is not mandatory. Education is a concurrent subject, requiring collaboration between the central and state governments. The target for full implementation is set for 2040.
• Subject-wise committees, comprising members from relevant ministries at both levels, will develop implementation plans, outlining actions for various bodies, including the HRD Ministry, state Education Departments, and others. Progress will be jointly reviewed annually.

3. Impact on Mother Tongue/Regional Language Instruction

• While the NEP emphasizes teaching in the mother tongue or regional language "wherever possible," it is not mandatory for states.
• Private schools are unlikely to be forced to change their medium of instruction.
• The policy acknowledges multilingual families and encourages a bilingual approach for students whose home language differs from the medium of instruction.
• Single-stream institutions like IITs are already diversifying their offerings, including humanities and social sciences departments.
• This multidisciplinary approach aligns with global trends, ensuring graduates are well-rounded and equipped to address complex challenges.

4. NEP 2020 and Sustainable Development Goals

• Both the NEP 2020 and SDG 4 aim to provide inclusive and equitable quality education for all.
• They emphasize improving the quality of education, enhancing learning outcomes, and ensuring access to education at all levels.
• SDG 4.5 focuses on eliminating disparities in access to education and promoting inclusive education.
• The NEP 2020 also emphasizes inclusive education by addressing the needs of diverse groups, including marginalized communities, children with disabilities, and those in remote areas.
• Both the NEP 2020 and SDGs prioritize gender equality in education.
• They aim to eliminate gender-based discrimination in education and promote equal opportunities for girls and boys in schools and higher education.
• SDG 4.2 emphasizes the importance of early childhood education and care.
• The NEP 2020 incorporates a similar focus by introducing a 5+3+3+4 structure that includes early childhood education, aligning with the SDG's goal of ensuring that all children have access to quality pre-primary education.
• Both the NEP 2020 and SDG 4. c emphasize the importance of adequately trained and qualified teachers.
• They promote continuous professional development for educators to improve the quality of teaching and learning.
• SDG 4.6 promotes lifelong learning opportunities for all. The NEP 2020 recognizes the need for lifelong learning by introducing a four-year multidisciplinary undergraduate program with multiple exit options, encouraging continuous skill development.
• SDG 4.7 encourages global citizenship education and values for sustainability.
• While the NEP 2020 does not explicitly mention this goal, its emphasis on critical thinking, experiential learning, and holistic development aligns with the idea of nurturing responsible global citizens.
• SDG 17 calls for global partnerships to achieve the SDGs. The NEP 2020 acknowledges the importance of collaboration between various stakeholders, including governments, civil society, and international organizations, to implement education reforms effectively.
• Although the primary focus of the NEP is on education, it indirectly contributes to SDG 13 (Climate Action) and other environmental goals by promoting environmental awareness, sustainability education, and holistic development that includes a sense of responsibility towards the environment.

5. The salient features of NEP 2020

The salient features of the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 include:

• The NEP 2020 proposes a new school curriculum that is more holistic and multidisciplinary. It also emphasizes the importance of early childhood education and foundational literacy and numeracy.
• The NEP 2020 proposes to open up the Indian higher education sector to foreign universities. This will allow students to access world-class education without having to leave India.
• The NEP 2020 proposes to discontinue the M Phil programme. This is in line with the global trend of moving towards a four-year undergraduate degree followed by a direct PhD programme.
• The NEP 2020 proposes to introduce multiple entry and exit options in undergraduate and postgraduate programmes. This will give students more flexibility and allow them to tailor their education to their needs.
• The NEP 2020 emphasizes the importance of research and innovation in higher education. It proposes to increase funding for research and to create a more supportive environment for researchers.
• The NEP 2020 aims to internationalize the Indian education system. It proposes to increase student and faculty mobility and to collaborate with foreign universities.

6. Education policies in India and its fundamental objectives

• The primary objective of the first education policy was to promote social justice and reduce disparities in access to education.
• It aimed to provide free and compulsory education for all children up to the age of 14 (universalization of elementary education).
• The second education policy aimed to modernize and expand the education system while maintaining a focus on access and equity.
• It introduced the 10+2 structure of school education and emphasized vocational education and adult literacy.
• This revision of the 1986 policy focused on restructuring the curriculum and examination systems.
• It aimed to promote greater flexibility in course choices and reduce the emphasis on board exams.
• The NPE 2020 aims to transform the Indian education system to meet the demands of the 21st century.
• It emphasizes the universalization of early childhood education, a flexible and multidisciplinary approach to education, and the use of technology for learning.
• It also focuses on improving the quality of education, promoting research and innovation, and ensuring inclusivity and equity in education.
• India has also had various other policies and initiatives related to specific aspects of education, such as the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) for elementary education, the Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) for secondary education, and the Skill India initiative to promote vocational education and skill development.

