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DAILY CURRENT AFFAIRS, 15 OCTOBER 2025

OTHER BACKWARD CLASSES

 

1. Context

The Telangana government has approached the Supreme Court against a State High Court decision to stay two Government Orders that enhanced the Other Backward Classes (OBC) quota in seats in municipalities and panchayats to 42%.

 

2. About the sub-categorization of OBCs

  • The concept of sub-categorization of OBCs involves creating sub-groups within the larger OBC category for reservation purposes.
  • Currently, OBCs are granted 27% reservation in jobs and education under the central government.
  • However, there has been a debate over the equitable distribution of these benefits among the various OBC communities.
  • Some argue that a few affluent communities within the Central List of OBCs have disproportionately secured the majority of the reservation benefits.
  • Creating sub-categories aims to ensure a fairer distribution of representation among all OBC communities.

3. The Rohini Commission's Brief

  1. To examine the extent of inequitable distribution of reservation benefits among the OBC castes or communities included in the Central List.
  2. To devise a scientific approach for sub-categorization within the OBCs, including defining the mechanism, criteria, norms, and parameters.
  3. To identify respective castes, communities, sub-castes, or synonyms in the Central List of OBCs and classify them into their respective sub-categories.
  4. To study the Central List of OBCs and rectify any repetitions, ambiguities, inconsistencies, and errors.
  • The Commission's progress has faced various challenges, including the absence of data on the population of different communities to compare their representation in jobs and education.
  • Initially, the Commission had requested an all-India survey to estimate the caste-wise population of OBCs but later decided against it.
  • Additionally, the government has remained silent on the collection of OBC data in the Census, despite demands from OBC groups.

4. The Extent of OBC Recruitment in Central Jobs

  • As part of its findings, the Commission analyzed data from the preceding five years on OBC quota-based central jobs and admissions to central higher education institutions.
  • It revealed that a disproportionate number of jobs and educational seats went to a small fraction of OBC sub-castes, with 37% of the total OBC communities having no representation in jobs and educational institutions.
  • Regarding OBC representation in central jobs, as of March 17, the data showed that 20.26% of Group A to Group C employees were OBCs.
  • However, the representation drops to 16.88% in Group A, where the reservation for OBCs is 27%.
Image Source: The Indian Express

5. The Way Forward

  • Despite the challenges faced, the Commission has made significant progress, including drafting a report on sub-categorization.
  • However, the final report is yet to be submitted. The extended tenure will provide the Commission with additional time to address the complexities of OBC sub-categorization and propose measures to achieve equitable distribution of reservation benefits among all OBC communities.
For Prelims: Rohini Commission, OBCs, Central List
For Mains: 
1. Discuss the role of the government in addressing the demand for the enumeration of OBCs in the Census and its potential impact on OBC representation and welfare." (250 Words)
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1. Who was appointed as the head of the OBC Sub-categorisation Commission?
(Maharashtra Talathi 2019) 
A. Justice Geeta Mittal
B. Justice Manjula Chellur
C. Justice Tahilramani
D. Justice G. Rohini
 
Answer: D
 
2. Which of the following pairs of list and contents is/are correctly matched? (UPSC CAPF 2019) 
1. State list                     Public health and sanitation
2. Union list                  Citizenship, naturalisation and aliens
3. Concurrent list          Legal, medical and other
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1 only             B. 1, 2 and 3          C.  2 and 3 only            D.  3 only
 
Answer: B
 
Source: The Indian Express
 
 

MICROPLASTICS IN OCEANS

 
 
1. Context
 
An estimated 170 trillion plastic particles weighing about 2 million metric tons are currently afloat in the oceans across the world, according to a new study, which added that if no urgent action is taken then this number could nearly triple by 2040
 
2. About Microplastics
 
  • Microplastics are tiny plastic particles that result from commercial product development and the breakdown of larger plastics.
  • They are fragments of any type of plastic less than 5mm(0.20 in) in length.
  • Plastic pollution is big evil and can help viruses alive and infectious in fresh water for days
  • Microplastics are particularly harmful to the oceans as they don’t readily break down into harmless molecules and adversely affect the health of marine organisms, which mistake plastic for food. Moreover, these particles can trigger loss of biodiversity and threaten ecosystem balance
3. Key Findings
 
