INDUS WATER TREATY

1. Context

2. Is unilateral suspension permissible?

• The Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) cannot be modified or terminated by one country alone. Article XII explicitly states that the agreement may only be ended through a "duly ratified treaty" mutually accepted by both India and Pakistan.

• India’s reference to placing the treaty “in abeyance” in its communication with Pakistan lacks legal grounding, as international law and the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT), 1969—which serves as the foundational framework for international agreements—do not recognize this term.

• Under Article 62 of the VCLT, a treaty may be withdrawn from if there has been a “fundamental change of circumstances” compared to when it was first signed.

• Although India is not a signatory and Pakistan has signed but not ratified the VCLT, the International Court of Justice (ICJ), in its ruling on the Fisheries Jurisdiction cases, recognized Article 62 as part of customary international law—making it applicable even without formal ratification.

• India appears to be appealing to this legal doctrine in its letter, which emphasized that a “fundamental change in circumstances” warrants a reassessment of its commitments under the IWT.

•  For instance, in the 1997 Gabcíkovo-Nagymaros case involving Hungary and Slovakia’s dam project, Hungary claimed that evolving political and economic conditions, along with potential environmental risks, justified ending the treaty.

• The ICJ dismissed these claims, asserting that the cited changes were not directly tied to the treaty’s central goal of cooperative energy generation

3.How will this have effect on Pakistan?

• Over 80% of Pakistan’s agricultural activities and nearly one-third of its hydropower production rely on the Indus basin's water resources.
• Despite this heavy dependence, analysts point out that India does not have the extensive water storage facilities or a widespread canal network necessary to retain the vast volumes—tens of billions of cubic metres—of water from the western rivers.
• India’s existing infrastructure primarily comprises run-of-the-river hydropower projects, which are not designed for significant water storage.
• Nevertheless, the primary concern lies in the unpredictability of water flows, which poses a serious threat to Pakistan’s largely agriculture-based economy

4. Applications moved by Pakistan and India earlier

• The World Bank, the third party to the Treaty and the acknowledged arbiter of disputes were, meanwhile faced with a unique situation of having received two separate requests for the same dispute.
• New Delhi feels that the World Bank is just a facilitator and has a limited role.
• On December 12, 2016, the World Bank announced a "pause" in the separate processes initiated by India and Pakistan under the Indus Waters Treaty to allow the two countries to consider alternative ways to resolve their disagreements.
• The regular meetings of Indus Waters Commissioners resumed in 2017 and India tried to use these to find mutually agreeable solutions between 2017 and 2022.
• Pakistan refused to discuss these issues at these meetings.
• At Pakistan's continued insistence, the World Bank, in March last year, initiated actions on the requests of both India and Pakistan.

• They will carry out their duties in their capacity as subject matter experts and independently of any other appointments they may currently hold.
• On October 19, 2022, the Ministry of External Affairs said, " We have noted the World Bank's announcement to concurrently appoint a Neutral Expert and a Chair of the Court of Arbitration in the ongoing matter related to the Kishanganga and Ratle projects".
• Recognising the World Bank's admission in its announcement that "carrying out two processes concurrently poses practical and legal challenges".
• India would assess the matter that "India believes that the implementation of the Indus Water Treaty must be in the letter and spirit of the Treaty".
• Such parallel consideration of the same issues is not provided for in any provisions of the Treaty and India has been repeatedly citing the possibility of the two processes delivering contradictory rulings, which could lead to an unprecedented and legally untenable situation, which is unforeseen in Treaty provisions.

5. Dispute redressal mechanism 

• The dispute redressal mechanism provided under Article IX of the IWT is graded.
• It's a 3-level mechanism.
• So, whenever India plans to start a project, under the Indus Water Treaty, it has to inform Pakistan that it is planning to build a project.
• Pakistan might oppose it and ask for more details. That would mean there is a question and in case there is a question, that question has to be clarified between the two sides at the level of the Indus Commissioners.
• If that difference is not resolved by them, then the level is raised. The question then becomes a difference.
• That difference is to be resolved by another set mechanism, which is the Natural Expert.
• It is at this stage that the World Bank comes into the picture.
• In case the Neutral Expert says that they are not able to resolve the difference or that the issue needs an interpretation of the Treaty, then that difference becomes a dispute.
  It then goes to the third stage the Court of Arbitration.
• To Sum up, it's a very graded and sequential mechanism first Commissioner, then the Neutral Expert and only then the Court of Arbitration.

6. India's notice and its implications

• While the immediate provocation for the modification is to address the issue of two parallel mechanisms, at this point, the implications of India's notice for modifying the treaty are not very clear.
• Article XII (3) of the Treaty that India has invoked is not a dispute redressal mechanism.
• It is in effect, a provision to amend the Treaty.
• However, an amendment or modification can happen only through a "duly ratified Treaty concluded for that purpose between the two governments". 
• Pakistan is under no obligation to agree to India's proposal.
• As of now, it is not clear what happens if Pakistan does not respond to India's notice within 90 days.

