The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has delivered several landmark judgments that have had a significant impact on environmental protection and conservation in India. Here are some of the important landmark judgments delivered by the NGT:

• Vardhaman Kaushik v. Union of India (2013): This case dealt with the issue of groundwater depletion due to illegal extraction by industries in Uttar Pradesh. The NGT directed the closure of industries that were extracting groundwater without proper permissions and ordered the payment of compensation for environmental damage caused.
• Alembic Pharmaceuticals Ltd. v. Rohit Prajapati & Ors. (2014): In this case, the NGT ordered the closure of an industrial unit in Gujarat for releasing untreated effluents into a water body, causing pollution and harm to the environment and public health.
• M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (2014): The NGT issued a landmark judgment in this case regarding the pollution of the Yamuna River. It directed several measures to clean and rejuvenate the river, including the establishment of sewage treatment plants and the regulation of industries contributing to pollution.
• Subhash Chandra Sharma v. Union of India (2015): This case focused on the issue of air pollution caused by solid waste burning in open areas. The NGT imposed a ban on burning waste in open spaces and directed municipal authorities to take measures to manage waste effectively.
• Raghu Nath Sharma v. State of Himachal Pradesh (2016): The NGT ordered the closure of illegal hotels and structures in the eco-sensitive Rohtang Pass area of Himachal Pradesh to protect the fragile Himalayan ecosystem.
• Yamuna Muktikaran Abhiyan v. Union of India (2017): This case dealt with the rejuvenation of the Yamuna River and led to the NGT issuing directions to clean and restore the river, including measures to prevent encroachments and pollution.
• M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (2017): The NGT banned the use of disposable plastic in Delhi and the National Capital Region (NCR) and directed authorities to take steps to prevent the use and sale of such plastic.
• Shailesh Singh v. Hotel Holiday Regency (2019): In this case, the NGT imposed heavy fines on a hotel in Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, for causing air pollution by running diesel generators without proper emission control measures.
• Subhash Chandran vs. Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board (2020): This judgment highlighted the importance of safeguarding coastal areas and wetlands from unauthorized construction and development activities, emphasizing the need for stringent environmental norms.
• In Re: Report by Comptroller and Auditor General of India (2021): The NGT directed the formulation of guidelines for the regulation of groundwater extraction and management to prevent overexploitation and depletion.

5. What is a dissolved oxygen level?

• Dissolved oxygen (DO) level refers to the concentration of oxygen gas (O2) that is dissolved in a liquid, typically water.
• It is a crucial parameter in aquatic ecosystems as it directly affects the survival and well-being of aquatic organisms.
• In natural water bodies like lakes, rivers, and oceans, oxygen dissolves from the atmosphere through processes such as diffusion and aeration.
• Aquatic plants, algae, and phytoplankton also contribute to the production of oxygen through photosynthesis. However, the level of dissolved oxygen can fluctuate based on various factors, including temperature, altitude, water flow, pollution, and organic matter decomposition.
• Dissolved oxygen is essential for aquatic organisms because they rely on it for their respiration process, similar to how animals breathe oxygen from the air.
• Insufficient levels of dissolved oxygen can lead to hypoxia, a condition where organisms are deprived of the oxygen they need to survive. This can result in stress, reduced growth, reproductive issues, and even mortality in aquatic species.

Different species of aquatic organisms have varying tolerance levels for dissolved oxygen. For example:

• Fish and other aquatic animals often require dissolved oxygen levels between 4 to 6 milligrams per liter (mg/L) to thrive.
• Some species of fish, insects, and other aquatic organisms can tolerate lower levels of dissolved oxygen, even below 2 mg/L, while others require higher concentrations.

6. What are chemical oxygen demand and biological oxygen demand?

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):

• COD is a measure of the amount of oxygen required to chemically oxidize and break down organic and inorganic substances present in water.
• It provides an indication of the total amount of pollutants that can be chemically oxidized by a strong oxidizing agent. COD is expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L) of oxygen consumed.
• COD is useful in assessing the overall pollution load in a water sample, including both biodegradable and non-biodegradable substances.
• It is commonly used for industrial wastewater monitoring, as it provides a rapid estimation of the organic content and potential pollution levels. However, COD does not differentiate between different types of pollutants or indicate the potential impact on aquatic life.

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD):

• BOD measures the amount of dissolved oxygen consumed by microorganisms (bacteria) during the biological degradation of organic matter in water.
• It is a key indicator of the level of biodegradable organic pollutants present in water. BOD is expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L) of oxygen consumed over a specific time period, usually 5 days (BODâ‚…).
• BOD is particularly important in assessing the impact of organic pollution on aquatic ecosystems.
• High BOD levels indicate that a water body may have a significant amount of organic pollutants, which can lead to oxygen depletion as microorganisms break down the organic matter. This oxygen depletion, known as hypoxia, can harm aquatic organisms and disrupt the ecological balance of the water body.