  • Fisheries in Goa primarily operate around estuaries — vital ecological zones that provide nursery habitats for juvenile fish and feeding grounds for adults. These regions are rich in finfish and shellfish, both of which are central to local fishing practices.
  • Owing to their abundance, affordability, and high protein value, these species are widely used in Indian diets.
  • Small pelagic species such as anchovies, sardines, and mackerel play a crucial role in estuarine food webs. They feed on plankton and, in turn, attract larger predatory fish. As filter feeders, they capture suspended particles from the water, making them more susceptible to ingesting microplastics.
  • These smaller fish serve as prey for larger species, which are themselves eaten by elasmobranchs — cartilaginous fishes like sharks inhabiting shallow coastal waters. Through this process, known as trophic transfer, microplastics move progressively up the food chain, ultimately impacting apex predators and humans.
  • Researchers examined fish from the Mandovi estuarine system — part of the Mandovi-Zuari complex that accounts for nearly 97% of Goa’s total fish production. The bamboo shark, a top predator, was chosen as the focal species to study the consequences of microplastic buildup.
  • This study bridges a major knowledge gap by addressing five key aspects: the extent of microplastic contamination in commercially important fish, factors influencing their ingestion, primary pathways of entry within fish bodies, evidence of microplastics in bamboo sharks, and the broader implications of such contamination for marine and human health along Goa’s coastline
They also identified four major shape-types of microplastics: fibres (53%), fragments (29.9%), films (13.1%), and beads (4%). Marine animals use colours to detect prey, and the particles came in nine hues: blue (37.6%), black (24.3%), red (12%), discoloured (8.7%), transparent (6.8%), green (4.4%), pink/purple (2.5%), yellow (1.9%), and orange (1.7%).The types and colours of microplastics revealed their sources to be fishing gear, tire residue from roads, e-waste, packaging, and textiles.
 
4. Impacts of Microplastics on Ocean and Marine life
  • Several recent studies have detected microplastics in marine organisms, from phytoplankton to whales and dolphins, which might prove hazardous for them
  • The ingestion of such particles can cause “mechanical problems, such as lacerations and blockages to internal systems.”
  • Ingested plastics can cause chemical problems by leaching absorb chemicals into organisms
  • We know that microplastics absorb many hydrophobic compounds, like DDT, PCBs and other industrial chemicals, and evidence shows they can be released when ingested
  • Microplastics can also disrupt the carbon cycle of the oceans
  • Normally, phytoplankton absorbs carbon and are eaten by zooplankton, who excrete the carbon in the form of faecal pellets that sink to the sea floor
  •  Once these carbon-containing pellets reach there, “the carbon can be remineralized into rocks  preventing it from escaping back into the atmosphere,”
  • If zooplanktons consume microplastics, their faecal pellets sink at a much slower rate, which means they are more likely to break apart or be eaten by other animals
  • Making it less likely that the carbon will reach the seafloor and become permanently sequestered
5. How to limit plastic pollution in oceans
 
  • Researchers of the latest study suggested that there is an urgent need to implement a global resolution to limit the production of single-use, throwaway plastic
  • We need cities to be responsible for managing their waste so it does not leave their territory
  • We need to reduce the amount of chemical additives in new plastic products
  •  If we talk about recycling, there have to be requirements that recycled plastic be used in new products
  •  The industries that make plastic like to talk about how technically we can recycle all of it. But they don’t like to commit to buying recycled plastic, therefore recycling fails
 
6. Risk Assessment
 
  • Overall, the study classified the region and its ecosystem as having a low overall risk, though it noted that benthic organisms — those living on or near the sea floor — face greater vulnerability than pelagic species that inhabit open waters. The researchers detected 19 types of plastic polymers, of which 11 were deemed highly toxic.
  • The findings also revealed that 66 out of 71 shellfish species examined had poor nutritional value. Earlier research has linked microplastic exposure in fish to reduced fitness levels, lower protein and fatty acid content, and diminished nutritional quality.
  • Beyond the ecological impact, these changes may have socioeconomic consequences: as the quality of such fish declines, market demand may fall, threatening the livelihoods of coastal communities dependent on fisheries.
  • Given that microplastics are now present across the planet, the study emphasizes the urgent global need to tackle plastic pollution through improved waste management systems and innovation in biodegradable alternatives
7.What is the Global Plastics Treaty?
 
