LINE OF ACTUAL CONTROL (LAC)
- The Line of Actual Control (LAC) is the de facto boundary that separates Indian-controlled territory from Chinese-controlled territory. Unlike a formally demarcated international border, it is not clearly marked on the ground or mutually agreed upon in precise terms by both countries. The concept of the LAC emerged after the 1962 India-China war, when hostilities ended without a final settlement of the border dispute.
- Stretching for about 3,488 kilometers, the LAC runs through three main sectors: the western sector in Ladakh, the middle sector covering parts of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand, and the eastern sector that spans Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim.
- Each side has its own perception of where the LAC lies, which often leads to overlapping claims and occasional standoffs between Indian and Chinese troops. The absence of a mutually recognized border has made this line one of the most sensitive and contested frontiers in the world.
- Over the years, both countries have signed various agreements to maintain peace and tranquillity along the LAC, emphasizing restraint and confidence-building measures. However, due to differing interpretations of the line, confrontations and incursions have continued to occur.
- The recent clashes, particularly in eastern Ladakh in 2020, highlighted the fragile nature of the arrangement and the pressing need for a clearer understanding between the two sides.
- Thus, the LAC represents more than just a boundary; it is a reflection of unresolved historical disputes and ongoing geopolitical tensions. While it serves as the working line that separates the territories under Indian and Chinese control, its ambiguous character keeps it at the center of India-China relations
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The eastern sector which spans Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim,
The middle sector in Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh, and the western sector in Ladakh
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- The alignment of the LAC in the eastern sector is along the 1914 McMahon Line, and there are minor disputes about the positions on the ground as per the principle of the high Himalayan watershed
- This pertains to India’s international boundary as well, but for certain areas such as Longju and Asaphila
- The line in the middle sector is the least controversial but for the precise alignment to be followed in the Barahoti plains.
- The major disagreements are in the western sector where the LAC emerged from two letters written by Chinese Prime Minister Zhou Enlai to PM Jawaharlal Nehru in 1959, after he had first mentioned such a ‘line’ in 1956.
- In his letter, Zhou said the LAC consisted of “the so-called McMahon Line in the east and the line up to which each side exercises actual control in the west”
- After the 1962 War, the Chinese claimed they had withdrawn to 20 km behind the LAC of November 1959
- During the Doklam crisis in 2017, the Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesperson urged India to abide by the “1959 LAC”
- India rejected the concept of LAC in both 1959 and 1962. Even during the war, Nehru was unequivocal: “There is no sense or meaning in the Chinese offer to withdraw twenty kilometres from what they call ‘line of actual control’
- LAC was discussed during Chinese Premier Li Peng’s 1991 visit to India, where PM P V Narasimha Rao and Li reached an understanding to maintain peace and tranquillity at the LAC.
- India formally accepted the concept of the LAC when Rao paid a return visit to Beijing in 1993 and the two sides signed the Agreement to Maintain Peace and Tranquillity at the LAC
- The reference to the LAC was unqualified to make it clear that it was not referring to the LAC of 1959 or 1962 but to the LAC at the time when the agreement was signed
- To reconcile the differences about some areas, the two countries agreed that the Joint Working Group on the border issue would take up the task of clarifying the alignment of the LAC
- The LoC emerged from the 1948 ceasefire line negotiated by the UN after the Kashmir War. It was designated as the LoC in 1972, following the Shimla Agreement between the two countries. It is delineated on a map signed by DGMOs of both armies and has the international sanctity of a legal agreement.
- The LAC, in contrast, is only a concept – it is not agreed upon by the two countries, neither delineated on a map or demarcated on the ground.
- The Line of Actual Control (LAC) between India and China and the Line of Control (LoC) between India and Pakistan are both contested frontiers, but they differ fundamentally in their origin, status, and legal recognition.
- The LAC is not an internationally agreed boundary; it is simply the line that separates the territories controlled by India and China after the 1962 war. It came into existence informally as the ground reality of troop positions after hostilities, and while both countries recognize its existence, they do not agree on its precise alignment.
- This makes the LAC fluid and ambiguous, often leading to different interpretations and military face-offs. It is essentially a de facto line, with no official international recognition or treaty-based acceptance.
- In contrast, the LoC is a formally delineated line that divides the territories of India and Pakistan in Jammu and Kashmir. It originated from the ceasefire line drawn after the first India-Pakistan war of 1947–48, and was given its current name under the 1972 Simla Agreement.
- Unlike the LAC, the LoC is demarcated on maps, jointly surveyed, and broadly agreed upon by both sides, even though the underlying sovereignty dispute over Jammu and Kashmir remains unresolved.
- The LoC is under constant military monitoring, heavily fortified, and frequently the site of ceasefire violations, but it has legal standing as part of an international agreement.
- To put it simply, the LAC is undefined and disputed in interpretation, while the LoC is defined and agreed upon, though still contested in terms of territorial claims. The LAC reflects ambiguity and lack of settlement between India and China, whereas the LoC represents a ceasefire line formally negotiated between India and Pakistan
6. Way Forward
The two leaders met on the sidelines of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) Summit here — this is Modi’s first visit to China in seven years. The two sides agreed on a “fair, reasonable and mutually acceptable resolution” of the border issue, and flagged the importance of a multipolar world, free trade and “role of their two economies to stabilise world trade
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For Prelims: LAC, LOC For Mains: 1.What is this ‘line of control’? Is this the line China have created by aggression. Comment 2.What we know about the clash between Indian and Chinese soldiers in Arunachal Pradesh |
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Previous Year Questions 1.The Line of Actual Control (LAC) separates (Karnataka Civil Police Constable 2020) A.India and Pakistan B.India and Afghanistan C.India and Nepal D.India and China Answer (D) 2.LAC (Line of Actual Control) is an effective border between India and ______. (SSC CHSL 2020) A.Pakistan B.Bhutan C.Sri Lanka D.China Answer (D) |
PRODUCTION LINKED INCENTIVE (PLI) SCHEME
The Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme is an initiative by the Indian government to boost domestic manufacturing in specific sectors. It incentivizes companies, both domestic and foreign, to set up or expand production facilities in India by offering financial rewards based on incremental sales achieved over a set period.