• India has not spelt out exactly what it wants to be modified in the Treaty.
• But over the last few years, especially since the Uri attack, there has been a growing demand in India to use the Indus Waters Treaty as a strategic tool, considering that India has the natural advantage of being the upper riparian state.
• India has not fully utilized its rights over the waters of the three east-flowing rivers Ravi, Beas and Sutlej over which India has full control under the Treaty.
  It has also not adequately utilized the limited rights over the three west-flowing rivers Indus, Chenab and Jhelum which are meant for Pakistan.
• Following the Uri attack, India established a high-level task force to exploit the full potential of the Indus Waters Treaty.
• Accordingly, India has been working to start several big and small hydroelectric projects that had either been stalled or were in the planning stages.

For Prelims & Mains

GRADED RESPONSE ACTION PLAN(GRAP)

 

1.Context

 In a move to combat air pollution during the winter months, the Delhi government has notified a series of restrictions that will come into force from November 1 to February 28 every year — from curbs on vehicles and construction activities, to staggered office timings and work from home.

2.What is a Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP)

In 2014, when a study by the WHO found that Delhi was the most polluted city in the world, panic spread in the center and the state government. Approved by the supreme court in 2016, the plan was formulated after several meetings that the Environmental Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority (EPCA) held with state government representatives and experts. The result was a plan that institutionalized measures to be taken when air quality deteriorates.

The plan was notified by the Ministry of Environment, Forests & Climate change in 2017.

GRAP works only as an emergency measure.

 

It institutionalized measures to be taken when air quality deteriorates.

1. The plan is incremental- therefore, when the air quality moves from 'poor' to 'very poor, the measures listed under both sections have to be followed.

2. It prevents PM10 and PM2.5 levels from going beyond the 'moderate' national AQI category.

 

Authorities from both Haryana and UP had informed EPCA at the time that they would put in the required measures by winter 2020 for the supply of electricity from the grid.

3.Has GRAP Helped?

• The biggest success of GRAP has been in fixing accountability and deadlines.
• For each action to be taken under a particular air quality category, executing agencies are marked.
• In a territory like Delhi, where a multiplicity of authorities has been a long-standing impediment to effective governance, this step made a crucial difference.

4.Measures that are taken in other states

• one criticism of the EPCA, as well as GRAP, has been the focus on Delhi. While other states have managed to delay several measures, citing a lack of resources, Delhi has always been the first to have stringent measures enforced.
• When the air quality shifts from poor to very poor, the measures listed under both sections have to be followed since the plan is incremental in naturality reaches the severe+ stage, GRAP talks about shutting down schools and implementing the odd-even road-space rationing scheme. 

5.Actions under GRAP

Severe+ or Emergency	(PM 2.5 OVER 300 300 µg/cubic metre or PM10 over 500µg/cu. m. for 48+ hours) Stop construction work. Stop entry of trucks into Delhi. Introduce odd/even schemes for private vehicles and minimize exemptions. Taskforce to decide any additional steps including shutting schools to stop.
Severe	(PM 2.5 OVER 250µg/cu. m. or PM10 over 430 µg/cu. m. ) Maximize power generation from natural gas to reduce generation from coal. Close brick kilns, hot mix plants, and stone crushers. More frequent mechanized cleaning of roads and sprinkling of water.
Very Poor	(PM2.5 121-250 µg/cu. m. or PM10 351-430 µg/cu.m. ) Increase bus and metro services. Stop the use of diesel generator sets. Enhance parking fee by 3-4 times. Apartment owners discourage burning fires in winter by providing electric heaters during winter. Advisories to people with respiratory and cardiac conditions to restrict outdoor movement.
Moderate to Poor	(PM2.5 61-120 µg/cu. m. or PM10 101-350 µg/cu. m.) Close/enforce pollution control regulations in brick kilns and industries. Heavy fines for garbage burning. Mechanized sweeping on roads with heavy traffic and water sprinkling.

 

6. The Air Quality Index (AQI)

• The AQI is a colour-coded index launched under the Swachh Bharat campaign to simplify the understanding of pollution levels.
• It helps convey the condition of the air and guides appropriate measures based on the severity of pollution.
• The AQI consists of six categories, each with a corresponding colour code: 'Good' (0-50), 'Satisfactory' (51-100), 'Moderately Polluted' (101-200), 'Poor' (201-300), 'Very Poor' (301-400) and 'Severe' (401-500).

 

7. Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM)

 