  • In March 2022, the United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA) committed to combating plastic pollution, including in marine ecosystems. To achieve this, it established Intergovernmental Negotiating Committees (INC) tasked with drafting a treaty by the end of 2024.
  • Over two years, countries convened five times to reconcile differing perspectives on addressing plastic pollution. While many nations support recycling initiatives and banning specific plastics, such as India's 2022 prohibition on single-use plastics, they remain hesitant to curb overall plastic production. This resistance stems from the economic significance of plastic manufacturing in petro-states and countries with large polymer industries.
  • Ahead of the most recent negotiation round in Busan, South Korea, INC-5 Chair Luis Vayas Valdivieso presented a draft "non-paper," summarizing nations' varied approaches to managing plastic production.
  • However, negotiations highlighted a stark divide between countries that see plastic pollution as a waste management issue and those advocating for production cuts at the source. This gap remains unresolved
 
For Prelims: Microplastics, Nano Particles, Particulate Matter, Wastewater Management
 
For Mains: GS III - Environment and Ecology
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2022)
 
1. Other than those made by humans, nanoparticles do not exist in nature.
2. Nanoparticles of some metallic oxides are used in the manufacture of some cosmetics.
3. Nanoparticles of same commercial products which enter the environment are unsafe for humans.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 Only
B. 3 Only
C. 1 and 2
D. 2 and 3
Answer (D)
2.There is some concern regarding the nanoparticles of some chemical elements that are used by the industry in the manufacture of various products. Why? (UPSC CSE 2014)
1. They can accumulate in the environment, and contaminate water and soil.
2. They can enter the food chains.
3. They can trigger the production of free radicals.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
A.1 and 2 only
B.3 only
C.1 and 3 only
D.1, 2 and 3
Answer (D)
 
Source: The Hindu
 
 

INDIA- CANADA

1. Context

Amid the strain in ties with the US over the Trump administration’s imposition of tariffs and the “ongoing global economic uncertainty”, India Monday signalled the revival of bilateral relations with Canada as the two sides agreed on a roadmap to deepen cooperation in trade, investment, agriculture, science and technology, civil nuclear collaboration, artificial intelligence, critical minerals and energy

2. Canada's Allegation

  • Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau accusation that Indian security agencies might be linked to the murder of a Canadian citizen, Hardeep Singh Nijjar, sent shockwaves through diplomatic circles.
  • Such a serious charge by a foreign leader against another nation before conclusive proof is rare and demands a thorough investigation.
  • Canada's Foreign Minister Melanie Joly has emphasized the need for cooperation between the two countries in the investigation.

3. Diplomatic Escalation

  • Canada took the initial step in the escalation by expelling an Indian diplomat in Ottawa, identified as the head of the Indian intelligence agency.
  • In response, India expelled a Canadian diplomat based in New Delhi.
  • India also issued travel advisories for its citizens in Canada, raising concerns about their safety. Visa services were suspended, affecting various categories of travellers.

4. About the Khalistan movement 

  • The Khalistan movement is a Sikh separatist movement that seeks to create an independent Sikh state called Khalistan in the Indian state of Punjab.
  • The movement began in the 1970s and has been marked by violence and political unrest.
  • The Khalistan movement is based on the belief that the Sikhs are a distinct people with their own unique culture and history.
  • Sikhs believe that they have been persecuted by the Indian government, and they demand an independent state where they can govern themselves.
  • The Khalistan movement has been supported by some Sikhs in India and abroad.
  • However, it is opposed by the Indian government, which considers it to be a threat to national security.

4.1. Khalistan Problem Resurfaces

  • This crisis has brought the long-standing issue of Khalistan back into India-Canada relations.
  • While the relationship faced challenges in the past, including Canada's criticism of India's nuclear tests in 1998, the current issue centres around Canada's perceived support for separatist Khalistani groups.
  • Canada's Liberal Party has been accused of pandering to these groups for votes, particularly in constituencies where Khalistani sympathies hold sway.