- The government announces a PLI scheme for a particular sector with specific targets for production and sales.
- Companies apply for the scheme and submit their production plans.
- If selected, companies receive a percentage of their incremental sales (over a base year) as an incentive.
- The incentive amount varies depending on the sector and the level of incremental sales achieved.
- The scheme typically runs for several years, providing companies with long-term financial support.
3. Sectors with Current PLI Schemes
- Mobile phone manufacturing and specified electronic components have been successful in attracting major players like Apple and Samsung to set up production in India.
- Large-scale electronics manufacturing to boost domestic production of TVs, laptops, and other electronics products.
- High-efficiency solar PV modules to make India a global leader in solar energy production.
- Automobiles and auto components incentivize the production of electric vehicles, hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, and advanced auto components.
- Man-made fibre (MMF) apparel and textiles to boost domestic production of high-quality MMF textiles.
- White goods (air conditioners, refrigerators, etc.) to make India a global hub for white goods manufacturing.
4. Sectors Likely to See PLI Schemes in the Future
- The pharmaceuticals and medical devices sector is crucial for national health security and has the potential for significant growth.
- Green hydrogen and ammonia fuels are essential for achieving climate goals and could benefit from PLI support.
- Advanced manufacturing technologies include robotics, 3D printing, and artificial intelligence, which are crucial for future industries.
- The food processing sector has vast potential for value creation and job creation, and PLI could help address inefficiencies.
5. Benefits of the PLI Scheme
- PLI attracts investment and encourages companies to manufacture in India, reducing dependence on imports.
- New manufacturing units and increased production lead to job creation in various sectors.
- PLI attracts global companies with advanced technology, leading to knowledge transfer and skill development in India.
- Increased domestic production can lead to higher exports and strengthen the Indian economy.
6. Challenges in the PLI Scheme
- Companies need significant upfront investment to set up new production facilities, which can be a deterrent for some.
- The application and approval process for PLI schemes can be lengthy and complex, discouraging some companies.
- The government needs to ensure the long-term sustainability of PLI schemes to avoid dependence on subsidies.
7. The Way Forward
The PLI scheme is a promising initiative with the potential to transform India's manufacturing landscape. By addressing the challenges and continuously improving its design, the government can further incentivize domestic production and boost India's economic growth.
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For Prelims: Production Linked Incentive scheme, industrial policy
For Mains:
1. Discuss the role of the government in promoting domestic manufacturing. Should the focus be on incentives like the Production Linked Incentive scheme or on creating a conducive business environment? (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Consider, the following statements : (UPSC 2023) Statement-I : India accounts for 3.2% of global export of goods. Statement-II : Many local companies and some foreign companies operating in India have taken advantage of India's ‘Production-linked Incentive’ scheme. Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements? (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I (b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for Statement-I (c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect (d) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct Answer: D |
Source: The Indian Express
CYCLONES
- A cyclone is a low-pressure system that forms over warm waters. Essentially, it is a system of high-speed winds rotating around a low-pressure area, with the winds blowing counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
- According to the World Meteorological Organization, “Tropical cyclones are one of the biggest threats to life and property even in the formative stages of their development.
- Cyclonic winds move across nearly all regions of the Earth except the equatorial belt and are generally associated with rain or snow
- They include several different hazards that can individually cause significant impacts on life and property, such as storm surge, flooding, extreme winds, tornadoes and lighting.
- Combined, these hazards interact with one another and substantially increase the potential for loss of life and material damage.”
- Cyclones occur chiefly in the middle and high latitude belts of both hemispheres. In the Southern Hemisphere, where most of the terrestrial surface is covered by the oceans, cyclones are distributed in a relatively uniform manner through various longitudes
- Characteristically, they form in latitudes 30° to 40° S and move in a generally southeasterly direction, reaching maturity in latitudes around 60°.
- Cyclones that form closer to the Equator (i.e., at latitudes 10° to 25° north and south over the oceans) differ somewhat in character from the extratropical variety. Such wind systems, known as tropical cyclones, are much smaller in diameter.
- Whereas extratropical cyclones range from nearly 1,000 to 4,000 km (620 to 2,500 miles) across, tropical cyclones typically measure only about 100 to over 1,000 km in diameter.
3.1.Tropical Cyclones
Cyclones developed in the tropics region (the majority confined to 100– 300 N and S of the equator) are called tropical cyclones.
- tropical cyclones have a thermal origin, and they develop over tropical seas during certain seasons. Pre-existing low pressure, large sea surface with a temperature higher than 27° C, and the presence of the Coriolis force are a must for tropical cyclone formation.
- At these locations, the local convectional currents acquire a whirling motion because of the Coriolis force generated by the earth’s rotation. After developing, these cyclones advance till they find a weak spot in the trade wind belt.
- Tropical cyclones always originate in large water bodies.
Temperate cyclones (Mid-Latitude cyclones), also known as Extratropical cyclones, are active over the mid-latitudinal regions between 35° latitude and 65° latitude in both hemispheres.
- They have a dynamic origin and cyclone formation is due to frontogenesis (interaction of cold and warm fronts). When the warm-humid air masses from the tropics meet the dry-cold air masses from the poles and thus a polar front is formed as a surface of discontinuity. The cold air pushes the warm air upwards from underneath. Thus, a void is created because of the lessening of pressure. The surrounding air rushed in to occupy this void and coupled with the earth’s rotation, a temperate cyclone is formed.