7. Kothari Commission (1964–1966) recommendations to formulate a coherent education policy

• The Kothari Commission, officially known as the "Indian Education Commission" or the "Education Commission 1964-66," was a high-level commission appointed by the Government of India to review the state of education in the country and make recommendations for the development of education policies.
• The commission was chaired by Dr Daulat Singh Kothari, who was the Chairman of the University Grants Commission (UGC) at the time.
• The commission's recommendations played a significant role in shaping India's education policies in the decades that followed.

The key recommendations made by the Kothari Commission

• The commission emphasized the need to provide free and compulsory education for all children up to the age of 14.
• This recommendation laid the foundation for the goal of universalizing elementary education in India.
• The commission stressed the importance of improving the quality of education at all levels.
• It recommended measures to enhance the qualifications and training of teachers, revise curricula, and promote innovative teaching methods.
• The Kothari Commission recommended a flexible and broad-based curriculum that would cater to the diverse needs and interests of students.
• It emphasized the importance of holistic education and the inclusion of vocational education.
• The commission recognized the importance of teaching in the mother tongue or regional languages, especially at the primary level, to ensure better comprehension and retention among students. It recommended bilingual education where necessary.
• The commission called for a comprehensive and long-term educational plan to guide the development of education in India.
• It recommended the establishment of educational planning bodies at the national, state, and district levels.
• The Kothari Commission proposed the expansion and improvement of higher education in India.
• It recommended the establishment of new universities, including regional universities, and the development of research and postgraduate education.
•  The commission highlighted the need for quality teacher education programs and recommended the establishment of teacher training institutes to ensure a continuous supply of well-trained educators.
• Recognizing the importance of technical and vocational education for economic development, the commission recommended the expansion of such programs and the establishment of polytechnics and industrial training institutes.
• The commission suggested changes in the examination system to reduce the emphasis on rote learning and encourage critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
• The Kothari Commission emphasized the importance of addressing educational disparities among different social and economic groups.
• It recommended affirmative action policies to promote social justice in education.

8. NPE 1986 and NEP 2020 Compare and Contrast

The National Policy on Education (NPE) 1986 and the New Education Policy (NEP) 2020 are two important policy documents that have shaped the Indian education system. While both policies have some common goals, there are also some key differences between them.

Similarities

• Both policies aim to provide access to quality education for all children.
• Both policies emphasize the importance of equity and inclusion in education.
• Both policies stress the need for reforms in the examination system.
• Both policies recognize the importance of teacher training and professional development.

The key differences between the National Policy on Education (NPE) 1986 and the New Education Policy (NEP) 2020:

9. The National Curriculum Framework

The National Curriculum Framework (NCF) is a document in India that outlines the philosophy and guidelines for the development of curriculum and teaching practices in schools. It serves as a foundational document that informs the design, content, and implementation of school education in the country. 

• The NCF provides the philosophical and pedagogical foundation for education in India.
• It articulates the educational goals, values, and principles that should guide the curriculum and teaching practices.
•  The NCF encourages flexibility in curriculum development to accommodate diverse learners' needs and the evolving educational landscape.
• It recognizes that a one-size-fits-all approach may not be suitable for India's diverse student population.
• The framework emphasizes holistic development, aiming to nurture not only cognitive skills but also social, emotional, and ethical aspects of a child's growth.
• It promotes a well-rounded education that goes beyond rote memorization.
• The NCF underscores the importance of inclusive education.
• It addresses the needs of students from various socio-economic backgrounds, genders, and abilities. It advocates for equal access to quality education for all.
• It encourages the integration of knowledge across subjects and promotes interdisciplinary learning.
• The framework encourages teachers to connect various subjects and topics to provide a more comprehensive educational experience.
• The NCF places the learner at the centre of the educational process. It emphasizes the importance of understanding students' interests, motivations, and individual learning styles.
• The framework recognizes the critical role of teachers in implementing curriculum effectively.
• It emphasizes the need for teacher professional development and continuous support.
• The NCF suggests assessment practices that move beyond traditional examinations and focus on formative assessments, encouraging a more comprehensive evaluation of a student's progress and capabilities.
• It promotes the inclusion of cultural and ethical values in education. The NCF encourages schools to foster an appreciation for India's diverse cultural heritage and ethical values.
•  The NCF is periodically reviewed and updated to ensure its continued relevance in the changing educational landscape.
• It takes into account advancements in education research and global best practices.