4.2. Khalistan and Canadian Politics

  • Jagmeet 'Jimmy' Dhaliwal, associated with Canada's New Democratic Party, is viewed with suspicion by the Indian establishment due to his pro-Khalistan sympathies.
  • Canada's hosting of events attended by individuals linked to pro-Khalistan outfits, like Jaspal Atwal, during Trudeau's visit in 2018, further strained relations.
  • The Khalistan "referendum," encouraged by Pakistani intelligence agencies, has been a significant irritant in recent years.

5. Social and economic indicators between India and Canada

Canada's FDI in India: Canada accounts for a modest 0.56% of India's total Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). Out of the $645,386.0884 million in FDI equity inflow into India between April 2000 and June 2023, Canada contributed 0.5644% ($3,642.5243 million).

Indian Diaspora in Canada: Canada is home to a significant portion of overseas Indians. Of the 3,21,00,340 overseas Indians, 5.26% (16,89,055) reside in Canada. This includes 1,78,410 Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) and 15,10,645 Persons of Indian Origin (PIOs).

Indian Students in Canada: Canada is a popular destination for Indian students. In 2022, out of an estimated 13,24,954 Indian students studying abroad, 13.83% (1,83,310) were enrolled in Canadian institutions, according to data from the Ministry of External Affairs.

Canada's Role in Indian Tourism: Canada is the fourth-largest source of tourists visiting India, based on 2021 figures. Canadian tourists accounted for 5.3% (80,437) of Foreign Tourist Arrivals (FTAs) in India during that year. Notably, a significant portion of these tourists (72.6%) were members of the Indian diaspora.

Bilateral Trade: India's bilateral trade with Canada amounted to $8,161.02 million in the financial year 2022-23, making up only 0.70% of India's total trade of $1,165,000.88 million. Despite its modest size, India maintains a trade surplus with Canada, with exports surpassing imports by $58.45 million.

Trade Highlights

India's major exports to Canada during 2022-23 included medicines, vannamei shrimp, smartphones, gold-set diamond jewellery, basmati rice, iron pipes for oil/gas pipelines, coaches powered by external electricity, diamonds, and cotton t-shirts.

Key imports from Canada included coking coal, potassium chloride, lentils (masur dal), newsprint, wood pulp (mechanical and chemical pulp processes), and copper ores and concentrates.

5.1. Top Indian Imports from Canada

Coking Coal: Coking Coal was the most valued item India imported from Canada during 2022-23. At 28.96 lakh tonnes, Canada was the fifth largest supplier of coking coal to India after Australia, the US, Singapore, and Russia. 
 
Potassium Chloride: Canada is India’s biggest source of potassium chloride. During 2022-23, India imported 11.43 lakh tonnes of the chemical from Canada. The other countries that supplied potassium chloride to India were Israel, Jordan, Belarus, Turkmenistan, and Russia.
 
Lentils: Canada is the biggest supplier of ‘masur’ dal to India. During 2022-23, India imported 4.85 lakh tonnes of lentils from Canada. The other countries exporting lentils to India are Australia, the Netherlands, the UAE, and Sri Lanka.
 
News Print: Canada is a major source of newsprint. During 2022-23, India imported 2.5 lakh tonnes of ‘Other Newsprint’ (under HSN code 48010090) from Canada, which was the highest from any country. The other countries that supplied the newsprint to India were Russia, Korea, Malaysia, and the UAE. 
 
Wood Pulp: Canada is also a major source of wood pulp obtained by a combination of mechanical and chemical pulp processes. During 2022-23, India imported 2.06 lakh tonnes of wood pulp from Canada. The other countries that supplied wood pulp to India last year were New Zealand, Sweden, Estonia, the US, and the Netherlands.
 

6. Diplomatic Complexity

  • Diplomats familiar with Canada's foreign policy assert that the country is often influenced by immigrant interests.
  • Pro-Khalistan elements, though a minority in the Canadian Sikh community, control several influential gurdwaras and can exert political influence in key constituencies.
  • This small but influential group shapes Canada's policy towards India.

7. Geopolitical Implications

  • Canada holds a significant role in global geopolitics, being part of the G7 and sharing intelligence within the Five Eyes alliance.
  • This diplomatic standoff poses a challenge for Western powers, including the US, UK, Australia, Germany, France, and Japan, as they maintain strategic partnerships with both Canada and India.
  • Balancing these relationships becomes crucial in the wake of this crisis.