- Temperate cyclones can originate on both landmass or water.
4.How do cyclones form?
- A tropical cyclone originates in a region of low pressure, typically accompanied by clusters of thunderstorms. For this disturbance to evolve into a full-fledged cyclone, certain atmospheric and oceanic factors must align.
- The most crucial among these is a sufficiently warm sea surface — generally above 26.5°C — extending to a depth of around 50 metres. Moist air over such warm waters rises, cools, and condenses to form clouds, releasing latent heat in the process.
- This released heat warms the surrounding air, causing it to rise further and pull in more moist air from below, creating a self-sustaining cycle of convection.
- Another vital requirement is an unstable atmosphere, meaning that once air begins to rise, it continues to ascend instead of being forced downward. Additionally, the Coriolis effect — caused by Earth’s rotation — must be strong enough to induce a spinning motion.
- Because this effect is minimal near the equator, cyclones seldom form within about five degrees of latitude on either side of it.
- Low vertical wind shear is also necessary; if wind speed and direction differ greatly between the lower and upper atmosphere, the cyclone’s circulation can become disorganized and lose strength.
- As the system intensifies, a clearly defined centre known as the eye may develop. This calm, cloud-free zone is encircled by the eyewall — a ring of towering thunderstorms producing the strongest winds and heaviest rainfall.
- Near the surface, air spirals inward toward the low-pressure centre and ascends sharply at the eyewall, while at higher altitudes it spreads outward, completing the cyclone’s circulation pattern
5. How are cyclones named?
Cyclones that form in every ocean basin across the world are named by the regional specialised meteorological centres (RSMCs) and Tropical Cyclone Warning Centres (TCWCs). There are six RSMCs in the world, including the India Meteorological Department (IMD), and five TCWCs.
As an RSMC, the IMD names the cyclones developing over the north Indian Ocean, including the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, after following a standard procedure. The IMD is also mandated to issue advisories to 12 other countries in the region on the development of cyclones and storms.
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For Prelims: Indian and World Geography-Physical, Social, Economic Geography of India and the World For Mains: General Studies I: Important Geophysical phenomena such as earthquakes, Tsunami, Volcanic activity, cyclone etc., geographical features and their location-changes in critical geographical features and in flora and fauna and the effects of such changes |
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Previous Year Questions
1.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2020)
1. Jet streams occur in the Northern Hemisphere only.
2. Only some cyclones develop an eye.
3. The temperature inside the eye of a cyclone is nearly 10°C lesser than that of the surroundings.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 Only
B. 2 and 3 Only
C. 2 Only
D. 1 and 3 Only
Answer (C)
2.In the South Atlantic and South-Eastern Pacific regions in tropical latitudes, cyclones do not originate. What is the reason? (UPSC Prelims GS1, 2015)
(a) Sea surface temperatures are low (b) Inter-tropical Convergence Zone seldom occurs (c) Coriolis force is too weak (d) Absence of land in those regions Answer (a)
1.Tropical cyclones are largely confined to South China Sea, Bay of Bengal and Gulf of Mexico. Why? (GS-1, 2014)
2.The recent cyclone on the east coast of India was called “Phailin”. How are the tropical cyclones named across the world? (GS-1, 2013) |
ETHANOL BLENDING
1. Context
The sugar sector is concerned over the cut in ethanol sourcing in the 2025-2026 ethanol supply year.The Indian Sugar & Bio-Energy Manufacturers Association (ISMA) said only 289 crore litre ethanol had been allocated from sugar-based feedstock or 28% of the total need. The industry invested almost ₹40,000 crore with a capacity to supply 650 crore litre of ethanol a year. It supplied 330 crore litre last ethanol supply year.
- Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol, is a type of alcohol commonly used as a biofuel and a key ingredient in alcoholic beverages.
- It is a clear, colorless liquid with a characteristic odor and a slightly sweet taste.
- Ethanol has a wide range of applications and is produced through the fermentation of sugars by yeast or other microorganisms.
3. Ethanol Blending
- Ethanol blending refers to the practice of mixing ethanol with gasoline or other fuels to create a blended fuel.
- Ethanol is a biofuel derived from renewable sources such as sugarcane, corn, or other plant materials.
- It is commonly used as an additive to gasoline in various parts of the world to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote cleaner fuel options.
- In the context of transportation, the most common form of ethanol blending is with gasoline, creating a blend known as ethanol-gasoline blend or gasohol.
- The most common ethanol-gasoline blends are E10 and E15, indicating the percentage of ethanol in the mixture. For example, E10 contains 10% ethanol and 90% gasoline, while E15 contains 15% ethanol and 85% gasoline.
4. Benefits of Ethanol blending
- Ethanol is considered a renewable fuel because it is derived from plant materials that absorb carbon dioxide during their growth. When blended with gasoline, ethanol can help reduce the carbon footprint of transportation fuels, as it emits fewer greenhouse gases compared to pure gasoline.
- By blending ethanol with gasoline, countries can reduce their reliance on imported fossil fuels and promote energy security.
- Ethanol has a higher octane rating than gasoline, which can improve engine performance and increase fuel efficiency.
- Ethanol production often relies on agricultural feedstocks, providing economic benefits to farmers and rural communities.
- Ethanol-gasoline blends can help reduce harmful pollutants such as carbon monoxide and volatile organic compounds, contributing to improved air quality.
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Mixing 20 percent ethanol in petrol can potentially reduce the auto fuel import bill by a yearly $4 billion, or Rs 30,000 crore.
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Another major benefit of ethanol blending is the extra income it gives to farmers. Ethanol is derived from sugarcane and also foodgrains. Hence, farmers can earn extra income by selling their surplus produce to ethanol blend manufacturers.