• The Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) was established by the Government of India in October 2020 to address the persistent and severe problem of air pollution in the National Capital Region (NCR) and adjoining states.
• It was later given statutory backing through the Commission for Air Quality Management in National Capital Region and Adjoining Areas Act, 2021. The Commission functions under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC).
• The CAQM was created in response to the recurring air pollution crisis in Delhi and surrounding areas, which often see hazardous air quality levels, especially during the winter months.
• The problem is aggravated by factors such as stubble burning in Punjab and Haryana, industrial and vehicular emissions, and construction dust. Earlier, multiple agencies such as the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), state pollution control boards, and environment departments operated independently, leading to poor coordination and weak enforcement. The CAQM was envisioned as a centralized, permanent body to unify and coordinate efforts across states.
• The Commission’s jurisdiction extends to Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh, covering areas adjoining the NCR. It is headed by a Chairperson appointed by the Central Government—typically a former Secretary to the Government of India or a Chief Secretary of a state.
• The body includes representatives from central ministries, state governments, the CPCB, ISRO, and NITI Aayog, along with experts in environmental science and pollution control.
• The CAQM is responsible for monitoring, coordinating, and implementing air quality management plans across its jurisdiction. It formulates policies to prevent and control air pollution, enforces existing environmental laws, and ensures that central, state, and local authorities act in a coordinated manner.
• The Commission also plays a critical role in tackling stubble burning, a major seasonal contributor to pollution in northern India. It has the authority to issue directions to central, state, and local authorities, and its orders override those of other agencies within its jurisdiction. Moreover, the Commission possesses powers of a civil court, enabling it to summon individuals, demand documents, and take punitive actions against violators.
• The establishment of CAQM marks an important step in India’s environmental governance. By creating a single authority with comprehensive powers, the government sought to move away from fragmented approaches and ensure consistent, region-wide enforcement.
• However, despite its potential, the Commission faces challenges such as jurisdictional overlaps, limited manpower, and the lack of strong enforcement mechanisms at the local level. Successful functioning of CAQM ultimately depends on the cooperation of states, technological monitoring, and public awareness

 

 

For Prelims and Mains

For Prelims: Graded Response Action Plan, National Capital Region (NCR),Environmental pollution(prevention control)Authority (EPCA). For Mains: 1. What is GRAP? What is the Delhi-NCR action plan as air pollution increases? (250 words).

 

Previous Year Questions   1.In the cities of our country, which among the following atmospheric gases are normally considered in calculating the value of the Air Quality Index? (2016) Carbon dioxide  Carbon monoxide  Nitrogen dioxide  Sulfur dioxide  Methane  Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only  (b) 2, 3 and 4 only  (c) 1, 4 and 5 only  (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 Answer (b)

SOURCE: The Indian Express

 

 

 

MONSOON IN INDIA

 

 

 

1. Context

 

Rainfall in July – the most important of the monsoon months — will be “below normal” or less than 94% of what is usual for the month, Mrutyunjay Mohapatra, Director-General, India Meteorological Department (IMD), said on Tuesday. India’s current monsoon deficit is 40%.

 

2. What is a Monsoon?

 

A monsoon is a seasonal weather pattern characterized by changes in the direction of prevailing winds, which typically result in distinct wet and dry seasons. Monsoons are caused by the differential heating of land and sea, which creates pressure gradients that drive large-scale wind systems.

Key features of a monsoon include:

• Monsoons involve a significant shift in wind direction between seasons. During the wet season, winds blow from the ocean towards the land, bringing moist air and heavy rainfall. During the dry season, winds reverse direction, blowing from the land to the ocean, resulting in dry conditions
• The wet season is marked by heavy and sustained rainfall, often leading to flooding and lush vegetation growth. The dry season, in contrast, has little to no rainfall, leading to drought conditions in some regions
• Monsoons are most commonly associated with South Asia, particularly the Indian subcontinent. Other regions that experience monsoon patterns include Southeast Asia, parts of Africa, Australia, and the southwestern United States
• Monsoons play a crucial role in the climate and agriculture of affected regions. They provide essential water for crops and replenish groundwater supplies. However, they can also cause destructive flooding and landslides

3. Indian Monsoon

 

• The Indian monsoon is a significant and complex weather phenomenon that has a profound impact on the climate, agriculture, and economy of the Indian subcontinent one of the most well-known and studied monsoon systems is the Indian monsoon, which significantly affects the climate and economy of India and its neighbouring countries.
• Southwest Monsoon: Occurs from June to September. Winds blow from the southwest, bringing moisture-laden air from the Indian Ocean, resulting in heavy rainfall over the Indian subcontinent.
• Northeast Monsoon: Occurs from October to December. Winds blow from the northeast, bringing drier air, although the southeastern coast of India and Sri Lanka receive some rainfall during this period.

4. Monsoon basics and dates

 

• The Southwest Monsoon from June to September delivers over 70% of India's annual rainfall. Typically, the monsoon reaches the Andaman Sea in the third week of May and moves onto the mainland through Kerala, with June 1 being the usual start date.
• Its progression is characterised by surges, advancing rapidly to central India before slowing down.
• By the end of June, it generally reaches north Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, and surrounding areas, covering the entire country by July 15. An early or timely onset does not ensure consistent or adequate rainfall throughout the season, nor does a delayed onset necessarily lead to below-average rainfall.
• The total rainfall from June to September is influenced by various factors and exhibits natural year-to-year variability, making each monsoon season unique. The distribution of rainfall is as important as the total amount.
• The India Meteorological Department (IMD) predicts 'above normal' rainfall for this season, estimated to be 106% of the Long Period Average of 880 mm (based on 1971-2020 data).
• This forecast of increased rainfall is largely due to the expected development of La Niña conditions, which typically enhance the Indian monsoon, and a positive phase of the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)

 

5.Branches of Indian Monsoon

The Indian Monsoon is broadly divided into two main branches, each with distinct characteristics and regions of influence: the Arabian Sea Branch and the Bay of Bengal Branch.

Arabian Sea Branch

Characteristics:

• Source: Originates from the southwestern part of the Arabian Sea.
• Path: Moves towards the western coast of India.
• Onset: Typically hits the Kerala coast around June 1st, marking the official start of the Southwest Monsoon.