8. Conclusion

  • The India-Canada diplomatic crisis underscores the importance of addressing each other's concerns and conducting a fair and impartial investigation into the allegations.
  • Both nations must work to de-escalate tensions and find a way forward while considering the broader geopolitical implications of their actions.
  • This crisis serves as a lesson for Canada and its partners on how to handle the sensitive issue of Khalistan in diplomatic relations.
For Prelims: India-Canada, Khalistan, Foreign Direct Investment, Tourism, Bilateral Trade, Geo-politics, Wood Pulp, News Print, Lentils, Potassium Chloride, Coking Coal
For Mains: 
1. Examine the resurgence of the Khalistan movement in India-Canada relations. How has Canada's perceived support for Khalistani groups affected bilateral ties? (250 Words)
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1. In the context of bilateral trade negotiations between India and the European Union, what is the difference between European Commission and European Council?  (UPSC 2010)
1. European Commission represents the EU in trade negotiations whereas the European Council partici­pates in the legislation of matters pertaining to economic policies of the European Union.
2. European Commission comprises of the Heads of State or government of member countries whereas the European Council comprises of the persons nominated by European Parliament.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only       B. 2 only        C.  Both 1 and 2         D. Neither 1 nor 2
 
Answer: D
 
2. With reference to Foreign Direct Investment in India, which one of the following is considered its major characteristic? (UPSC 2020)
A. It is the investment through capital instruments essentially in a listed company.
B. It is a largely non-debt creating capital flow.
C. It is the investment which involves debt-servicing.
D. It is the investment made by foreign institutional investors in the Government securities.
 
Answer: B
 
Source: The Indian Express
 
 

PRADHAN MANTRI KISAN SAMMAN NIDHI (PM-KISAN)

 
 
 
1. Context
 
 
The Union government has flagged 29.13 lakh beneficiaries of the Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi (PM-Kisan) scheme as “suspected” cases where both husband and wife were receiving cash benefits simultaneously.
 
 
2. About Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi (PM-KISAN)
 

 

Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi (PM-KISAN) is a Central Sector scheme launched by the Government of India on 1 December 2018. The scheme provides income support of Rs. 6,000 per year to all landholding farmer families across the country, to supplement their financial needs for farm expenses.

Objective

The objective of the PM-KISAN scheme is to provide income support to all landholding farmer families across the country to supplement their financial needs for farm expenses. The scheme aims to:

  • Increase the income of small and marginal farmers.
  • Reduce the burden of debt on farmers.
  • Improve the living standards of farmers.

Components

The main component of the PM-KISAN scheme is the provision of income support of Rs. 6,000 per year to all landholding farmer families. The amount is disbursed in three equal instalments of Rs. 2,000 each financial year.

The scheme is implemented through the Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) system. The amount is transferred directly to the bank accounts of eligible farmers.

Eligibility

To be eligible for the PM-KISAN scheme, a farmer must meet the following criteria:

  • Must be an Indian citizen.
  • Must own cultivable land (as per land records).
  • Must be a member of a farmer's family.

The following categories of beneficiaries of higher economic status shall not be eligible for benefits under the scheme.

  1. All Institutional Landholders.
  2. Farmer families which belong to one or more of the following categories:

Implementation

The implementation of the PM-KISAN scheme is the responsibility of the state governments. The state governments are responsible for identifying and verifying the eligible beneficiaries, and for transferring the amount to their bank accounts.

The scheme has been well-received by farmers across the country. The scheme has helped to improve the income and living standards of small and marginal farmers.

Impact

The PM-KISAN scheme has had a positive impact on the lives of small and marginal farmers across the country. The scheme has helped to:

  • Increase the income of small and marginal farmers.
  • Reduce the burden of debt on farmers.
  • Improve the living standards of farmers.

The scheme has also helped to boost the rural economy. The additional income has been used by farmers to invest in their farms, which has led to increased agricultural production.

 

3. Central Sponsored Schemes (CSS)

 

A Central Sponsored Scheme (CSS) is a program in India where the central government bears a part of the expenditure, while the remaining share is borne by the state government. The central government plays a crucial role in designing the policy framework and guidelines, while the state governments are responsible for implementing the scheme within their respective territories.