5. What is E20 Fuel?
- E20 fuel is a type of blended fuel that contains 20% ethanol and 80% gasoline.
- It is an ethanol-gasoline blend, similar to other common blends like E10 (10% ethanol) and E15 (15% ethanol).
- The percentage of ethanol in the blend is denoted by the "E" followed by the percentage of ethanol content.
- E20 fuel is considered a higher ethanol blend compared to E10 and E15, which are more widely available in various countries.
- The use of E20 is part of efforts to promote renewable fuels and reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the transportation sector.
6. Significance of E20 fuel
- Reduced Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Ethanol is derived from renewable plant sources, and blending it with gasoline can help reduce the carbon footprint of transportation fuels, contributing to efforts to combat climate change.
- Energy Security: By using more domestically produced ethanol, countries can reduce their dependence on imported fossil fuels and enhance energy security.
- Improved Engine Performance: Ethanol's higher octane rating can enhance engine performance and increase fuel efficiency in certain vehicles.
- Support for Agriculture: Ethanol production often relies on agricultural feedstocks, supporting farmers and rural economies.
7. Challenges in Ethanol Blending Programme
While ethanol blending in transportation fuels offers various benefits, there are several challenges that countries may face in implementing and sustaining a successful ethanol blending program. Some of these challenges include:
- Infrastructure and Distribution: Establishing the necessary infrastructure for blending and distributing ethanol-gasoline blends can be a significant challenge. This includes ensuring that fuel stations have the proper storage facilities and compatible pumps to dispense blended fuels.
- Compatibility with Vehicles: Not all vehicles are designed to run on high ethanol blends like E20 or E85. Older vehicles or vehicles from certain manufacturers may not be compatible with these blends, leading to potential engine damage or decreased performance.
- Fuel Quality and Standards: Maintaining consistent fuel quality is essential to prevent engine damage and ensure consumer confidence. Governments and fuel suppliers must adhere to strict quality standards and monitor the blending process to avoid issues with fuel performance.
- Feedstock Availability and Cost: The production of ethanol relies on agricultural feedstocks, such as corn, sugarcane, or other biomass. The availability and cost of these feedstocks can vary, affecting the overall cost of ethanol production and blending.
- Land Use and Food Security Concerns: Utilizing agricultural land for ethanol production can raise concerns about competing with food production and potentially impacting food security in some regions.
- Competing Uses for Ethanol: Ethanol has various applications beyond fuel blending, such as in the production of alcoholic beverages, pharmaceuticals, and industrial chemicals. Competing uses can influence the availability and cost of ethanol for blending.
8. National Biofuel Policy
- India has a National Policy on Biofuels, which was first introduced in 2009 and later revised in 2018. The policy aims to promote the use of biofuels to reduce the country's dependence on fossil fuels, enhance energy security, promote sustainable development, and mitigate greenhouse gas emissions.
- The policy encourages the blending of biofuels with conventional fossil fuels to create biofuel blends. It focuses on the production and utilization of first-generation biofuels like ethanol and biodiesel, as well as advanced biofuels made from non-food feedstock.
- The policy sets targets for blending biofuels with conventional fuels in the transportation sector. For instance, the policy aimed for a 20% ethanol blending in petrol and a 5% biodiesel blending in diesel by 2030.
- The policy emphasizes the development and promotion of second-generation biofuels, which are produced from non-food feedstock, such as agricultural residues, waste, and non-edible oils. This helps avoid competition with food crops and ensures sustainability.
- The policy supports research and development initiatives in the biofuels sector, aimed at improving production processes, enhancing feedstock availability, and developing cost-effective technologies for biofuel production.
- The policy focuses on creating a robust supply chain for biofuels, from feedstock cultivation and collection to biofuel production, distribution, and marketing. This helps in ensuring a smooth and efficient supply of biofuels across the country.
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For Prelims: Ethanol Blending, E20 fuel, Greenhouse Gas Emission, National Policy on Biofuels, Food Security, and Gasoline.
For Mains: 1. Discuss the benefits and challenges of ethanol blending in transportation fuels as a strategy to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote renewable energy sources. (250 Words).
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Previous year Question1. According to India's National Policy on Biofuels, which of the following can be used as raw materials for the production of biofuels? (UPSC 2020)
1. Cassava
2. Damaged wheat grains
3. Groundnut seeds
4. Horse gram
5. Rotten potatoes
6. Sugar beet
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1, 2, 5, and 6 only
B. 1, 3, 4, and 6 only
C. 2, 3, 4, and 5 only
D. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6
Answer: A
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CLOUD SEEDING
Cloud seeding is a weather modification technique used to enhance precipitation by introducing seeding agents into clouds. Various methods are employed to disperse these agents, promoting the formation of precipitation. Here are some common cloud seeding methods:
Aerial Seeding:
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- Aircraft Dispersion: Cloud seeding agents, such as silver iodide or other materials, are released into the atmosphere from aircraft. Flares or canisters containing the seeding agents are ignited and dispersed at appropriate cloud levels. The aircraft may fly through clouds or release seeding agents from above, depending on the cloud characteristics.
Ground-Based Seeding:
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Ground-Based Generators: These are stationed on the ground to release seeding agents into the atmosphere. These generators may use flares or other mechanisms to disperse the seeding agents vertically into the air. Ground-based seeding is often employed in areas where aircraft may not be practical or cost-effective.
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Rocket Launches: Some cloud seeding programs use rockets equipped with seeding agents to reach specific altitudes in the atmosphere. The rockets are launched from the ground and disperse the seeding agents into the target clouds.
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Hygroscopic Flares:
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- Hygroscopic Materials: Certain seeding agents, known as hygroscopic materials, have an affinity for water vapor. These materials can absorb moisture from the air, promoting the coalescence of water droplets and eventually precipitation. Calcium chloride is an example of a hygroscopic material used in cloud seeding.