10. The Way Forward

 

Source: The Indian Express

MINIMUM SUPPORT PRICE

1. Context

The subsidy estimate for the next financial year has broadly factored in a likely increase in MSP and other incremental expenditures. The hike in food subsidy in the current financial year will unlikely affect the Centre’s aim of containing the fiscal deficit at 5.9% of GDP despite the expected shortfall in disinvestment receipts thanks to healthy tax and non-tax revenues.

2. What is the Minimum Support Price (MSP)?

• MSP is the minimum price a farmer must pay for their food grains as guaranteed by the government. They are recommended by the Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) and approved by the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs.
• The CACP submits its recommendations to the government in the form of Price Policy Reports every year.
• After considering the report and views of the state governments and also keeping in view the overall demand and supply situation in the country, the central government takes the final decision.
• The Food Corporation of India (FCI) is the nodal agency for procurement along with State agencies, at the beginning of the sowing season.

The minimum support price (MSP) is set for 23 crops every year. They include:

• 7 cereals (paddy, wheat, maize, bajra, jowar, ragi, and barley)
• 5 pulses (chana, tur/arhar, moong, urad, and Masur)
• 7 oilseeds (rapeseed-mustard, groundnut, soya bean, sunflower, sesamum, safflower, and Enigerseed) and
• 4 commercial crops (sugarcane, cotton, copra, and raw jute).

3. How MSP is Calculated?

• MSP, presently, is based on a formula of 1.5 times the production costs.
• The CACP projects three kinds of production costs for every crop, both at state and all-India average levels.
• A2 covers all paid-out costs directly incurred by the farmer — in cash and kind — on seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, hired labour, leased-in land, fuel, irrigation, etc.
• A2+FL includes A2 plus an imputed value of unpaid family labour.
• C2: Estimated land rent and the cost of interest on the money taken for farming are added to A2 and FL.
• Farm unions are demanding that a comprehensive cost calculation (C2) must also include capital assets and the rentals and interest forgone on owned land, as recommended by the National Commission for Farmers.

4. The issue with the calculation of MSP

• To calculate MSP, the government uses A2+FL cost. The criticism of A2+FL is that it doesn’t cover all costs and that a more representative measure, C2, needs to be used.
• For example, in the 2017-18 rabi season, CACP data shows that C2 for wheat was 54% higher than A2+FL.
• The Swaminathan Commission also stated that the MSP should be based on the comprehensive cost of production, which is the C2 method.

5. Key Points about the Farmer's Demand

• After the recent decision to repeal three contentious farm laws, protesting farmer unions are now pressing for their demand of the legalization of the Minimum Support Price (MSP).
• They want a legal guarantee for the MSP, which at present is just an indicative or a desired price.
• Legalising MSPs would put the government under a legal obligation to buy every grain of the crops for which MSPs have been announced.
• At present, the PM has announced the formation of a committee to make MSP more transparent, as well as to change crop patterns and to promote zero-budget agriculture which would reduce the cost of production.
• The entire issue of enforcing MSP legally is a tricky, complicated, and multidimensional one, involving lots of factors.
• Core demand: MSP based on a C2+50% formula should be made a legal entitlement for all agricultural produce. This would mean a 34% increase in the latest MSP for paddy and a 13% increase for wheat. MSP should also be extended to fruit and vegetable farmers who have been excluded from benefits so far.

6. The rationale behind the demand for legislation of MSP

• Farmers receive less than MSP: In most crops grown across much of India, the prices received by farmers, especially during harvest time, are well below the officially declared MSPs. And since MSPs have no statutory backing, they cannot demand these as a matter of right.
• Limited procurement by the Govt: Also, the actual procurement at MSP by the Govt. is confined to only about a third of wheat and rice crops (of which half is bought in Punjab and Haryana alone), and 10%-20% of select pulses and oilseeds. According to the Shanta Kumar Committee’s 2015 report, only 6% of the farm households sell wheat and rice to the government at the MSP rates.

7. Challenges associated with MSP

• Protest by Farmers: Farm unions have been protesting for more than six months on Delhi's outskirts, demanding legislation to guarantee MSP for all farmers for all crops and a repeal of three contentious farm reform laws.
• MSP and Inflation: When announcing the MSP, inflation should be taken into account. But often the price is not increased up to the mark. For example, this time MSP for Maize has not even considered inflation then how it will benefit farmers! Also, frequent increases in the MSPs can lead to inflation too.
• High Input Costs: The input costs have been rising faster than sale prices, squeezing the meagre income of the small farmers and driving them into debt.
• Lack of Mechanism: No mechanism guarantees that every farmer can get at least the MSP as the floor price in the market. So proper mechanisms need to be fixed for all times to come.
• Restriction in Europe: Even after producing surplus grains, every year a huge portion of these grains gets rotten. This is due to the restrictions under WTO norms, that grain stocks with the FCI (being heavily subsidized due to MSP) cannot be exported.