Comparing BOD and COD:

• BOD primarily measures the biologically degradable organic matter and provides information about the potential impact on aquatic life.
• COD measures both biologically and chemically degradable pollutants, giving an indication of the overall pollution load and oxygen demand.
• BOD is a more specific and ecologically relevant parameter, but it takes longer to determine (5 days), while COD can be measured more quickly.

For Prelims: National Green Tribunal (NGT), National Green Tribunal Act, of  2010, Dissolved oxygen (DO), Chemical Oxygen demand (COD), and Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD). For Mains: 1. Discuss the significance of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) as critical indicators for assessing water pollution and quality. (250 Words)

 

Previous year Question 1. How is the National Green Tribunal (NGT) different from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)? (UPSC 2018) 1. The NGT has been established by an Act whereas the CPCB has been created by the executive order of the Government. 2. The NGT provides environmental justice and helps reduce the burden of litigation in the higher courts whereas the CPCB promotes cleanliness of streams and wells, and aims to improve the quality of air in the country. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: B   2. The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 was enacted in consonance with which of the following provisions of the Constitution of India? (UPSC 2012) 1. Right of a healthy environment, construed as a part of the Right to life under Article 21 2. Provision of grants for raising the level of administration in the Scheduled Areas for the welfare of Scheduled Tribes under Article 275(1) 3. Powers and functions of Gram Sabha as mentioned under Article 243(A) Select the correct answer using the codes given below: A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: A

Source: The Indian Express

 

 

ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE

 

1. Context

At the 5th Annual Global Media Forum held ahead of the World Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) Awareness Week 2025, Athira Elssa Johnson of The Hindu won the first prize in the India category for her report headlined “Rising antimicrobial resistance in STIs being seen in India: experts” published on September 5.

2. What is Anti Microbial Resistance?

Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) occurs when bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites change over time and no longer respond to medicine making infections harder to treat and increasing the risk of disease spread severe illness, and death.

3. Emergence and spread of AMR

• AMR occurs naturally over time, usually through genetic changes.
• Antimicrobial-resistant organisms are found in people, animals, food, plants, and the environment (in water, soil, and air).
• They can spread from person to person or between people and animals, including from food of animal origin.
• The main drivers of antimicrobial resistance include the misuse and overuse of antimicrobials, lack of access to clean water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) for both humans and animals, and poor infection and disease prevention and control in healthcare facilities and farms. Poor access to quality, affordable medicines, vaccines, and diagnostics, lack of awareness and knowledge, and lack of enforcement of legislation.

4. Factors causing AMR in India

Inappropriate consumption of board-spectrum (last resort) antibiotics is high because of changing prescription practices in the healthcare system due to the non-availability of a narrow spectrum of antibiotics.

Inappropriate antibiotics use among the general public like self-medication to avoid the financial burden.

A large proportion of sewage is disposed of untreated into receiving water bodies, leading to gross contamination of rivers with antibiotic residues, and antibiotic-resistant organisms.

 

5. Reasons for the recent increase in the use of antibiotics in India

• The high disease burden
• The rising income
• The easy and cheap availability of these medicines to the public.
• The uncontrolled sales of antibiotics
• Poor Public health infrastructure
• Lack of awareness regarding the misuse of antibiotics.

6. Government Initiatives that help to curb Antimicrobial Resistance In India

The Union Health Minister of India in the International Conference on Anti-Microbial Resistance stated that the first step in addressing the problem of AMR is to avoid the need for antibiotics at all in the first place. Improved water, vaccination, and sanitation may control inappropriate antibiotic use indirectly. The main government policies that help in this process are:

• Through the Swacch Bharat Program, the government has taken active steps to improve hygiene and sanitation and reduce the environmental spread of pathogens.
• Vaccination is an equally important public health measure, and through Mission Indradhaniush, India has set itself an ambitious goal of increasing routine immunization coverage to 90% within just a few years.

6.1 Red Line Campaign

The Union health ministry's Anti-Microbial Resistance awareness campaign urges people not to use medicines marked with a red vertical line, including antibiotics, without a doctor's prescription.

These medicines are called the 'Medicines with the Red Line.

To check the irrational use of antibiotics, the 'red line' will help the users to differentiate them from the drugs.

This campaign is aimed at discouraging unnecessary prescription and the counter sale of antibiotics causing drug resistance for several critical diseases including TB, malaria, urinary tract infection, and even HIV. 