Key characteristics of CSS

  • Shared funding: Central and state governments contribute to the scheme's total cost, typically with the central government bearing a larger portion (often ranging from 50% to 90%).
  • Central guidelines: The central government establishes the overall policy framework, objectives, and operational guidelines for the scheme.
  • State implementation: State governments are responsible for implementing the scheme on the ground, adapting it to local conditions within the framework set by the centre.
  • Joint monitoring: Both central and state governments monitor the implementation of the scheme and track progress towards achieving its objectives.

 

4. The difference between a central sector scheme and a centrally sponsored scheme

 

Central Sector Schemes (CSS) and Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS) are both types of government initiatives in India, but they differ in their funding mechanisms, control, and implementation. 

 

Features Central Sector Scheme Centrally Sponsored Scheme
Funding Source Central Government only Central & State Governments (shared)
Financial Responsibility Central Government bears all costs Shared burden with central government contributing more
Control Central Government has complete control Central government leads, but state government has implementation role
Implementation Central government agencies or departments State government executes at ground level
Objectives National priorities and overarching goals Collaborative effort addressing regional or state-specific needs
Flexibility More adaptable to national priorities More adaptable to regional or state-specific needs
 
 
 
 
For Prelims: PM-Kishan, Central Sponsored Scheme, Central Sector Scheme, Viksit Bharat Sankalp Yatra
For Mains:  
1. Examine the role of state governments in the implementation of PM-KISAN. How can their efforts be enhanced to improve targeting, transparency, and efficiency in fund distribution? (250 Words)
2. Analyze the recent decline in PM-KISAN beneficiaries and the government's efforts to increase enrollment. Discuss the effectiveness of the "saturation drive" and potential strategies for further improvement.  (250 Words)
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1. Read the following statements about the 'PM-KISAN' scheme: (Telangana Police SI Mains 2018)
a. The 'Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi' (PM-KISAN) scheme was introduced by the government of India in its interim Budget 2019.
b. The scheme took effect from January 1, 2019.
c. The scheme aims at supplementing the financial needs of marginal and small farmers procuring various inputs to ensure proper farm income.
d. A family comprising of husband, wife and minor children who collectively own cultivable land upto 2 hectares as per land records shall be provided a benefit of Rs. 6,000 per annum per family.
Choose the correct statements:
A.  a, c and d only         B.  b and d only       C.  a, b and c only          D.  b, c and d only
 
Answer: A
 
2. Which of the following is a centrally sponsored scheme to empower adolescent boys? (SSC JE EE 2018) 
A. AKSHAY          B. SAKSHAM             C. SABLA             D. UJJWALA
 
Answers: 1-A, 2-B
 
 
Source: The Indian Express
 
 

CREW ESCAPE SYSTEM (CES)

 
 
 
1. Context
 
The Gaganyaan mission aims to safely transport Indian astronauts to a low-earth orbit of around 400 km altitude using the human-rated LVM3 (HLVM3) rocket as the launch vehicle, and to return them safely. In human space missions, crew safety is more important than mission success. It is imperative that safety is addressed during all phases: launch pad, ascent, orbit, and descent.
 
2. Crew Escape System (CES)
 
 
  • A Crew Escape System (CES) has been specifically developed for the Gaganyaan mission to safeguard astronauts during the early atmospheric phase of flight, in case of any malfunction that endangers the mission.
  • The CES is engineered to quickly detach the crew module — carrying the astronauts — from a faulty launch vehicle and transport it to a safe distance within seconds.
  • This phase of ascent is particularly critical, as the rocket accelerates to hypersonic speeds (over five times the speed of sound) while enduring immense structural stress.
  • The HLVM3 launch vehicle uses two powerful S200 solid-fuel boosters for liftoff; since solid motors cannot be shut down after ignition, the escape system must operate with greater acceleration than the rocket itself to ensure rapid separation.
  • During emergencies, the CES can generate forces up to 10 times the pull of gravity (10 g). While this is an intense acceleration, the human body can withstand it briefly if the astronauts are properly aligned — with the force acting perpendicular to the chest and the body secured in a “child-in-cradle” position against the seat.
  • Given that rocket systems are far more complex and less reliable than commercial aircraft, such safety mechanisms are essential. The CES enhances crew survival chances through its proven design principles, redundant safety systems, and meticulous mission planning
 