Remote Sensing and Monitoring:
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Weather Radar: Meteorologists use weather radar to monitor cloud development and precipitation patterns. This information helps identify suitable clouds for seeding and assess the effectiveness of cloud seeding operations.
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Weather Balloons and Instruments: Instruments carried by weather balloons provide data on atmospheric conditions, helping meteorologists determine the feasibility of cloud seeding. These instruments measure factors such as temperature, humidity, and wind speed at different altitudes.
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Natural Ice Nuclei:
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- Collecting Natural Ice Nuclei: In some cases, natural ice nuclei (particles that can initiate the freezing of water droplets) are collected and dispersed into clouds to encourage the formation of ice crystals. This method is less common than using artificial seeding agents.
Cloud seeding is primarily employed to enhance precipitation in specific regions, and it has applications in various fields. Some notable applications of cloud seeding include:
Water Resource Management:
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- Increased Precipitation: Cloud seeding aims to boost rainfall or snowfall in targeted areas, contributing to increased water resources. This is particularly valuable in regions facing water scarcity or drought conditions.
Agriculture:
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- Enhanced Crop Irrigation: Increased precipitation resulting from cloud seeding can benefit agriculture by providing additional water for crop irrigation. This is especially significant in arid or semi-arid regions where water availability is a limiting factor for agricultural productivity.
Water Supply Augmentation:
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- Reservoir Replenishment: Cloud seeding can help replenish reservoirs and aquifers, contributing to the augmentation of water supplies for domestic, industrial, and agricultural use.
Snowpack Augmentation:
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- Winter Sports Industry: In mountainous regions, cloud seeding is sometimes employed to enhance snowpack, particularly for ski resorts and winter sports areas. Increased snowfall can extend the winter season and improve conditions for skiing and other activities.
Forest Fire Prevention:
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- Reducing Fire Risk: In certain cases, cloud seeding is explored as a tool for reducing the risk of forest fires. By inducing precipitation, especially in dry and fire-prone areas, the moisture content of vegetation may increase, lowering the likelihood of wildfires.
Air Quality Improvement:
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- Particle Removal: Cloud seeding can contribute to the removal of particulate matter and pollutants from the atmosphere. The process of precipitation can capture particles and cleanse the air.
Research and Climate Studies:
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- Scientific Investigations: Cloud seeding is sometimes used in scientific research to study cloud dynamics, precipitation processes, and atmospheric interactions. These studies help improve our understanding of weather patterns and climate systems.
Hydropower Generation:
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- Improved Reservoir Levels: Increased precipitation resulting from cloud seeding can contribute to higher water levels in reservoirs, positively impacting hydropower generation.
Cloud seeding, despite its potential benefits, is a practice that comes with several challenges and considerations. Some of the key challenges involved in cloud seeding include:
Effectiveness and Unpredictability:
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- The effectiveness of cloud seeding can be variable and is dependent on various factors such as cloud type, atmospheric conditions, and the presence of suitable seeding materials. Predicting the outcome of cloud seeding operations with certainty remains a challenge.
Ethical and Environmental Concerns:
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- Cloud seeding involves the intentional modification of weather patterns, raising ethical and environmental questions. Concerns include potential unintended consequences, ecological impacts, and the ethical considerations of altering natural precipitation processes.
Public Perception and Acceptance:
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- Cloud seeding initiatives may face public skepticism and opposition due to concerns about the unknown environmental impacts, the artificial manipulation of weather, and potential health effects of the seeding agents. Public acceptance is crucial for the success and continuation of cloud seeding programs.
Regulatory Approval:
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- Implementing cloud seeding programs often requires regulatory approval and adherence to environmental regulations. Obtaining permits and addressing regulatory concerns can be a time-consuming and complex process.
Scientific Uncertainty:
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- The scientific understanding of cloud seeding is still evolving, and uncertainties remain regarding its long-term effects, environmental impact, and overall effectiveness. Ongoing research is essential to address these uncertainties and improve the understanding of the practice.
Limited Scope and Scale:
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- Cloud seeding is generally effective within certain weather conditions and specific cloud types. Its applicability may be limited to certain regions and may not work in all meteorological conditions.
Weather Variability:
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- Natural weather variability can impact the success of cloud seeding. Unpredictable changes in atmospheric conditions, including wind patterns and temperature fluctuations, can influence the dispersion and effectiveness of seeding agents.
Technical Challenges:
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- The technology involved in cloud seeding, including the delivery of seeding agents, can face technical challenges. For example, the dispersion of seeding agents from aircraft or ground-based generators must be carefully calibrated for optimal results.
Cost:
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- Implementing and maintaining cloud seeding programs can be expensive. The costs include aircraft operations, ground-based generators, and the purchase of seeding materials. Cost-effectiveness is a consideration in the decision to pursue cloud seeding initiatives.
Data Collection and Monitoring:
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- Adequate data collection and monitoring are essential for assessing the impact of cloud seeding. Establishing comprehensive monitoring systems to evaluate changes in precipitation patterns and environmental conditions requires significant resources and infrastructure
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For Prelims: General issues on Environmental ecology
For Mains: General Studies III: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment
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Previous Year Questions
1.In the context of which of the following do some scientists suggest the use of cirrus cloud thinning technique and the injection of sulphate aerosol into stratosphere? (UPSC CSE 2019) (a) Creating the artificial rains in some regions Answer (d)
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DEMOGRAPHIC DIVIDEND
- The demographic dividend refers to a period of economic growth that can occur when a country experiences a favorable demographic shift. This shift typically involves a declining birth rate, leading to a relatively large working-age population compared to the dependent population (children and elderly).