7. WHO's Global plan on Anti-Microbial Resistance?

• To improve awareness and understanding of antimicrobial resistance through effective communication, education, and training.
• To Strengthen the knowledge and evidence base through surveillance and research.
• To reduce the incidence of infection through effective sanitation, hygiene, and infection prevention measures.
• To Optimize the use of antimicrobial medicines in human and animal health.
• To develop the economic case for sustainable investment that takes account of the needs of all countries and to increase investment in new medicines, diagnostic tools, vaccines, and other interventions.

8. Global efforts

8.1 Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance (GAP): Globally, countries committed to the framework set out in the Global Action Plan1 (GAP) 2015 on AMR during the 2015 World Health Assembly and committed to the development and implementation of multisectoral national action plans.

8.2 Tripartite Joint Secretariat on Antimicrobial Resistance: Tripartite joint secretariat (FAO, OIE, and WHO) has been established and is hosted by WHO to drive multi-stakeholder engagement in AMR.

8.3 World Antimicrobial Awareness Week (WAAW): WAAW was previously called World Antibiotic Awareness Week. From 2020, it will be called world Anti-Microbial Awareness Week. It is a global campaign that aims to raise awareness of antimicrobial resistance worldwide.

8.4 Global Antimicrobial Resistance and use surveillance system (GLASS): WHO launched it in 2015 to continue filling knowledge gaps and to inform strategies at all levels. GLASS has been conceived to progressively incorporate data from surveillance of AMR in humans, surveillance of the use of Antimicrobial medicines, and AMR in the food chain and the environment.

 

For Prelims & Mains

 

For Prelims: Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), UN Environment Programme, the World Health Organization (WHO), World Organisation for Animal Health, Mission Indradhaniush, Red Line Campaign. For Mains: 1.Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is considered one of the most significant challenges the world faces today. Discuss.

 

 

Previous Year Questions 1.Which of the following are the reasons for the occurrence of multi-drug resistance in microbial pathogens in India? ( UPSC CSE 2019) Genetic predisposition of some people Taking incorrect doses of antibiotics to cure diseases Using antibiotics in livestock farming Multiple chronic diseases in some people Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4 Answer: (b)

 Source: Down to Earth

 

 

CRITICAL MINERALS

 

 

1. Context

 

Seeking to reduce import dependence and vulnerabilities in the supply chain of critical minerals, the Union Cabinet on Wednesday approved the rationalisation of royalty rates of graphite, caesium, rubidium, and zirconium.

 

2. What are Critical Minerals?

 

Critical minerals are raw materials that are essential for economic and national security, but whose supply may be at risk due to geological scarcity, geopolitical issues, trade policy, or other factors

Critical minerals are typically defined by governments or organizations based on their importance to the economy and the potential risks to their supply

• Rare Earth Elements (REEs): neodymium, dysprosium, terbium
• Lithium
• Cobalt
• Graphite
• Gallium
• Indium
• Tungsten
• Platinum Group Metals (PGMs)

3. Why are critical minerals important?

 

• Minerals such as copper, lithium, nickel, and cobalt, along with certain rare earth elements, are considered critical due to their essential role in the global transition to greener and cleaner energy sources.
• According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), the demand for lithium surged by 30% in 2023, with nickel, cobalt, graphite, and rare earth elements experiencing growth between 8% and 15%, collectively valued at $325 billion.
• The IEA's Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2024 report indicates that achieving the world's goal of limiting global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius within a net-zero emissions framework will necessitate a significant increase in demand for these minerals.
• By 2040, copper demand is projected to rise by 50%, nickel, cobalt, and rare earth elements by 100%, graphite by 300%, and lithium by 800%, which is vital for battery production.
• Developing sustainable supply chains for these minerals is therefore crucial. In India, the absence of readily available reserves has led to complete import dependence for minerals such as lithium, cobalt, and nickel. 

4. What is being done to spur production?

 

• Although India possesses natural reserves of several critical minerals, they remain largely unexplored and untapped. For example, despite holding 11% of the world's ilmenite deposits, which is the primary source of titanium dioxide used in numerous applications, India still imports a billion dollars' worth of titanium dioxide annually, as noted by former Mines Secretary Vivek Bharadwaj.
• Additionally, the "lucky" discovery of lithium reserves in the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) by the Geological Survey of India (GSI) while exploring for limestone has raised hopes for achieving some level of self-sufficiency in lithium. Announced in February as India's first lithium find, these reserves are estimated at 5.9 million tonnes, prompting the government to expedite their extraction.
• Recognizing the risks of relying on a limited number of countries for these minerals and their processing, the central government amended the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 in August 2023 to allow mining concessions for 24 critical and strategic minerals.