 

For Prelims: Minimum Support Price, Rabi Crops, WTO, Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP), Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs, Food Corporation of India For Mains: 1. Explain the concept of Minimum Support Price (MSP) in India. How is MSP determined, and what is its role in ensuring fair prices for agricultural produce? (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2020) 1. In the case of all cereals, pulses, and oil seeds, the procurement at Minimum Support Price (MSP) is unlimited in any State/UT of India. 2. In the case of cereals and pulses, the MSP is fixed in any State/UT at a level to which the market price will never rise. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2   Answer: D   2. Which of the following factors/policies were affecting the price of rice in India in the recent past? (UPSC CSE, 2020) (1) Minimum Support Price (2) Government’s trading (3) Government’s stockpiling (4) Consumer subsidies Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2 and 4 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4   Answer: D   3. In India, which of the following can be considered as public investment in agriculture? (UPSC GS1, 2020) (1) Fixing Minimum Support Price for agricultural produce of all crops (2) Computerization of Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (3) Social Capital development (4) Free electricity supply to farmers (5) Waiver of agricultural loans by the banking system (6) Setting up of cold storage facilities by the governments. In India, which of the following can be considered as public investment in agriculture? Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2 and 5 only (b) 1, 3, 4 and 5 only (c) 2, 3 and 6 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6   Answer: C   4. The Fair and Remunerative Price (FRP) of sugarcane is approved by the (UPSC CSE, 2015) (a) Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (b) Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (c) Directorate of Marketing and Inspection, Ministry of Agriculture (d) Agricultural Produce Market Committee   Answer: A

 

Source: Indianexpress

UTTARAKSHI TUNNEL

1. Context

Recently, An under-construction tunnel on the Yamunotri National Highway in Uttarakhand's Uttarkashi district collapsed, trapping 40 workers inside. As rescue operations are underway, the incident raises questions about the causes and preventive measures.

2. Causes of the Tunnel Collapse

There are two main possible causes of the tunnel collapse

• A loose patch of rock: The collapsed section of the tunnel is located around 200-300 meters from the mouth of the tunnel. It is possible that there was a loose patch of rock in this area that was not visible during construction. This patch could have consisted of fractured or fragile rock, which would have made it weak.
• Water seepage: Another possibility is that water seeped through a loose patch of rock, eroding the rock particles over time and creating a void on the top of the tunnel. This void would not have been visible during construction.

3. Methods of Tunnel Excavation

There are two main methods of tunnel excavation

• The drill and blast method (DBM) involves drilling holes into the rock and loading them with explosives. When the explosives are detonated, the rock breaks apart.
• Tunnel-boring machines (TBMs) are more expensive than DBM, but it is also much safer. TBMs bore the rock from the front using a rotating head and supported the excavated tunnel behind the machine by installing precast concrete segments.

4. Choice of Excavation Method

• The choice of excavation method depends on the type of terrain. TBMs are not suitable for drilling through very tall mountains.
• Creating a void through a 1,000-meter-tall mountain using a TBM can lead to a rock burst, which occurs when a part of the rock suddenly falls due to high stress.
• TBMs are ideal when the rock cover is up to 400 meters tall. Underground tunnels for the Delhi Metro were dug using a TBM at shallow depth.
• On the other hand, in places like the Himalayas, including Jammu & Kashmir and Uttarakhand, DBM is usually used.

5. Challenges of Tunneling in the Himalayas

• The Himalayas are still young (they were formed between 40 million and 50 million years ago) and they are still growing due to the collision between the Indian tectonic plate and the Eurasian tectonic plate. This makes them a challenging environment for tunnelling.
• There are some patches where the rock is indeed too fragile for a tunnel. However, in other places, the rock is very good.
• Manoj Garnayak a former project director at L&T and an expert in underground construction has worked in the Himalayan region and built tunnels without facing major issues. He has witnessed very small failures, which were rectified immediately by fixing the crown of the tunnel. So, even though in some places the rock is fractured or fragile, there are technical solutions to fix it.

6. Key Aspects of Tunnel Building

• The first and foremost thing when building a tunnel is to thoroughly investigate the rock through which the tunnel is proposed to be made.
• This is done by sending seismic refraction waves through the rock to check which patches are fragile or solid.
• In India, engineers dig a borehole into the rock to extract a core sample and send it for petrographic analysis (microscopic examination to determine the mineral content, grain size, texture and other features that have a bearing on the mechanical behaviour of the sample).
• Such investigations help determine if the rock can take the load of the overburden when a tunnel is created.
• If the rock layer and its strength are good, it takes the entire load of the overburden by redistribution of the stresses, and it remains stable.