- During a demographic dividend, the working-age population becomes a larger proportion of the total population, leading to increased productivity, higher savings and investment rates, and overall economic growth.
- This phenomenon occurs because there are fewer dependents to support, allowing families and governments to allocate more resources towards education, healthcare, and infrastructure development.
- The demographic dividend is often seen as an opportunity for countries to accelerate their economic development and improve living standards.
- However, to fully realize the benefits of the demographic dividend, governments need to invest in education, job creation, and healthcare to ensure that the growing working-age population is equipped with the skills and opportunities needed to contribute to economic growth. Additionally, effective policies are necessary to manage the challenges associated with an ageing population that may follow once the demographic dividend period ends
The demographic transition theory outlines the process through which populations transition from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates as they undergo economic and social development.
This transition typically occurs in several stages:
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Stage 1 - High Birth and Death Rates: In the initial stage, both birth rates and death rates are high, resulting in relatively slow population growth. This stage is characteristic of pre-industrial societies where limited access to healthcare, high infant mortality rates, and agricultural economies contribute to high death rates. Despite the high death rates, birth rates are also high due to factors such as the need for labor in agriculture and cultural preferences for large families.
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Stage 2 - Declining Death Rates: In this stage, improvements in healthcare, sanitation, and nutrition lead to a significant reduction in death rates while birth rates remain high. As a result, there is a rapid increase in population growth. This stage is often associated with the early stages of industrialization and urbanization, where advancements in medicine and public health lead to lower mortality rates.
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Stage 3 - Declining Birth Rates: As societies continue to develop economically and socially, birth rates begin to decline. Factors such as increased access to education, urbanization, and the empowerment of women contribute to this decline in fertility. Family planning programs and the availability of contraceptives also play a role in reducing birth rates. During this stage, population growth continues, but at a slower pace than in Stage 2.
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Stage 4 - Low Birth and Death Rates: In the final stage of the demographic transition, both birth and death rates are low, resulting in a stable or slowly growing population. This stage is characteristic of advanced industrialized societies where economic development, urbanization, and social changes have led to small family sizes, increased opportunities for women in the workforce, and higher living standards overall.
| Subject | Demographic Transition | Demographic Dividend |
|---|---|---|
| Definition | Process of transitioning from high to low birth and death rates as societies develop economically and socially. | Period of economic growth resulting from a favorable demographic shift, typically characterized by declining birth rates and a relatively large working-age population. |
| Focus | Changes in population structure and dynamics over time. | Economic benefits derived from a specific demographic situation. |
| Key Stages | Pre-industrial (High birth and death rates), Early industrial (Declining death rates), Late industrial (Declining birth rates), Advanced industrial (Low birth and death rates). | Period when the working-age population is a larger proportion of the total population, leading to increased productivity and economic growth. |
| Driving Factors | Improvements in healthcare, education, living standards, and changes in social norms and family planning practices. | Declining birth rates and a growing working-age population. |
| Economic Impact | Leads to changes in population growth rates and age distribution. | Results in increased productivity, higher savings and investment rates, and overall economic growth. |
| Policy Implications | Requires investments in healthcare, education, and family planning to manage population dynamics effectively. | Governments need to implement policies to capitalize on the economic potential of the growing working-age population through education, job creation, and infrastructure development. |
India's demographic dividend holds significant implications for its economic growth, social development, and global competitiveness.
Here are some key aspects of the significance of India's demographic dividend:
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Large Working-Age Population: India is home to one of the largest working-age populations in the world, with a significant proportion of its population under the age of 35. This demographic advantage presents an opportunity for a substantial labor force that can drive economic growth and development.
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Potential for Economic Growth: A large working-age population can contribute to increased productivity, innovation, and entrepreneurship, leading to higher economic growth rates. With the right policies and investments in education, skills training, and job creation, India can harness the potential of its demographic dividend to accelerate economic development.
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Increased Consumer Market: A growing working-age population also translates into a larger consumer market, creating opportunities for businesses to expand their markets and drive domestic consumption-led growth. This can spur demand for goods and services across various sectors of the economy, further stimulating economic activity.
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Global Workforce Competitiveness: India's demographic dividend enhances its competitiveness in the global workforce. With a large pool of young and skilled workers, India can meet the demands of the global labor market and attract investment from multinational companies seeking talent and expertise.
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Human Capital Development: Investing in education, healthcare, and skill development is crucial to fully realize the potential of India's demographic dividend. By empowering its youth with quality education and training, India can build a skilled workforce capable of driving innovation, productivity, and sustainable development.
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Window of Opportunity: The demographic dividend is not permanent and requires timely policy interventions to maximize its benefits. As India's population ages in the future, the window of opportunity presented by the demographic dividend will gradually diminish. Therefore, strategic planning and investments in human capital and economic sectors are essential to capitalize on this demographic advantage
While India's demographic dividend presents significant opportunities for economic growth and development, it also comes with several challenges that need to be addressed to fully realize its potential.
Some of the key challenges associated with India's demographic dividend include:
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Unemployment and Underemployment: Despite the large working-age population, India faces challenges of unemployment and underemployment, particularly among youth and educated individuals. Inadequate job creation in both the formal and informal sectors leads to a mismatch between the skills of the workforce and the demands of the labor market.
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Skills Mismatch: There is often a mismatch between the skills possessed by the workforce and the skills demanded by employers. Many young people lack the necessary skills and training required for employment in emerging sectors such as technology, manufacturing, and services. This skills gap hampers productivity and limits job opportunities.
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Quality of Education: While access to education has improved in India, there are concerns about the quality of education provided, especially in rural areas and government schools. The education system often fails to equip students with the skills and knowledge needed to succeed in the modern workforce, leading to low employability.