Key Features:

• Western Ghats: The moist air from the Arabian Sea rises when it encounters the Western Ghats, causing heavy rainfall on the windward side.
• Progression: Advances northwards along the western coast, bringing significant rainfall to regions such as Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Gujarat.
• Reach: Extends into central and northwestern India, contributing to the monsoon rains in these areas.

Bay of Bengal Branch

Characteristics:

• Source: Originates from the southeastern part of the Bay of Bengal.
• Path: Moves towards the eastern coast of India and then travels northwestwards.

Key Features:

• Northeastern India: Initially brings heavy rainfall to northeastern states such as Assam, Meghalaya, and West Bengal as it hits the Eastern Himalayas.
• Progression: Moves across the Indo-Gangetic Plain, covering Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and eventually reaching northern India including Delhi.
• Distribution: Influences the monsoon patterns in central and northern India, often merging with the Arabian Sea branch to provide widespread rainfall.

 

6.Factors affecting Indian Monsoon

Coriolis Force

The Coriolis Force is an apparent force resulting from the Earth's rotation. It influences the rotational movement seen in tropical cyclones, causing monsoon winds to deflect eastward and blow from the southwest to the northeast. Since the Earth's rotation is constant, the Coriolis Force experienced by air at a specific latitude and velocity remains steady.

Mascarene High

The Mascarene High is a significant high-pressure zone that drives the southwest monsoon winds toward the Indian subcontinent. Forming by mid-April, the strength of this high-pressure area is crucial in determining the intensity of the Indian monsoon. A stronger high leads to stronger winds and a more robust monsoon. A delayed formation of the Mascarene High can result in a delayed onset of the monsoon in India.

Indian Summer

High-pressure winds move towards low-pressure areas. The Himalayas play a key role in summer heating by blocking cold northern air, allowing for warmer conditions. During summer, India becomes extremely hot, and surrounding ocean temperatures rise. This creates a pressure gradient between the cooler sea air and the warmer land air, particularly over Rajasthan. Consequently, monsoon winds are drawn towards the low-pressure area over India.

Indian Ocean Dipole

In 1999, N.H. Saji and colleagues from Japan’s University of Aizu identified the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), an ENSO-like phenomenon in the Indian Ocean. The IOD has three phases: positive, negative, and neutral. During the positive IOD phase, sea surface temperatures in the western Indian Ocean are warmer than in the eastern part. Conversely, during the negative phase, the eastern Indian Ocean is warmer. No significant gradient exists during the neutral phase. Positive IOD phases are associated with significantly higher Indian summer monsoon rainfall compared to negative IOD phases.

El Niño

El Niño refers to the occasional appearance of a warm ocean current off the coast of Peru, temporarily replacing the cold Peruvian current. Named after the infant Christ ("El Niño" means "the child" in Spanish) because it occurs around Christmas, El Niño leads to increased sea-surface temperatures and reduced trade winds in the region.

El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

The El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) describes the cyclic variations in sea surface temperatures around the equatorial Pacific Ocean. ENSO's unpredictable nature has long challenged forecasters. It affects global weather patterns, especially in countries bordering the Pacific Ocean, by influencing air circulation.

Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

The ITCZ is a broad low-pressure area found in equatorial latitudes where the northeast and southeast trade winds converge. This zone shifts north and south following the sun’s apparent movement. The position and strength of the ITCZ significantly affect the Indian Monsoon.

Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ)

The TEJ plays a crucial role in initiating the southwest monsoon. This jet stream flows over the Indian Ocean near Madagascar, intensifying the high-pressure cell and triggering the southwest monsoon. Persistent high summer temperatures over Tibet help develop the easterly jet, leading to heavy rainfall in India. Conversely, if the Tibetan Plateau retains its snow cover, the easterly jet does not form, resulting in reduced monsoon rainfall in India. Thus, years with extensive snow in Tibet are typically followed by weaker monsoons and less rainfall

 

 

 

For Prelims: Southwest monsoon El Nino, Coriolis Force For Mains: GS I- Monssons and their effects on Indian Agriculture

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

 

INDEX OF INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION (IIP)

 

1. Context

While releasing the data, the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation also said that it has further tweaked the new series of the Index of Industrial Production (IIP), which had first been released on June 1. The new series has an updated base year of 2022-23 and incorporates new data sources.

2. About the Index of Industrial Production (IIP)

• The Index of Industrial Production (IIP) is a macroeconomic indicator that measures the changes in the volume of production of a basket of industrial goods over some time.
• It is a composite index that reflects the performance of the industrial sector of an economy.
• The IIP is compiled and released by the Central Statistical Organisation (CSO) in India.
• The IIP is calculated using a Laspeyres index formula, which means that the weights assigned to different industries are based on their relative importance in a base year. The current base year for the IIP is 2011-12.
• The eight core sector industries represent about 40% of the weight of items that are included in the IIP.
• The eight core industries are Refinery Products, Electricity, Steel, Coal, Crude Oil, Natural Gas, Cement and Fertilizers.
• It covers 407 item groups included into 3 categories viz. Manufacturing, Mining and Electricity.
• The IIP is a useful tool for assessing the health of the industrial sector and the overall economy.
• It is used by policymakers, businesses, and investors to track trends in industrial production and make informed decisions.