7. Steps to Construct a Stable Tunnel

• Even after excavation and providing support for the tunnel, it is essential to monitor the spot to check how the rock is behaving at various places. Monitoring is done by instruments such as stress meters and deformations meters.
• The supports provided to the tunnel need to be tested for adequacy. Supports can be of various types, including shotcrete (sprayed concrete that works as a membrane to prevent parts of the rock from falling), rock bolt (a long anchor bolt for stabilizing rock excavations), steel ribs or beams, and tunnel pipe umbrella, built by using steel tubes that can hold really fragile rocks.
• It is also important that an independent specialist geologist visits the tunnel for examination and to check for probable failures. They will also determine the rock's stand-up time the duration for which a rock can remain stable without any support. Support is given to the rock within its stand-up time.
• Most importantly, in India, more time needs to be spent on studies before starting the construction. Currently, the design and construction of a tunnel project are done simultaneously.

For Prelims: Yamunotri National Highway, Indian tectonic plate, the Eurasian tectonic plate, The drill and blast method, Tunnel-boring machines, Himalayas,  For Mains:  1. Evaluate the effectiveness of the current practices in India for tunnel construction, and suggest recommendations for improvement. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. The theory of plate tectonics proposes that the earth’s lithosphere is divided into _______ major plates. (SSC JE CE 2021)  A. 5        B. 11           C. 9           D. 7  Answer: D   2. Which one of the following tunneling methods is adopted for the situations where the metro alignment passes under residential buildings or a canal? (UPSC ESE Civil 2021) A. Earth pressure balance tunneling machine method B. Tunnel boring machine method C. Tube tunneling method D. Driven shield tunneling method Answer: B   3. The section of the tunnel adopted perfectly in lieu of case of construction and maintenance in hard rock tunnels, where the risk of roof failure or collapse caused by external pressure from water, or from loose or unstable soil conditions on tunnel lining is practically non-existent, is (UPSC ESE Civil 2019) A. Circular section B. Segmental roof section C. Horse-shoe section D. Egg-shaped section Answer: B   4. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2017) 1. In India, the Himalayas are spread over five States only. 2. Western Ghats are spread over five States only. 3. Pulicat Lake is spread over two States only. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 and 2 only      B. 3 only          C. 2 and 3 only           D. 1 and 3 only Answer: B   5. Read the following statements: (Telangana Police SI Mains 2016) a) Himalayas are young fold mountains. b) They are uplifted from Tethys sea. c) The East-West extent of the Himalayas is about 2500 km. Which of the above statements is/are correct? 1.  a & c       2. b & c     3. a & b        4.  a, b & c Answer: 4

 

 Source: The Indian Express

UNIDENTIFIED FLYING OBJECTS (UFOs)

1. Context

Recently, Flight operations at Bir Tikendrajit International Airport in Manipur were affected due to the presence of an Unidentified Flying Object (UFO). The incident resulted in the diversion of two flights and delays for three departing flights. 

2. What are UFOs?

• A UFO is an unidentified flying object which is generally considered anomalies that are completely unidentifiable.
• UFO is an object in the sky that is not identifiable as any known object or even a natural phenomenon.
• The title of UFO was created in 1953 by the United States Air Force to record and review any instances where a flying object was logged in official reporting.

Image Source: Britannica

3. Global Perspective on UFOs

• Project Blue Book, a government initiative from 1952 to 1969, compiled over 12,000 reports but ended due to a low percentage of unidentified cases.
• While the US has been a focal point for UFO sightings, they are reported worldwide.
• Former President Barack Obama acknowledged the existence of unidentified objects in a 2021 interview, emphasizing the need for investigation.
• A 2021 government report indicated inconclusive data, with sightings often near US training and testing grounds.
• The heightened interest in UFOs emerged after World War 2, coinciding with the Cold War, leading to increased government focus on potential threats.
• The term Unidentified Aerial Phenomenon (UAP) is now used to avoid the speculative associations linked to UFOs.
• The Pentagon and NASA employ this term, with NASA commissioning a study team in 2022 to examine UAPs from a scientific perspective. The focus is on identifying and collecting data to enhance scientific understanding.

4. UFO Sightings in India

• Unlike the US, UFO sightings have not been a significant part of Indian culture.
• However, with the proliferation of televisions and cameras, claims have increased.
• Renowned filmmaker Satyajit Ray contributed to the depiction of aliens in Indian culture through scripts like "The Alien" and "Bonkubabur Bondhu." played a role in shaping the representation of aliens in Indian culture.
• Despite not being a significant part of Indian folklore, the accessibility of cameras has led to an increase in UFO claims.
• A June 2022 report mentioned the need for time, improved data gathering, diagnostic tools, and scientific scrutiny to gain clarity on the surge in UAP reports.
• National Security Council spokesman John Kirby emphasized the impact of unexplained aerial phenomena on training ranges, pilot operations, and national security.