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Informal Economy: A significant portion of India's workforce is employed in the informal sector, which lacks job security, social protection, and access to basic rights. Informal workers often face low wages, exploitative working conditions, and limited opportunities for skill development and career advancement.
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Gender Disparities: Gender disparities in education, employment, and workforce participation remain significant challenges in India. Women are often underrepresented in the workforce, particularly in higher-skilled and leadership roles. Addressing gender inequalities and promoting women's participation in the labor force is crucial for maximizing the demographic dividend.
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Urbanization and Infrastructure: Rapid urbanization and migration from rural to urban areas pose challenges related to urban infrastructure, housing, transportation, and social services. Inadequate urban planning and infrastructure development lead to overcrowding, pollution, inadequate housing, and strained public services, affecting the quality of life for urban residents.
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Healthcare Needs: As the population grows, there is an increasing demand for healthcare services, including preventive care, maternal and child health, and treatment of non-communicable diseases. Ensuring access to quality healthcare for all citizens is essential for maintaining a healthy and productive workforce
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For Prelims: Economic and Social Development- Sustainable Development, Poverty, Inclusion, Demographics, Social Sector Initiatives, etc
For Mains: General Studies III: Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilisation of resources, growth, development and employment
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Previous Year Questions
1.India is regarded as a country with a “Demographic Dividend”. This is due to (UPSC CSE 2011) (a) Its high population in the age group below 15 years (b) Its high population in the age group of 15-64 year (c) Its high population in the age group above 65 years (d) Its high total population Answer (b) A demographic dividend refers to the economic benefit a country can experience when a large share of its population is in the working age group (typically 15-64 years old). This age group is both productive and has a relatively low dependency ratio, meaning there are fewer dependents (children and elderly) to support. India currently has a large young population, which presents a window of opportunity for economic growth if the right investments are made in education, skill development, and job creation |
PANCHAYAT RAJ INSTITUTIONS
- Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) play a pivotal role in promoting grassroots democracy and decentralised governance across rural India. These bodies, which represent the foundation of local self-governance, were formally recognised and empowered through the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments in 1992, granting constitutional status to panchayats in rural areas and municipalities in urban regions.
- However, the concept of local governance in India is not new—it has deep roots in the country's ancient traditions, with references found in the Vedas, Kautilya’s Arthashastra, the Mauryan period, and other historical texts.
- Throughout India’s history, especially before and after gaining independence, the Panchayati Raj system has seen various transformations. During British rule, decentralisation efforts began with Lord Mayo’s 1870 resolution, which supported devolving financial and administrative powers to local levels for village and town development.
- This was further advanced by Lord Ripon in 1882, whose reforms laid the groundwork for local self-government by suggesting that smaller administrative units be managed by local boards.
- The Royal Commission on Decentralisation in 1909, led by Sir Henry William, evaluated the operations of these boards and highlighted major shortcomings like limited representation and insufficient authority.
- The commission’s recommendations eventually influenced the Government of India Act of 1919. Post-independence, there was a renewed focus on decentralised governance to strengthen local self-rule.
- On November 25, 1948, K. Santhanam, a Gandhian and a member of the Constituent Assembly, urged the Drafting Committee’s Chairman to incorporate provisions that supported this vision.
- Consequently, the Indian Constitution included Article 40 under the Directive Principles of State Policy in Part IV. This article directs the state to facilitate the establishment of village panchayats and to empower them appropriately so that they may function as effective units of self-governance
- The Community Development Programme, launched during India's First Five-Year Plan (1951–55), served as an early foundation for the later establishment of Panchayati Raj Institutions.
- In the years following independence, the country confronted multiple socio-economic issues such as food shortages, widespread poverty, and high unemployment. This programme was introduced as a strategy to promote rural development by encouraging active participation from all sections of rural society.
- Even before this initiative, India had experimented with several rural development efforts. Noteworthy examples include the Sriniketan Institute of Rural Reconstruction started by Rabindranath Tagore in 1922, Dr. Spencer Hatch’s Marthandam Project conducted through the YMCA in Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu, and the Firka Development Scheme introduced by T. Prakasam in 1946 in the Madras Presidency.
- The Community Development Programme aimed to improve agriculture (through land reforms and distribution of fertilisers and pesticides), expand irrigation (like well construction), build infrastructure such as roads, and control the spread of diseases. However, the programme fell short of expectations. Key obstacles included limited community involvement, excessive bureaucratic procedures, and widespread corruption.
- A Planning Commission review revealed that the initiative failed to benefit small artisans and disproportionately favored regions with established irrigation and large landholders
- In response to the shortcomings of earlier rural development efforts, the government established a committee in 1957 led by Balwant Rai Mehta to propose reforms. The committee recommended devolving administrative authority across multiple levels—from villages up to districts.
- It introduced a three-tier framework comprising Village Panchayats at the base, Panchayat Samitis at the intermediate (block or taluk) level, and Zilla Parishads at the district level. Rajasthan was the first state to adopt this model on October 2, 1959, followed by Andhra Pradesh in November of the same year.
- Despite these steps, issues persisted in the implementation and effectiveness of the system. To address these, another committee was set up in 1977 under the leadership of Ashok Mehta during the Janata Party’s rule—the first non-Congress government. This committee suggested replacing the three-tier model with a two-tier arrangement consisting of Mandal Panchayats at the grassroots and Zilla Parishads at the district level.
- The Ashok Mehta Committee also emphasized the need to reserve seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in proportion to their population to ensure their fair representation.
- A key recommendation was allowing political parties to participate in Panchayati Raj governance. However, these proposals saw limited execution, mainly due to challenges like financial constraints and the complexity of ensuring uniformity in a diverse nation.