3. Significance of IIP

The IIP is a significant economic indicator that provides insights into the following aspects

• The IIP reflects the growth or decline of the industrial sector, which is a major contributor to overall economic growth.
• The IIP measures the level of industrial activity, indicating the production volume of various industries.
• The IIP serves as a guide for policymakers to assess the effectiveness of economic policies and make informed decisions.
• Businesses use the IIP to assess market conditions, make production plans, and evaluate investment opportunities.
• The IIP influences investor sentiment as it reflects the overall health of the industrial sector.

4. Service Sector and IIP

• The IIP does not include the service sector. It focuses on the production of goods in the industrial sector, such as manufacturing, mining, and electricity.
• The service sector is measured by a separate index, the Index of Services Production (ISP).
• The IIP data is released monthly by the Central Statistical Organisation (CSO) in India.
• The data is released with a lag of six weeks, allowing for the collection and compilation of information from various industries.

5. Users of IIP Data

The IIP data is used by a wide range of stakeholders, including:

• Government agencies and central banks use the IIP to assess economic conditions and formulate policies.
• Companies use the IIP to evaluate market trends, make production decisions, and assess investment opportunities.
• Investors use the IIP to gauge the health of the industrial sector and make investment decisions.
• Economic analysts and researchers use the IIP to study economic trends and develop forecasts.
• The IIP is widely reported in the media and is of interest to the general public as an indicator of economic performance.

6. Manufacturing Drives Industrial Production Growth

• Factory output gained on the back of a 9.3 per cent increase in manufacturing, which accounts for 77.6 per cent of the weight of the IIP (Index of Industrial Production).
• Manufacturing output had grown by 5 per cent in July and had contracted by 0.5 per cent in August 2022.
• In absolute terms, it improved to 143.5 in August from 141.8 in July and 131.3 in the year-ago period.
• As per the IIP data, seven of the 23 sectors in manufacturing registered a contraction in August, with furniture, apparel, and computer and electronics among the significant non-performers.
• Among the performing sectors, fabricated metal products, electrical equipment and basic metals fared better.
• Garments and chemicals witnessed negative growth. This can be attributed to lower growth in exports as these two are export-dependent.
• The electronics industry also witnessed negative growth, which again can be linked to existing high stocks and lower export demand.
• In terms of the use-based industries, consumer durables output returned to positive territory for the second time this fiscal with 5.7 per cent growth in August, reflecting a pickup in consumption demand.
• However, it came on the back of a 4.4 per cent contraction in consumer durables output in the year-ago period.
• Primary, infrastructure/ construction, and capital goods recorded double-digit growth rates in August at 12.4 per cent, 14.9 per cent and 12.6 per cent, respectively.

 

For Prelims: The Index of Industrial Production (IIP), Central Statistical Organisation,  For Mains:  1. Discuss the significance of the Index of Industrial Production (IIP) as an economic indicator and its role in assessing the health of the industrial sector and the overall economy. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. In India, in the overall Index of Industrial Production, the Indices of Eight Core Industries have a combined weight of 37.90%. Which of the following are among those Eight Core Industries? (UPSC CSE 2012) 1. Cement 2. Fertilizers 3. Natural gas 4. Refinery products 5. Textiles Select the correct answer using the codes given below: A. 1 and 5 only       B. 2, 3 and 4 only           C. 1, 2, 3 and 4 only         D. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5   Answer: C

 

 

Source: indianexpress

 

 

 

 

NATIONAL FOOD SECURITY ACT

 

 

1. Context

The Union Food and Public Distribution Department on Wednesday published a draft of the proposed amendments to the National Food Security Act (NFSA). The draft is uploaded on the department’s website. The public can comment on the amendments till July 13.

2. About the food inflation rate in India

• As of September 5, 2023, the food inflation rate in India is 8.88%.
• This is based on the All-India Consumer Price Index for Agricultural Products (CPI-AP), which measures the change in prices of a basket of food items consumed by rural and urban households.
• The CPI-AP food inflation rate was 7.03% in June 2023 and 5.38% in July 2022.

3. The reasons for cereal inflation 

There are several reasons why cereal inflation is high in India. These include:

• The Russia-Ukrainian war has disrupted global wheat exports. India is a major importer of wheat, and the war has led to a shortage of wheat in the global market, which has pushed up prices.
• A poor monsoon season in India has damaged crops. The monsoon season is crucial for agriculture in India, and a poor monsoon season can lead to lower crop yields, which can also push up prices.
• Higher transportation costs: The cost of transporting food has been rising due to higher fuel prices. This has also contributed to the rise in cereal prices.
• Lower domestic production: The production of cereals in India has been declining in recent years. This is due to several factors, including the lack of investment in agriculture, the ageing farmer population, and climate change.
• Government policies: The government has imposed export restrictions on wheat and rice, which has limited the supply of these cereals in the market and pushed up prices.

3. National Food Security Act, 2013

• The National Food Security Act, 2013 (NFSA) is an Act of the Parliament of India that aims to provide food and nutritional security in the human life cycle approach, by ensuring access to an adequate quantity of quality food at affordable prices for people to live a life with dignity and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.
• The Act was enacted on July 5, 2013, and came into force on September 1, 2013.
• It covers two-thirds of the population of India, which is about 813 million people.