5. Way Forward

 

The list of what's considered "critical" can vary by country and change over time based on technological developments and geopolitical situations. The management of critical minerals is an ongoing challenge that requires balancing economic needs, environmental concerns, and geopolitical realities

 

 

For Prelims: Critical minerals, Ministry of Mines, carbon emissions,  cleaner energy,  lithium, cobalt, nickel, graphite, tin, copper, Selenium, Cadmium, Centre of Excellence on critical minerals, Australia's CSIRO, Geological Survey of India,    For Mains:  1. What are critical minerals? Discuss their significance for a country's economic development and national security. Explain how the identification of critical minerals helps in reducing import dependency and ensuring resource security. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. With reference to the mineral resources of India, consider the following pairs: (UPSC 2010) Mineral                         90%Natural sources in 1. Copper                       Jharkhand 2. Nickel                        Orissa 3. Tungsten                    Kerala Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?   A. 1 and 2 only            B. 2 only             C. 1 and 3 only            D. 1, 2 and 3   Answer: B   2. Recently, there has been a concern over the short supply of a group of elements called 'rare earth metals.' Why? (UPSC 2012) 1. China, which is the largest producer of these elements, has imposed some restrictions on their export. 2. Other than China, Australia, Canada and Chile, these elements are not found in any country. 3. Rare earth metals are essential for the manufacture of various kinds of electronic items and there is a growing demand for these elements. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only              B. 2 and 3 only           C. 1 and 3 only          D.  1, 2 and 3   Answer: C   3. In India, what is the role of the Coal Controller's Organization (CCO)? (UPSC 2022) 1. CCO is the major source of Coal Statistics in Government of India. 2. It monitors progress of development of Captive Coal/Lignite blocks. 3. It hears any objection to the Government's notification relating to acquisition of coal-bearing areas. 4. It ensures that coal mining companies deliver the coal to end users in the prescribed time. Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1, 2 and 3            B. 3 and 4 only           C. 1 and 2 only          D. 1, 2 and 4   Answer: A   4. Which of the following statements best describes the term 'Social Cost of Carbon'? It is a measure, in monetary value, of the (UPSC 2020)  A. long-term damage done by a tonne of CO2 emission in a given year. B. requirement of fossil fuels for a country to provide goods and services to its citizens, based on the burning of those fuels. C. efforts put in by a climate refugee to adapt to live in a new place. D. contribution of an individual person to the carbon footprint on the planet Earth.   Answer: A   5. Direction: It consists of two statements, one labelled as ‘Statement (I)’ and the others as ‘Statement (II)’. You are to examine these two statements carefully and select the answer using the codes given below: (UPSC ESE 2018) Statement (I): Green energy refers to one which does not harm the ecosystem of planet earth. Statement (II): All renewable energy is green energy. A. Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) individually true and Statement (II) is the correct explanation of Statement (I) B. Both statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually true, but Statement (II) is not the correct explanation of Statement (I) C. Statement (I) is true, but Statement (II) is false D. Statement (I) is false, but Statement (II) is true   Answer: C   6. Which type of battery is used in the recently launched world's first fully electric cargo ship by change? (Delhi Police Constable 2017) A.  Lead Acid        B. Manganese        C. Lithium ion        D. Nickel metal hydride   Answer: C   7. White gold is an alloy of (UPSC CAPF 2022)  A. gold, nickel and palladium B. gold, cobalt and palladium C. gold, titanium and platinum D. gold, magnesium and palladium   Answer: A   8. Graphene is frequently in news recently. What is its importance? (UPSC 2012)  1. It is a two-dimensional material and has good electrical conductivity. 2. It is one of the thinnest but strongest materials tested so far. 3. It is entirely made of silicon and has high optical transparency. 4. It can be used as 'conducting electrodes' required for touch screens, LCDs and organic LEDs. Which of the statements given above are correct? A. 1 and 2 only          B. 3 and 4 only         C.  1, 2 and 4 only          D.  1, 2, 3 and 4   Answer: C   9. Graphite and diamonds are__________. (WBCS Prelims 2020)   A. isotopes           B.  isomers             C. isotones           D. allotropes   Answer: D   10. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2020) 1. Coal ash contains arsenic, lead and mercury. 2. Coal-fired power plants release sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen into the environment. 3. High ash content is observed in Indian coal. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only         B. 2 and 3 only        C.  3 only         D. 1, 2 and 3   Answer: D   11. Which of the following can be found as pollutants in the drinking water in some parts of India? (UPSC 2013) 1. Arsenic 2. Sorbitol 3. Fluoride 4. Formaldehyde 5. Uranium Select the correct answer using the codes given below. A. 1 and 3 only           B. 2, 4 and 5 only          C. 1, 3 and 5 only           D.  1, 2, 3, 4 and 5   Answer: C   12. In the context of solving pollution problems, what is/are the advantage/advantages of the bioremediation technique? (UPSC 2017) 1. It is a technique for cleaning up pollution by enhancing the same biodegradation process that occurs in nature. 2. Any contaminant with heavy metals such as cadmium and lead can be readily and completely treated by bioremediation using microorganisms. 3. Genetic engineering can be used to create microorganisms specifically designed for bioremediation. Select the correct answer using the code given below:  A. 1 only         B.  2 and 3 only          C.  1 and 3 only             D. 1, 2 and 3   Answer: C   13. Due to improper/indiscriminate disposal of old and used computers or their parts, which of the following are released into the environment as e-waste? (UPSC 2013)  1. Beryllium 2. Cadmium 3. Chromium 4. Heptachlor 5. Mercury 6. Lead 7. Plutonium Select the correct answer using the codes given below.  A. 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only           B. 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 only          C. 2, 4, 5 and 7 only               D. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7   Answer: B   14. When was the Geological Survey of India (GSI) of India founded? (UPRVUNL Staff Nurse 2021) A. 1851             B. 1951            C. 1871              D. 1931   Answer: A