3. Types of crew Escape System
 
  • Each design has its own set of advantages and trade-offs, and the selection depends on factors such as propulsion technology, mission design, and integration requirements. Once the CES carries the crew module to a safe distance, it detaches, allowing a multi-stage parachute system to slow the module in stages.
  • This ensures a controlled descent and a safe splashdown in the sea without subjecting astronauts to excessive impact forces. Typically, astronauts remain inside the capsule until landing.
  • However, in a historical exception, Yuri Gagarin—during the Soviet Union’s first human spaceflight—ejected from the Vostok capsule at around 7 km altitude and descended separately by parachute.
  • An Integrated Vehicle Health Management (IVHM) system, comprising sensors, electronics, and software, continuously monitors critical spacecraft and crew parameters. In the event of an anomaly, it automatically decides whether to activate the CES, ensuring rapid and accurate response during emergencies

The Crew Escape System (CES) is categorized into two variants based on how it separates the crew module from the launch vehicle:

  1. Puller type — used in the Gaganyaan mission, where the system pulls the crew module away from the rocket using solid motors;

  2. Pusher type — adopted in systems like SpaceX’s Falcon 9, where the module is pushed away using compact, high-thrust liquid-fuel engines.

 

4. What is the TV-D1 Test?

 

  • The TV-D1 Test, or Test Vehicle Demonstration-1, is a crucial experimental mission conducted by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) as part of the Gaganyaan programme, India’s first human spaceflight initiative.
  • The main purpose of this test is to demonstrate the effectiveness and reliability of the Crew Escape System (CES) — a safety mechanism designed to protect astronauts in case of an emergency during the launch phase.
  • In this test, ISRO used a specially designed test vehicle that replicated the key elements of the Gaganyaan launch system but did not carry any crew.
  • The idea was to simulate an emergency situation shortly after liftoff and observe whether the CES could successfully detect the anomaly, activate automatically, and pull the crew module to safety.
  • Once separated, the module was expected to follow a precise sequence — moving away from the rocket, deploying multiple parachutes, and finally making a controlled splashdown in the sea, where recovery teams could retrieve it.
  • The TV-D1 mission therefore served as a proof of concept for India’s human spaceflight safety systems.
  • It tested not just the escape mechanism itself, but also the performance of onboard sensors, parachute systems, flight computers, and recovery operations. Success in this test demonstrated that ISRO’s safety architecture could effectively respond to real-world contingencies and safeguard astronauts during the most critical moments of launch.
  • In essence, the TV-D1 Test marked a major step forward for Gaganyaan, validating that the Crew Escape System works as intended and that India is technically prepared to ensure crew safety before sending humans into space
 
 
5. Gaganyaan Mission
 
  • Gaganyaan, meaning "Sky Craft" in Sanskrit, is India's ambitious human spaceflight program aimed at sending Indian astronauts to space.
  • It is a testament to India's growing prowess in the field of space exploration and a source of immense national pride.
  • The program, spearheaded by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), envisions launching a crewed orbital spacecraft into low Earth orbit (LEO) for a period of up to seven days.
  • The spacecraft will carry three astronauts, marking a historic first for India.
 
 
 
For Prelims: Gaganyaan programme, TV-D1 mission, Low Earth Orbit, Isro, LVM3, GSLV Mk III, 
For Mains: 
1. Discuss the key objectives of the TV-D1 mission within the Gaganyaan program. How does this mission contribute to astronaut safety and the overall success of Gaganyaan? (250 Words)
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1. With reference to India's satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2018)
1. PSLVs launch satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites.
2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth.
3. GSLV Mk III is a four-stage launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 and 3
C. 1 and 2
D. 3 only
Answer: A
 
2. India's first human space mission "Gaganyaan" will be launched in which year? (ESIC UDC 2022)
A. 2022          B. 2023          C. 2024          D. 2025      E.  2026
 
Answer: B
 
3. Find the incorrect statements, about the Gaganyaan Mission of India. (MPSC 2020)
1. Four pilots from Indian Air Force were shortlisted to be astronauts of Gaganyaan.
2. They will be trained at Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Centre in Russia.
3. This mission was announced by Prime Minister in 2014.
4. It is scheduled for 2022 with a team of 5 crew members and a month-long stay in space.
A. 1, 2, 3, 4     B.  2, 3, 4           C. 3, 4          D. 2, 3
 