5. World UFO Day

• World UFO Day is observed every year to spread awareness about Unidentified Flying Objects (UFOs).
• The main aim of celebrating the day is to acknowledge the existence of UFOs. 
• Earlier, this day was celebrated on two different dates by people, some celebrated it on 24 June, while the others observed it on 2 July. Later, 2 July was officially declared as World UFO Day.

6. Conclusion

The study of UAPs is a relatively new field, and there is still much that we do not know about these phenomena. However, the recent increase in interest and attention to UAPs is likely to lead to new insights and understanding in the years to come.

For Prelims: Unidentified Flying Object, aliens, National Security Council, Project Blue Book, World War 2, Cold War,  Unidentified Aerial Phenomenon, NASA, World UFO Day For Mains:  1. Explain the concept of Unidentified Flying Objects (UFOs) and their significance in the context of national security and scientific inquiry. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2015) i. Some claim to have seen UFOs (Unidentified Flying Objects). ii. Life on other heavenly bodies is considered to be a possibility. iii. Voyage to space is now an established fact. From the above statements, it may be concluded that A. UFOs are heavenly bodies B. UFOs are sent from other heavenly bodies C. Some living species in other heavenly bodies are more intelligent than man D. Nothing definite can be said about the UFOs Answer: D   2. ‘Invasive Species Specialist Group’ (that develops Global Invasive Species Database) belongs to which one of the following organizations? (UPSC 2023)  (a) The International Union for Conservation of Nature (b) The United Nations Environment Programme (c) The United Nations World Commission for Environment and Development (d) The World Wide Fund for Nature Answer: A 3. In the Constitution of India, promotion of international peace and security is included in the (UPSC 2014)  (a) Preamble to the Constitution  (b) Directive Principles of State Policy  (c) Fundamental Duties  (d) Ninth Schedule  Answer: B

 Source: The Indian Express

CYCLONES

 

 

1. Context

Cyclone Midhili, which crossed the Bangladesh coast Friday afternoon, weakened from a ‘deep depression’ into a ‘depression’ early this morning, as per the India Meteorological Department (IMD). As of 8 am Saturday, it is expected to further reduce to a Well Marked Low Pressure Area (WML) in the next six hours.

2. What is a Cyclone

• A cyclone is a low-pressure system that forms over warm waters. Essentially, it is a system of high-speed winds rotating around a low-pressure area, with the winds blowing counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
• According to the World Meteorological Organization, “Tropical cyclones are one of the biggest threats to life and property even in the formative stages of their development.
• Cyclonic winds move across nearly all regions of the Earth except the equatorial belt and are generally associated with rain or snow
• They include several different hazards that can individually cause significant impacts on life and property, such as storm surge, flooding, extreme winds, tornadoes and lighting.
• Combined, these hazards interact with one another and substantially increase the potential for loss of life and material damage.”
• Cyclones occur chiefly in the middle and high latitude belts of both hemispheres. In the Southern Hemisphere, where most of the terrestrial surface is covered by the oceans, cyclones are distributed in a relatively uniform manner through various longitudes
• Characteristically, they form in latitudes 30° to 40° S and move in a generally southeasterly direction, reaching maturity in latitudes around 60°. 
• Cyclones that form closer to the Equator (i.e., at latitudes 10° to 25° north and south over the oceans) differ somewhat in character from the extratropical variety. Such wind systems, known as tropical cyclones, are much smaller in diameter. 
• Whereas extratropical cyclones range from nearly 1,000 to 4,000 km (620 to 2,500 miles) across, tropical cyclones typically measure only about 100 to over 1,000 km in diameter.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

PC: Brittanica

 

3. Types of cyclones

3.1.Tropical Cyclones

Cyclones developed in the tropics region (the majority confined to 10⁰– 30⁰ N and S of the equator) are called tropical cyclones.

• tropical cyclones have a thermal origin, and they develop over tropical seas during certain seasons. Pre-existing low pressure, large sea surface with a temperature higher than 27° C, and the presence of the Coriolis force are a must for tropical cyclone formation.
  
  
• At these locations, the local convectional currents acquire a whirling motion because of the Coriolis force generated by the earth’s rotation. After developing, these cyclones advance till they find a weak spot in the trade wind belt.
  
  
• Tropical cyclones always originate in large water bodies.

3.2.Temperate Cyclone

Temperate cyclones (Mid-Latitude cyclones), also known as Extratropical cyclones, are active over the mid-latitudinal regions between 35° latitude and 65° latitude in both hemispheres.