 

 

Source: The Hindu

 

 

STUBBLE BURNING

1. Context

The Supreme Court on Wednesday decided to examine if farmers were burning crop stubble when satellites were not overhead to avoid surveillance. Stubble burning is considered a major source of air pollution choking the national capital.

2. What is Stubble?

Stubble refers to the leftover plant material, mainly crop residues, that remains in the field after the primary crop has been harvested. This includes the stems, leaves, and other organic material that is left behind.

Stubble burning is a common agricultural practice where farmers set fire to crop residues, such as straw and stubble, that remain in the field after the main crop (usually paddy or wheat) has been harvested. This practice is typically used as a quick and cost-effective method to clear the field for the next planting season. Stubble burning is particularly prevalent in regions with mechanized farming, where machines like combine harvesters leave behind a significant amount of crop residues.

3. Stubble burning contributes to air pollution

When stubble is burned, it releases a variety of pollutants into the air, including particulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur dioxide. These pollutants can cause several health problems, including respiratory problems, heart disease, and cancer.

Stubble burning is a major contributor to air pollution in many parts of the world. In India, for example, stubble burning is responsible for up to 30% of the air pollution in Delhi during the winter months.

• Stubble burning generates fine particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) that can penetrate deep into the respiratory system, leading to respiratory problems and reduced air quality.
• The combustion of stubble releases carbon monoxide, which can have adverse health effects when inhaled, particularly in enclosed spaces.
• Stubble burning produces Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), which can react with other pollutants in the atmosphere, contributing to the formation of ground-level ozone, a major air pollutant.
• Burning stubble emits greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4), contributing to climate change.
• The combustion of crop residues can release various hazardous chemicals and pollutants, further deteriorating air quality.

4. About the Central Scheme for the Promotion of Agricultural Mechanisation for In-Situ Management of Crop Residue

The Central Scheme on Promotion of Agricultural Mechanisation for In-Situ Management of Crop Residue (AMICMR) is a scheme launched by the Government of India to promote the use of in-situ techniques for managing crop residue. In-situ techniques are those that are used to manage crop residue on the field, rather than burning it. Examples of in-situ techniques include:

• Mulching is the practice of covering the soil with a layer of organic material, such as straw or leaves. This can help to suppress weeds, retain moisture, and improve soil health.
• Zero tillage is the practice of planting crops without tilling the soil. This can help to prevent soil erosion and retain moisture in the soil.
• Direct seeding is the practice of planting seeds directly into the soil, rather than transplanting seedlings. This can help to reduce soil disturbance and prevent the spread of weeds.

The AMICMR scheme provides financial assistance to farmers to purchase machinery that can be used for in-situ management of crop residue. The scheme also provides training and extension services to farmers on how to use these techniques.

The AMICMR scheme is a promising initiative that could help to reduce air pollution caused by stubble burning. However, the scheme needs to be scaled up and made more widely available to farmers to have a significant impact.

5. Conclusion

Stubble burning is a major contributor to air pollution in many parts of the world. However, there are several alternatives to stubble burning, such as in-situ management of crop residue. In-situ management of crop residue is a more sustainable way to manage stubble, as it does not release pollutants into the air and has several benefits for soil health and crop yields.