- In the years that followed, various other committees were set up to periodically review the state of Panchayati Raj Institutions. These included the Hanumantha Rao Committee (1983), G.V.K. Rao Committee (1985), L.M. Singhvi Committee (1986), P.K. Thungan Committee (1989), and Harlal Singh Kharra Committee (1990)
- Starting in the late 1980s, the government made multiple efforts to constitutionally empower the Panchayati Raj Institutions. Although constitutional amendment bills were introduced in 1989, 1990, and 1991, it was only during Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao’s administration that success was achieved. In December 1992, both Houses of Parliament passed the constitutional amendment, which was subsequently ratified by 17 state legislatures.
- This historic development led to the inclusion of two new sections in the Indian Constitution: Part IX, dedicated to 'The Panchayats,' and Part IX-A, addressing 'The Municipalities.' As per the Ministry of Panchayati Raj's Annual Report for 2024–25, the country currently has 2,55,397 gram panchayats, 6,742 block-level panchayats, and 665 zilla (district) panchayats.
- To measure how effectively Panchayati Raj Institutions are functioning across states, the government developed the Panchayat Devolution Index. This index evaluates local governance performance based on criteria like financial management, transparency, institutional capacity, and more.
- Initially based on a concept by V.N. Alok and Laveesh Bhandari in 2004, the index focused on three key aspects: Functions, Finances, and Functionaries (the 3Fs). It was later expanded to include Capacity Building, Accountability, and Institutional Framework.
- In the most recent edition of the Panchayat Devolution Index, Karnataka emerged as the leading state, with Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and others following closely.
- The Ministry of Panchayati Raj released these rankings based on research conducted by the Indian Institute of Public Administration (IIPA). The findings also highlighted persistent issues such as limited financial independence, funding shortages, lack of transparency, human resource gaps, challenges in conducting elections, and updating electoral rolls.
- To improve the operational efficiency of Panchayats, the Ministry also launched the e-Gram Swaraj platform. However, low levels of digital literacy among stakeholders have limited the platform’s effectiveness.
- Such barriers continue to impede the full potential of Panchayati Raj Institutions in executing government-led socio-economic development initiatives at the grassroots level
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For Prelims: Panchayat Raj institutions, Local Governance
For Mains: GS II - Indian Polity & Governance
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Previous year Question1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2016)
1. The minimum age prescribed for any person to be a member of Panchayat is 25 years.
2. A Panchayat reconstituted after premature dissolution continues only for the remainder period.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: B
2. In areas covered under the Panchayat (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996, what is the role/power of Gram Sabha? (UPSC 2012)
1. Gram Sabha has the power to prevent the alienation of land in the Scheduled Areas.
2. Gram Sabha has the ownership of minor forest produce.
3. Recommendation of Gram Sabha is required for granting a prospecting license or mining lease, for any minerals in the Scheduled Areas.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 1 and 2 only
C. 2 and 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
3.The Government enacted the Panchayat Extension to Scheduled Areas (PESA) Act in 1996. Which one of the following is not identified as its objective? (UPSC 2013)
A. To provide self-governance
B. To recognize traditional rights
C. To create autonomous regions in tribal areas
D. To free tribal people from exploitation
Answer: C
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SHANGHAI COOPERATION ORGANISATION
1. Context
2. About Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
- The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) is a Eurasian political, economic, international security and defence organisation.
- It is the world's largest regional organization in terms of geographic scope and population, covering approximately 60% of the area of Eurasia, and 40% of the world's population. Its combined GDP is around 20% of global GDP.
- The SCO was founded in 2001 by China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.
2.1. Structure
The SCO has several bodies that oversee its activities, including
- The Council of Heads of State, which is the supreme decision-making body of the SCO.
- The Council of Heads of Government, which is responsible for overseeing the implementation of the decisions of the Council of Heads of State.
- The Council of Foreign Ministers, which is responsible for coordinating the foreign policies of the SCO member states.
- The Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS), which is responsible for combating terrorism, separatism and extremism in the SCO region and
- The SCO Secretariat, which is responsible for the day-to-day running of the organization.
2.2. Members
- The SCO has eight full members China, India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.
- It also has six observer states Afghanistan, Belarus, Iran, Mongolia, Nepal and Sri Lanka.
- And six dialogue partners Armenia, Azerbaijan, Cambodia, Egypt, Qatar and Saudi Arabia.
2.3. Goals
- Political and security cooperation, including the fight against terrorism, separatism and extremism
- Economic cooperation, including trade, investment, energy and transportation
- Cultural and humanitarian cooperation and
- Coordination of positions on major international issues.
3. Criticism
- The SCO has been criticized by some for being a tool of Chinese and Russian imperialism.
- However, the organization has also been praised for its role in promoting stability and security in Central Asia.
4. The Way Forward
- The SCO has been expanding its membership in recent years, and it may continue to do so in the future.
- The organization is seen by some as a potential rival to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and its growing influence is being watched closely by the United States and its allies.
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For Prelims: SCO, NATO, India, Central Asia, United States, China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, terrorism,
For Mains:
1. Examine the potential challenges and opportunities for India as a full member of the SCO, highlighting its implications for India's political, economic, and security interests. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) Heads of State Summit was held on 10th November, 2020 in the video conference format. The Summit was hosted by: (OPSC OAS 2021)
A. Russia B. India C. Kazakhstan D. Uzbekistan
Answer: A
2. The Summit of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) was hosted by which country from 15-16 September 2022? (Rajasthan CET 2023)
A. Kazakhstan B. Tajikistan C. Uzbekistan D. India
Answer: C
3. The area known as 'Golan Heights' sometimes appears in the news in the context of the events related to (UPSC 2015)
A. Central Asia B. Middle East C. South-East Asia D. Central Africa
Answer: B
4. Siachen Glacier is situated to the (UPSC 2020)
A. East of Aksai Chin B. East of Leh C. North of Gilgit D. North of Nubra Valley
Answer: D
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