3.1. Salient features 

• The Public Distribution System (PDS) is now governed by provisions of the National Food Security Act, 2013 (NFSA).
• Coverage under PDS is de-linked from the erstwhile 'poverty estimates'.
• The Act provides coverage for nearly 2/3^rd of the country's total population, basis Census 2011 population estimates.
• 75% of the Rural and 50% of Urban population is entitled to receive highly subsidised foodgrains under two categories of beneficiaries Antodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) households and Priority Households (PHH).
• State/UT-wise coverage is determined by the erstwhile Planning Commission (now NITI Ayog) based on the 2011-12 Household Consumption Expenditure survey of NSSO.
• The Act entitles 35 kg of foodgrain per AAY Household per month, whereas 5 Kg of foodgrain per PHH Person per month.
• Identification of beneficiaries/households under NFSA is done by the respective State/UT Government, which is required to frame its own criteria.
• Highly subsidised Central Issue Prices of Re.1, Rs.2 and Rs.3 for Coarse-grains, Wheat and Rice respectively, kept unchanged till June 2019.
• No reduction in foodgrains allocation to any State/UT under NFSA. Allocation gaps if any, are covered with Tide-Over allocation
• Eldest woman of the beneficiary household (18 years or above) is considered as 'Head of Family' to issue ration cards.
• Grievance redressal mechanisms, through State Food Commissions, DGROs, and Vigilance Committees at different levels are provisioned for Women's Empowerment.
• Provisions for disclosure of records relating to PDS operations, placing of beneficiaries' list in public domain/portals, for enhanced transparency
• Assistance to States/UTs for meeting expenditure on intra-state transportation & handling of foodgrains and FPS Dealers' margin

3.2. The eligibility criteria 

Rural areas:

• Households with an annual income of less than Rs. 10,000 per annum.
• Households with at least two adult members who are unable to work due to old age, disability, or illness.
• Households that depend on agriculture for their livelihood and have an annual income of less than Rs. 5000 per annum.
• Households that have been identified as Below the Poverty Line (BPL) by the state government.

Urban areas:

• Households with an annual income of less than Rs. 15,000 per annum.
• Households with at least two adult members who are unable to work due to old age, disability, or illness.
• Households that depend on non-agricultural activities for their livelihood and have an annual income of less than Rs. 10,000 per annum.
• Households that have been identified as Below Poverty Line (BPL) by the state government.

4. Conclusion

• All NFSA beneficiaries, before January 2023, were getting 10 kg of rice or wheat per month practically free of cost.
• Since that more or less met their entire requirement the last national sample survey of 2011-12 revealed the per capita cereal consumption at 11.22 kg for rural and 9.28 kg for urban India they hardly had to buy grain from the open market.

 