For Prelims: Stubble burning, air pollution, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, PM2.5, PM10, Volatile Organic Compounds, ozone, carbon dioxide, methane, Climate Change, The Central Scheme on Promotion of Agricultural Mechanisation for In-Situ Management of Crop Residue,  For Mains:  1. Critically evaluate the effectiveness of the Central Scheme on Promotion of Agricultural Mechanisation for In-Situ Management of Crop Residue (AMICMR) in addressing the issue of stubble burning in India. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions 1. In the cities of our country, which among the following atmospheric gases are normally considered in calculating the value of Air Quality Index? ( UPSC 2016) Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Nitrogen dioxide Sulfur dioxide Methane Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only    (b) 2, 3 and 4 only     (c) 1, 4 and 5 only         (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5  Answer: B 2. Acid rain is caused by the pollution of the environment (UPSC 2013, 2022) (a) Carbon Dioxide and Nitrogen (b) Carbon Monoxide and Carbon Dioxide (c) Ozone and Carbon Dioxide (d) Nitrous Oxide and Sulphur Dioxide  Answer:D 3. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a standard criterion for (UPSC 2017) (a) Measuring oxygen level in blood (b) Computing oxygen levels in forest ecosystems (c) Pollution assay in aquatic ecosystem (d) Assessing oxygen levels in high-altitude regions Answer: C 4. Consider the following: (UPSC 2019)  1. Carbon monooxide 2. Methane 3. Ozone 4. Sulphur dioxide Which of the above are released into atmosphere due to the burning of crop/biomass residue?  A. 1 and 2 only         B.  2, 3 and 4 only            C. 1 and 4 only         D.  1, 2, 3 and 4 Answer: D 5. What is Particulate matter? (BPSC 2016) A. Solid residue      B. Air pollutant        C. Water pollutant   D. Soil pollutant E.  None of the above/More than one of the above Answer: B 6. Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas because it: (OPSC OAS 2021) A. Binds to digestive hormones B. Damages lungs C. Destroys RBCs D. Binds to haemoglobin Answer: D 7. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2019) 1. Agricultural soils release nitrogen oxides into environment. 2. Cattle release ammonia into environment. 3. Poultry industry releases reactive nitrogen compounds into environment. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 and 3 only         B. 2 and 3 only          C. 2 only            D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: D 8. In the context of WHO Air Quality Guidelines, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022)  1. The 24-hour mean of PM2.5 should not exceed 15 μg/m³ and annual mean of PM2.5 should not exceed 5 μg/m³. 2. In a year, the highest levels of ozone pollution occur during the periods of inclement weather. 3. PM10 can penetrate the lung barrier and enter the bloodstream. 4. Excessive ozone in the air can trigger asthma. Which of the statements given above are correct? A. 1, 3 and 4             B. 1 and 4 only           C. 2, 3 and 4           D.1 and 2 only Answer: B 9. Which of the following is a VOC? (MP Vyapam Sub Engineer Mechanical 2022) A. Toulene        B. Water       C. Carbon dioxide         D. Carbon monoxide Answer: A 10. Which of the following Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are emitted from anthropogenic sources only? (UGC NET 2023) A. Isoprene        B. Benzene            C. Terpene          D. Methane        E. Toluene 1. A, B and C Only         2.  B and E Only      3. A and C Only         4. C, D and E Only Answer: 2 11. Which one of the following is associated with the issue of control and phasing out of the use of ozone-depleting substance? (UPSC 2015)  A. Bretton Woods Conference  B. Montreal Protocol  C. Kyoto Porotocol  D. Nagoya Protocol Answer: B 12. The increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the air is slowly raising the temperature of the atmosphere, because it absorbs (UPSC 2012)  A. the water vapour of the air and retains its heat B. the ultraviolet part of the solar radiation C. all the solar radiations D. the infrared part of the solar radiation Answer: D 13. Which of the following adds/add carbon dioxide to the carbon cycle on the planet Earth? (UPSC 2014) 1. Volcanic action 2. Respiration 3. Photosynthesis 4. The decay of organic matter Select the correct answer using the code given below A. 1 and 3 only       B. 2 only      C. 1, 2 and 4 only         D. 1, 2, 3 and 4 Answer: C 14. Which of the following statements are correct about the deposits of 'methane hydrate'? (UPSC 2019)  1. Global warming might trigger the release of methane gas from these deposits. 2. Large deposits of 'methane hydrate' are found in Arctic Tundra and under the seafloor. 3. Methane in atmosphere oxidizes to carbon dioxide after a decade or two. Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1 and 2 only     B.  2 and 3 only        C. 1 and 3 only           D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: D 15. With reference to two non-conventional energy sources called 'coalbed methane' and 'shale gas' consider the following statements: (UPSC 2014) 1. Coalbed methane is the pure methane gas extracted from coal seams, while shale gas is a mixture of propane and butane only that can be extracted from fine-grained sedimentary rocks. 2. In India, abundant coalbed methane sources exist, but so far no shale gas sources have been found. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only        B. 2 only        C. Both 1 and 2          D. Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: D Mains 1. Describe the key points of the revised Global Air Quality Guidelines (AQGs) recently released by the World Health Organisation (WHO). How are these different from its last update in 2005? What changes in India’s National Clean Air Programme are required to achieve revised standards? ( UPSC 2021)

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

 

ROAD SAFETY IN INDIA

 

 

1. Context

 

On November 10, the Supreme Court took cognisance of two mass-casualty road crashes in Phalodi, Rajasthan (14 killed) and NH 163, Telangana (19 killed). More than 1.7 lakh lives were lost in 2023 alone due to road crashes.