• They have a dynamic origin and cyclone formation is due to frontogenesis (interaction of cold and warm fronts). When the warm-humid air masses from the tropics meet the dry-cold air masses from the poles and thus a polar front is formed as a surface of discontinuity. The cold air pushes the warm air upwards from underneath. Thus, a void is created because of the lessening of pressure. The surrounding air rushed in to occupy this void and coupled with the earth’s rotation, a temperate cyclone is formed. 
• Temperate cyclones can originate on both landmass or water.

4. How are cyclones named?

Cyclones that form in every ocean basin across the world are named by the regional specialised meteorological centres (RSMCs) and Tropical Cyclone Warning Centres (TCWCs). There are six RSMCs in the world, including the India Meteorological Department (IMD), and five TCWCs.

As an RSMC, the IMD names the cyclones developing over the north Indian Ocean, including the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, after following a standard procedure. The IMD is also mandated to issue advisories to 12 other countries in the region on the development of cyclones and storms.

 

 

For Prelims: Cycles, types of cyclones, reasons for cyclones For Mains: General Studies I: Origin and whether conditions of temperate and tropical cyclones

 

Source: indianexpress

WILDFIRES

1. Context 

A wildfire burning in a remote Hawaii rainforest is underscoring a new reality for the normally lush island state just a few months after a devastating blaze on a neighboring island leveled an entire town and killed at least 99 people.

2. About Wildfires

• Wildfires, also referred to as bushfires, vegetation fires, or forest fires, epitomize the uncontrolled and non-prescribed combustion of plants within natural environments like forests, grasslands, brushlands, or tundras.
• These fires, ignited by various factors, consume natural fuels and propagate based on prevailing environmental conditions such as wind patterns and terrain features.
• Three pivotal elements must converge for a wildfire to thrive: Fuel, Oxygen, and a Heat source.

2.1. Origins and Causes

Natural Causes: Many wildfires stem from natural triggers, with lightning strikes being a prominent initiator. These lightning-induced fires often ignite trees, yet the subsequent rainfall tends to douse the flames, minimizing damage. Elevated atmospheric temperatures and aridity, characterized by low humidity levels, create propitious conditions for fire ignition and spread.

Man-made Causes: Human activities constitute a significant driver of forest fires. Fires ignite when a fire source be it an exposed flame, a discarded cigarette or bidi, an electric spark, or any ignition source interacts with inflammable materials.  Such anthropogenic incidents can swiftly transform into destructive conflagrations.

2.2. Classification

Surface Fires: wildfires can primarily manifest as surface fires, advancing across the forest floor's surface layer, encompassing senescent leaves, twigs, and parched grass. The propagating flames embrace the surface litter, leading to a rapid spread.

Underground Fires: Underground fires, are characterized by low intensity, smoulder within the organic matter beneath the surface and the forest floor's litter. Often concealed, these fires extend several meters below the ground, challenging detection and control efforts. These covert fires, lingering for months, inflict substantial harm to vegetative cover.

Ground Fires: Ground fires, infiltrating the sub-surface organic fuels, transcend boundaries, involving duff layers beneath forest stands, Arctic tundra, taiga, and organic soils of swamps or bogs. The distinction between underground and ground fires isn't clear-cut, as smouldering underground fires can metamorphose into ground fires. These fires ravage the herbaceous growth on the forest floor alongside decaying organic layers, potentially annihilating vegetation. Ground fires simmer below the surface via smouldering combustion, frequently sparked by surface fires.

 

Image Source: CNN

2.3. Impact 

Wildfires can have a significant impact on ecosystems. They can destroy vegetation, kill wildlife, and pollute the air and water. However, they can also have some positive effects, such as clearing out deadwood and creating new growth opportunities.

2.3.1. Negative impacts of wildfires

Loss of vegetation: Wildfires can destroy large areas of vegetation, which can have a cascading effect on the entire ecosystem. For example, the loss of trees can lead to erosion, which can pollute waterways and damage downstream ecosystems.

 

Death of wildlife: Wildfires can kill animals directly through burns or smoke inhalation. They can also indirectly kill animals by destroying their food sources or habitat.

 

Air and water pollution: wildfires can release harmful pollutants into the air and water. These pollutants can cause respiratory problems in humans and animals, and they can also contaminate drinking water.

 

2.3.2. Positive Impacts of Wildfires

Clearing out deadwood: wildfires can clear out deadwood, which can help to prevent the spread of larger fires in the future. Deadwood is also a fire hazard, as it can dry out and catch fire easily.

 

Creating new growth opportunities: wildfires can create new growth opportunities for plants and animals. For example, some plants need fire to germinate their seeds. Fire can also remove competition from older plants, allowing younger plants to grow.