For Prelims: National Food Security Act, inflation, Below Poverty Line, All-India Consumer Price Index for Agricultural Products, Russia-Ukrainian war, Public Distribution System, Antodaya Anna Yojana, Priority Households, Planning Commission, NITI Ayog,  For Mains:  1. Evaluate the impact of poor monsoon seasons and climate change on cereal production in India. How can these challenges be addressed to ensure food security for the population? (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. With reference to the provisions made under the National Food Security act, 2013 consider the following statements: (UPSC 2018)  1. The families coming under the category of 'below poverty line (BPL)' only are eligible to receive subsidized food grains. 2. The eldest woman in a household, of age 18 years or above, shall be the head of the household for the purpose of issuance of a ration card. 3. Pregnant women and lactating mothers are entitled to a 'take-home ration' of 1600 calories per day during pregnancy and or six months thereafter. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 and 2          B. 2 only          C. 1 and 3           D. 3 only   Answer: B   2. With reference to the National Food Security Act, which of the following statement is/are correct?  (UPPSC 2019) I. It will cover up to 75 percent rural and 50 percent urban population. II. Special focus on nutritional support to women and children. III. Eldest woman of above 18 years of age will be head of household. Select the correct answer using the codes given below: A. I and II are correct B. II and III are correct C. I, II and III are correct D. None of these   Answer: C   3. In a given year in India, official poverty lines are higher in some States than in others because (UPSC 2019) A. Poverty rates vary from State to State B. Price levels vary from State to State C. Gross State Product varies from State to State D. Quality of public distribution varies from State to State   Answer: B   4. With reference to inflation in India, which of the following statements is correct? (UPSC 2015) A. Controlling the inflation in India is the responsibility of the Government of India only B. The Reserve Bank of India has no role in controlling the inflation C. Decreased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation D. Increased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation   Answer: C   5. With reference to India, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2010) 1. The Wholesale Price Index (WPI) in India is available on a monthly basis only. 2. As compared to Consumer Price Index for Industrial Workers (CPI(IW)), the WPI gives less weight to food articles. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?  A. 1 only       B. 2 only       C. Both 1 and 2          D.  Neither 1 nor 2   Answer: C   6. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2020) 1. The weightage of food in Consumer Price Index (CPI) is higher than that in Wholesale Price Index (WPI). 2. The WPI does not capture changes in the prices of services, which CPI does. 3. Reserve Bank of India has now adopted WPI as its key measure of inflation and to decide on changing the key policy rates. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?  A. 1 and  2 only       B. 2 only       C. 3 only           D. 1, 2 and 3   Answer: A   7. Who among the following is the head of the standing committee on economic statistics set up by Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MOSPI)? (SSC CGL 2020)  A. Krishnamurthy Subramanian B. Manmohan Singh C. Pronab Sen D. Raghuram Rajan   Answer: C   8. As per Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, which state of India has the highest per capita income as of Sep 2019? (SSC CPO 2019)  A. Goa                B.  Punjab         C. Tamil Nadu         D. Gujarat   Answer: A   9. The Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT) has revised the base year index of Eight Core Industries having a combined weight of about 40.27 percent in the Index of Industrial Production. Which one of the following is not one of the Eight Core Industries? (CDS 2022) A. Coal B. Refinery products C. Rubber products D. Cement   Answer: C   10. Read the following passage and answer the question that follows. Your answers to these items should be based on the passage only. (UPSC 2021) Policymakers and media have placed the blame for skyrocketing food prices on a variety of factors, including high fuel prices, bad weather in key food producing countries, and the diversion of land to non-food production. Increased emphasis, however, has been placed on a surge in demand for food from the most populous emerging economics. It seems highly probable that mass consumption in these countries could be well poised to create a food crisis. With reference to the above passage, the following assumptions have been made:  1. Oil producing countries are one of the reasons for high food prices. 2. If there is a food crisis in the world in the near future, it will be in the emerging economies. Which of the above assumptions is/are valid? A. 1 only        B. 2 only           C. Both 1 and 2         D.  Neither 1 nor 2   Answer: D   11. India has experienced persistent and high food inflation in the recent past. What could be the reasons? (UPSC 2011) 1. Due to a gradual switchover to the cultivation of commercial crops, the area under the cultivation of food grains has steadily decreased in the last five years by about 30. 2. As a consequence of increasing incomes, the consumption patterns of the people have undergone a significant change. 3. The food supply chain has structural constraints. Which of the statements given above are correct?  A. 1 and 2 only          B. 2 and 3 only        C. 1 and 3 only          D. 1, 2 and 3   Answer: B   12. With reference to inflation in India, which of the following statements is correct? (UPSC 2015)  A. Controlling the inflation in India is the responsibility of the Government of India only B.The Reserve Bank of India has no role in controlling the inflation C. Decreased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation D. Increased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation   Answer: C   13. With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2016) 1. The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN and it will go into effect in 2017 2. The Agreement aims to limit greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2°C or even 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. 3. Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility in global warming and committed to donate $ 1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries to cope with climate change. Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1 and 3 only     B.  2 only        C. 2 and 3 only        D. 1, 2 and 3   Answer: B   14. The Public Distribution System, which evolved as a system of management of food and distribution of food grains, was relaunched as _______ Public Distribution System in 1997. (SSC JE EE 2021)  A. Evolved         B. Transformed      C. Tested            D. Targeted   Answer: D   15. Under the Antyodaya Anna Yojana, up to what quantity of rice and wheat can be purchased at a subsidised cost? (FCI AG III 2023)  A. 35 kg          B. 40 kg          C. 30 kg           D. 25 kg           E. 50 kg   Answer: A   16. Among the following who are eligible to benefit from the "Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act"? (UPSC 2011) A. Adult members of only the scheduled caste and scheduled tribe households. B. Adult members of below-poverty line (BPL) households. C. Adult members of households of all backward communities. D. Adult members of any rural household.   Answer: D

 

 

VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE

 

1. Context

 

An expert team from the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has found three rare inscriptions dating to the 16^th century in Sadasivakona, deep inside the Seshachalam forest in Tirupati district of Andhra Pradesh.

 

2. Vijayanagara Empire

• The Vijayanagara Empire was a significant medieval South Indian empire that flourished between the 14th and 17th centuries.
• Established in 1336 by Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I, the empire's capital was Vijayanagara, located in present-day Hampi, Karnataka, India.
• The empire's rise was a response to the decline of the preceding Hoysala and Kakatiya empires, and it marked a period of cultural, political, and economic renaissance in South India.

3. Caste system

In his famous work Manucharitam, Allasani Peddana mentions the four different castes that lived in the society of Vijayanagar.

• Brahmins or Viprulu followed the traditional profession related to teachers and priests. Sometimes, they also performed the duties of administrators. and soldiers. This is confirmed with the help of the narration of Domingo Paes.
• Rajulu or Rachavaru was generally linked with the ruling dynasty. The rulers and generals were actually Sudras but known as rachavaru due to their position. As in the case of other regions of South India, the Kshatriya Varna appears to be absent here.
• Matikaratalu or Vaishyas were merchants who were busy in trade and commerce activities.
• Nalavajativaru or Sudras were largely agriculturists, but some of them carried on several other professions. They were not segregated, although considered inferior.

4. Religion and Philosophy

• Early Vijayanagar rulers were followers of Shaivism and Virupaksha was their family God. After some time they came under the influence of Vaishnavism. But Siva continued to be worshipped by the people.
• Vaishnavism was professed in various forms. Srivaishnavism of Ramanuja was highly popular.
• The Dvaita system associated with Madhava was also practiced by the people.
• Epics and Puranas were famous amongst the masses, especially since they acted as a means of education among women.