 

2. Road Accidents in India

• In the first half of this year alone, national highways have recorded 29,018 fatalities — accounting for over half of last year’s total deaths. Despite making up just 2% of India’s total road network, national highways are responsible for more than 30% of all road accident deaths.

• Between January and June 2025, 67,933 accidents occurred on national highways. In comparison, 2024 saw 53,090 fatalities from 1,25,873 such accidents, while 2023 reported 53,630 deaths from 1,23,955 accidents.

• These figures are compiled from data submitted by states and Union Territories to the Electronic Detailed Accident Report (eDAR) portal — a centralised platform for collecting, managing, and analysing road accident information.

• In 2023, India recorded over 1.72 lakh road accident fatalities. The Union government has set a target to cut this number by half by the year 2030

•  

3.What are the Initiatives Related to Road Safety?

The Indian government has taken several initiatives related to road safety in an effort to reduce road accidents and improve the safety of road users. Some of the key initiatives and programs include:

• National Road Safety Policy: The Indian government introduced a National Road Safety Policy with the aim of reducing road accidents and their consequences. The policy outlines various strategies to improve road safety.
• Road Safety Awareness Campaigns: The government, in collaboration with various organizations, conducts road safety awareness campaigns to educate the public about safe driving practices, the importance of wearing helmets and seat belts, and the dangers of driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs.
• National Road Safety Council (NRSC): The NRSC is responsible for coordinating road safety activities in India. It focuses on promoting road safety education, awareness, and enforcement.
• Road Safety Education: The government has incorporated road safety education into the school curriculum to instill safe road behaviors from a young age.
• Traffic Police Initiatives: Various state and city traffic police departments have initiated campaigns to enforce traffic rules and regulations, such as penalizing those not wearing helmets or seat belts and cracking down on drunk driving.
• Strict Implementation of Motor Vehicles Act: In 2019, India amended the Motor Vehicles Act to increase fines for traffic violations significantly. The stricter enforcement of the act aims to deter people from breaking traffic rules.
• Safety Measures for Two-Wheelers: The government has pushed for the adoption of safety measures for two-wheeler riders, such as mandatory helmet use and encouraging the use of helmets meeting safety standards.

4.International Initiatives regarding road Safety

At the international level, several initiatives and organizations are dedicated to promoting road safety and reducing traffic-related injuries and fatalities. Some of the key initiatives and organizations related to road safety at the international level include:

• United Nations Decade of Action for Road Safety: The United Nations launched the Decade of Action for Road Safety (2011-2020) to raise awareness and take measures to reduce road traffic injuries and fatalities. The initiative involved various countries working together to improve road safety.
• Global Road Safety Partnership (GRSP): GRSP is a nonprofit organization that partners with governments, businesses, and civil society to promote road safety initiatives globally. It supports a wide range of road safety programs and advocacy efforts.
• World Health Organization (WHO): The WHO is actively involved in promoting road safety through its "Save Lives" campaign. It provides data, research, and technical guidance to countries to develop and implement effective road safety policies and programs.
• UN Road Safety Collaboration (UNRSC): UNRSC is a global platform that brings together governments, NGOs, and the private sector to collaborate on road safety initiatives and share best practices.
• Global Plan for the Decade of Action for Road Safety: This plan, endorsed by the United Nations, provides a framework for countries to develop and implement road safety strategies and measures to reduce traffic-related fatalities and injuries.
• Safer Vehicles: International organizations like the Global New Car Assessment Programme (Global NCAP) work to improve vehicle safety standards globally. They conduct crash tests and promote the adoption of safer vehicle designs.
• Road Safety Conventions: International agreements and conventions, such as the 1968 Vienna Convention on Road Traffic and the 1958 Geneva Convention on Road Traffic, set common standards and rules for road safety that participating countries agree to adhere to.
• Global Alliance of NGOs for Road Safety: This alliance comprises various non-governmental organizations (NGOs) working collaboratively to advocate for road safety and influence policy at the global level.
• International Road Assessment Programme (iRAP): iRAP conducts road safety assessments to identify and prioritize infrastructure improvements that can enhance road safety worldwide.

5. The Brasilia Declaration on Road Safety

The "Brasilia Declaration on Road Safety" is a significant international commitment and declaration made at the Second Global High-Level Conference on Road Safety, held in Brasilia, Brazil, from November 18 to 19, 2015. The conference was organized by the Government of Brazil, the World Health Organization (WHO), and various international partners. The Brasilia Declaration builds on the first Global High-Level Conference on Road Safety, held in Moscow in 2009.