 

Reducing the risk of pests and diseases: wildfires can help to reduce the risk of pests and diseases by killing off infested trees. This can help to protect healthy trees and prevent the spread of pests and diseases to other areas.

 

3. The Historical Significance of Maui and Lahaina

• Maui is a popular tourist destination known for its beautiful beaches and lush rainforests.
• Lahaina was the capital of the Hawaiian kingdom from 1820 to 1845.
• The town is home to many historical landmarks, including the Waiola Church, which was built in 1832.
• The fires have caused extensive damage to Lahaina, including the destruction of many historic buildings.

4. Reasons for the Fires in Hawaii Been So Devastating

The fires have been so devastating due to a combination of factors, including:

Dry weather: The island of Maui has been in a drought for several months, which has created ideal conditions for wildfires to spread.

Strong winds: Hurricane Dora passed south of the islands this week, which created strong winds that fanned the flames.

Invasive plant species: Invasive plant species, such as fireweed, have spread rapidly across the island, making it easier for fires to start and spread.

Climate change: Climate change is making the Earth's climate warmer and drier, which is creating more favourable conditions for wildfires to occur.

 

5. Measures that can be taken to prevent wildfires

Create firebreaks: Firebreaks are strips of land that have been cleared of vegetation and are used to stop the spread of fire. They can be created by clearing trees, shrubs, and other vegetation, or by plowing the land.

 

Educate the public about fire safety: People should be educated about fire safety in forests, including how to prevent fires and how to stay safe if a fire occurs.

 

Use fire permits: In many areas, it is required to obtain a fire permit before lighting a fire in the forest. This helps to ensure that fires are only lit in safe areas and that they are properly extinguished.

 

Monitor weather conditions: Forest officials should monitor weather conditions and issue warnings when there is a high risk of fire. This allows people to take steps to protect themselves and their property.

 

Maintain fire equipment: Fire equipment, such as fire trucks and water hoses, should be maintained in working order so that they can be used to fight fires quickly and effectively.

 

For Prelims: Wildfires, Hawaii, USA, climate change, soil degradation, vegetation,  For Mains:  1. Explain the causes and factors that contribute to the severity of wildfires. Discuss the positive and negative impacts of wildfires on ecosystems. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Comprehension (SSC CHSL 2020)   Direction: In the following passage some words have been deleted. Fill in the blanks with the help of the alternatives given. Select the most appropriate option for each blank. Forest fire always (1) ______ by one of two reasons-naturally caused or human-caused. Natural fire is generally (2) ______ by lightning, with a very small percentage (3) ______ by spontaneous combustion of dry fuel such as sawdust and leaves. (4) ______, human-caused fire can happen (5) ______ any number of reasons. Select the most appropriate option for blank No. 1. A. takes up    B. happens    C. causes    D. creates   Answer: B   2. Match List - I with List - II and select the correct answer from the codes given below the lists: (UPSC CAPF 2015) List - I (Volcano type)                  List – II (Location) A. Shield Volcano                         1. Indonesia B. Composite Volcano                  2. India C. Caldera                                    3. Hawaii D. Flood Basalt Provinces           4. Phillippines 1. A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3 2. A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3 3. A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2 4. A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2   Answer: 4   3. Recently, the USA decided to support India's membership in multilateral export control regimes called the "Australia Group" and the "Wassenaar Arrangement". What is the difference between them?  (UPSC 2011) 1. The Australia Group is an informal arrangement which aims to allow exporting countries to minimize the risk of assisting chemical and biological weapons proliferation, whereas the Wassenaar Arrangement is a formal group under the OECD holding identical objectives. 2. The Australia Group comprises predominantly of Asian, African and North American countries, whereas the member countries of Wassenaar Arrangement are predominantly from the European Union and American continents. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only   B. 2 only     C.  Both 1 and 2    D. Neither 1 nor 2   Answer: D   4. In India, the problem of soil erosion is associated with which of the following? (UPSC 2014) 1. Terrace cultivation 2. Deforestation 3. Tropical climate Select the correct answer using the code given below. A. 1 and 2 only     B. 2 only     C. 1 and 3 only     D. 1, 2 and 3   Answer: B   5. The vegetation of savannah consists of grassland with scattered small trees, but extensive areas have no trees. The forest development in such areas is generally kept in check by one or more or a combination of some conditions. Which of the following are such conditions? (UPSC 2021) 1. Burrowing animals and termites 2. Fire 3. Grazing herbivores 4. Seasonal rainfall 5. Soil properties Select the correct answer using the code given below. A. 1 and 2        B. 4 and 5    C,  2, 3 and 4     D. 1, 3 and 5   Answer: C

 

Source: The Indian Express