5. Women

• The tradition of dancing girls associated with temples was also in vogue. Many historians interpreted from the account of Paes, that Devadasis held a highly respectable place in society, and were given land grants and maid-servants, etc.
• The condition of the widows was pitiable, but they could remarry.
• The state-supported widow remarriage by not levying any tax on It.
• The prevalence of Sati Pratha in the Vijayanagar Empire is proved from both inscriptions and foreign accounts during the period.

6. Economic Conditions under Vijayanagara Empire

• The Vijayanagar kingdom was one of the richest states then known to the world. Different foreign travellers, who visited the empire in the 15th and 16th Centuries have left glowing accounts of its splendour and wealth.
• Agriculture: It was in a flourishing situation. It was the strategy of rulers to promote agriculture in the different areas of the empire and to boost agricultural production by a clever irrigation policy. Nuniz (Portuguese traveller), speaks of the excavation of canals and the construction of a dam.
• Industries: The agricultural wealth was augmented by various industries, the most important of which were mining and metallurgy, textile sectors, and perfumery. Industries and crafts were regulated by guilds.
• It was common practice for people of the same trade to reside in one and the same quarter of the city.
• Malabar was the most valuable commercial region on the West coast, with its important port region of Cannanore. It had good commercial bonding with Burma, the Malay Archipelago, and China in the East, the islands of the Indian Ocean, and Persia, South Africa, Arabia, Abyssinia and Portugal in the West.
• Important items such as cloth, spices, rice, iron, saltpeter, sugar, etc. were exported. The main imports comprised pearls, copper, coral, mercury, horses, elephants, China silks and velvets.
• Ships were utilized for coastal and overseas trade purposes. Vijayanagara had its own ships; the art of shipbuilding was known, but we do not know if ocean-going ships were built.

7. Standard of Living

• Various accounts of different foreign travellers speak of the high standards of living of the upper and middle classes.
• The splendour of the capital city of Vijayanagara bears testimony to the wealth, which was, however, the domination of only a section of the population of the kingdom.
• The prices of several articles were low and the minimum necessities were probably not beyond the means of the common people of the kingdom.
• But the producers particularly agricultural producers, apparently got inadequate prices for their produce.
• Another main fault of the economic system was that the common people had to bear the brunt of taxation, which was quite heavy and the local authority’s sometimes adopted oppressive methods of collection.

8. Foreign Visitors of the Vijayanagara Kingdom

• Ibn Battuta (1333-1347 A.D.)-He was a Moroccan traveller, who came to India during the reign of Muhammad- bin-Tughlaq and visited Vijayanagar during the reign of Harihar I.
• Nicolo Conti (1420-1421 A.D.)-He was a Venetian traveller, who provided a comprehensive account of the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar.
• Abdur Razzaq (1443-1444 A. D.) -He was a Persian traveller, who visited the court of the Zamorin at Calicut. He has provided a stunning account of Vijayanagar City while depicting the wealth and luxurious life of the king and the nobles of the Vijayanagara kingdom.
• Duarte Barbosa (1500-1516 A.D.) -He was a Portuguese traveller, who had presented a useful narrative about the government and people of the Vijayanagar kingdom.
• Domingos Paes (1520-1522 A.D) -He was a Portuguese traveller, who came to the court of Krishnadevaraya.
• Fernao Nuniz (1534-1537 A.D) -He was a Portuguese merchant, who described the history of the Vijayanagara empire from its earliest days to the closing years of Achyuta Deva Raya’s reign.

For Prelims: Vijayanagara Empire, Harihara I, Bukka Raya I, Hoysala and Kakatiya empire, Manucharitam. For Mains: 1. Analyse the economic foundations of the Vijayanagara Kingdom and discuss how trade and a monetized economy contributed to the rise and prosperity. (250 words).

 

 

Previous year Questions 1. According to Portuguese writer Nuniz, the women in Vijayanagara Empire were experts in which of the following areas? (UPSC 2021) 1. Wrestling 2. Astrology 3. Accounting 4. Soothsaying Select the correct answer using the code given below. A. 1, 2, and 3 only B. 1, 3, and 4 only C. 2 and 4 only D. 1, 2, 3 and 4 Answer: 4   2. With reference to Indian history, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022) 1. The Dutch established their factories/warehouses on the east coast on lands granted to them by the Gajapati rulers. 2. Alfonso de Albuquerque captured Goa from the Bijapur Sultanate. 3. The English East India Company established a factory at Madras on a plot of land leased from a representative of the Vijayanagara Empire. Which of the statements given above is correct? A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: B   3. Regarding Indian history, which of the following is/are correct? (UPSC 2021) 1. Arcot Nizamat emerged from Hyderabad state. 2. The Kingdom of Mysore emerged from the Vijayanagara Empire. 3. The kingdom of Rohilkhand was formed from the territories conquered by Ahmad Shah Durrani Select the correct answer using the code given below.  A. Papers 1 and 2 B. 2 only C. 2 and 3 D. 3 only Answer: B

Source: The Indian Express