The Brasilia Declaration on Road Safety is a commitment by participating countries to address the global road safety crisis and work together to reduce the high number of road traffic-related deaths and injuries

 

6. Way forward

These international initiatives and organizations work collaboratively to raise awareness, share knowledge, and develop strategies and policies that can improve road safety on a global scale. Road safety is recognized as a significant public health issue worldwide, and these efforts aim to save lives and reduce the social and economic impact of road traffic injuries

 

For Prelims: Economic and Social Development-Sustainable Development, Poverty, Inclusion, Demographics, Social Sector Initiatives, etc For Mains: General Studies III: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways etc

Source: indianexpress

 

 

INDIA-BHUTAN

1. Context

 Prime Minister Narendra Modi is in Bhutan to attend the 70th birthday celebrations of the fourth king of Bhutan, Jigme Singye Wangchuck, the father of the incumbent king, Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck.

2. Historical Ties between India and Bhutan

India and Bhutan have a long and close history of diplomatic and economic ties, characterized by cooperation and mutual respect. Their relations can be traced back to ancient times when they had cultural and economic interactions. 

• The modern era of India-Bhutan relations formally began with the signing of the Treaty of Friendship between India and Bhutan in 1949. This treaty laid the foundation for diplomatic, economic, and security cooperation. It also affirmed Bhutan's sovereignty while recognizing India's role in guiding its foreign policy.
•  India has played a crucial role in ensuring Bhutan's security. During the border dispute between Bhutan and China in 2017, India supported Bhutan's stance, reinforcing their security cooperation.
• India has been a major source of economic aid and development assistance for Bhutan. Various Indian projects in Bhutan have focused on infrastructure development, education, healthcare, and other sectors, contributing to Bhutan's socio-economic progress.
• One of the significant areas of economic collaboration has been hydropower. India has been involved in the development of several hydropower projects in Bhutan, providing a source of revenue for the Bhutanese economy. These projects have also enhanced regional energy security.

3. Economic Ties and Road Connectivity

• The discussions involved plans for improved connectivity between the two nations, especially focusing on border areas and immigration posts to support Bhutan’s initiative for a smart city at Gelephu, situated on the border between Bhutan and Assam. This development aims to fortify ties and foster regional growth.
• India's approval for the final survey on a 58 km cross-border rail link between Gelephu and Kokrajhar in Assam marks a significant step. Additionally, both nations have agreed to explore an 18 km rail link between Samtse in Bhutan and Banarhat in West Bengal, fostering greater trade opportunities. Furthermore, the agreement to extend Bhutanese trade items to Chilahati in Bangladesh from Haldibari in West Bengal indicates a broader regional trade expansion strategy.
• India’s commitment to supporting Bhutan’s socio-economic development in line with Bhutanese government priorities was reaffirmed by Prime Minister Modi. This includes support for Bhutan's 13th Five-Year Plan and the Bhutanese King's vision for a Special Economic Zone in the Sarpang district, which includes plans for an international airport at Gelephu.
• Acknowledging India's support for Bhutan's 12th Five-Year Plan, the Bhutanese King expressed gratitude, while India reiterated its commitment to assist in the upcoming 13th Five-Year Plan. The joint statement highlighted the importance of their strong bilateral ties and mutual support in various developmental efforts.
• The decision to transform the Darranga-Samdrup Jongkhar border crossing into an immigration check post is aimed at enhancing connectivity, tourism, and facilitating entry for third country nationals. Upgrading the land customs station at Dadgiri in Assam to an Integrated Check Post (ICP) and developing facilities in Gelephu on the Bhutanese side will further support the Bhutanese Special Economic Zone project, boosting trade and connectivity.
• These joint initiatives are expected to ease travel between India and Bhutan, foster increased trade with Bangladesh, and bolster tourism revenues for Bhutan, particularly important in the wake of economic challenges resulting from the pandemic. Bhutan's initiatives, led by the King, intend to create more job opportunities and enhance tourism in the country.

4. Conclusion

The recent discussions and agreements between India and Bhutan focus on improving connectivity, trade, and tourism, as well as addressing economic challenges in Bhutan through infrastructure development and international cooperation.

For Prelims: India-Bhutan, Treaty of Friendship between India and Bhutan in 1949,  For Mains:  1. Discuss the prospects and challenges of the economic and infrastructure collaborations between the India-Bhutan. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. When was the Indo-Bhutan Treaty of Peace and Friendship signed ? (UPRVUNL AE EE 2021) A. 1949        B. 1953                      C. 1951           D. 1950   Answer: A

 

Source: The Hindu