Answer: C
 
4. ISRO is related to: (SSC JE EE 2020)
A. space research      B. agricultural research          C. seed research          D. marine research Answer: A
 

5.  Which of the following pairs is/are correctly matched? (UPSC 2014)

Spacecraft                                    Purpose

  1. Cassini-Huygens:                  Orbiting the Venus and transmitting data to the Earth
  2. Messenger:                             Mapping and investigating the Mercury
  3. Voyager 1 and 2:                    Exploring the outer solar system

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only         (b) 2 and 3 only          (c) 1 and 3 only          (d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: B

6. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2016)

The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO

1. is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission
2. made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA
3. made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit the Mars in its very first attempt

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only        (b) 2 and 3 only          (c) 1 and 3 only            (d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: C

Source: The Hindu

 

TRICKLE DOWN ECONOMICS

 
 
 
1. Context
 
The theory of “trickle down” of wealth to the poor underlies policies aimed at boosting business investment through tax cuts, deregulation, subsidies, etc. 
 
2. What is trickle-down economics?
 
 
  • The concept of “trickle-down growth” rests on the belief that rapid economic expansion naturally benefits every section of society, including the poorest and most marginalized.
  • According to this theory, promoting business investment through measures such as tax concessions, deregulation, and subsidies is expected to stimulate overall economic activity.
  • Over time, this growth is assumed to translate into higher production, job creation, and greater consumer spending, ultimately improving living standards for all.
  • Supporters of trickle-down economics argue that increased investment in industries leads to the establishment of more enterprises and factories, which in turn creates employment opportunities. They also claim that rising growth rates are generally linked to a reduction in poverty levels.
  • However, from the 1970s onward, evidence from several developing countries revealed a different reality. Despite periods of impressive economic growth, vast sections of the population continued to live in extreme poverty.
  • This experience highlighted the limitations of relying solely on growth-driven strategies and emphasized the need for inclusive development policies—those that focus on generating employment, ensuring fair distribution of wealth, and addressing poverty directly rather than assuming prosperity will automatically “trickle down.”
 
3. Economic growth and poverty reduction
 
 

In recent years, India’s economic strategy has reflected elements of the trickle-down approach, with policies that tend to emphasize corporate incentives rather than direct welfare measures. This shift is visible in the decline of budgetary allocations to several social support programmes such as:

— Nutritional assistance initiatives,
— The school mid-day meal scheme,
— The Price Stabilization Fund,
— LPG Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT),
— Skill development and vocational training programmes,
— The Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY), and
— Agricultural support schemes, including interest subsidies on short-term credit, fertilizer subsidies, and food grain procurement.

Empirical data, however, indicate that corporate tax cuts have not consistently translated into higher investment or job creation. Instead, these measures have often contributed to rising income and consumption inequalities. Furthermore, studies highlight that the socially and economically marginalized groups—including Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), Other Backward Classes (OBCs), minorities, women, and children—have reaped the least benefits from periods of high economic growth

 

4. Natural resources

 

  • Another dimension of trickle-down growth policies is the phenomenon of land grabbing. The term refers to the large-scale acquisition or appropriation of natural resources—such as land and forests—through both formal ownership and informal control mechanisms.
  • In the Indian context, such practices are frequently associated with displacement and loss of land rights, particularly among vulnerable communities.
  • Historically, India’s Nehruvian development model, which emphasized modernization, large infrastructure, and institutional reforms, inadvertently triggered widespread development-induced displacement, most notably in tribal regions.
  • Since independence, the Indian state has implemented a range of development-oriented projects—covering irrigation, power generation, industry, mining, and even forest and wildlife conservation.
  • While these initiatives aimed at national progress, they often resulted in the displacement of indigenous populations from resource-rich areas, deepening social and economic inequalities

 

5. Case Study of Jarkhand

 

  • The situation in Jharkhand offers a clear example of the challenges associated with resource-driven growth. Nearly 26% of the state’s population comprises tribal communities, and the region is endowed with abundant mineral wealth, including coal, bauxite, iron ore, copper, gold, limestone, and graphite.
  • Out of Jharkhand’s 24 districts, coal mining operates in 12, with over 75,000 hectares of land already acquired for this purpose. Several of these coal blocks have been allocated to private companies, and mining activities for bauxite and iron ore are equally extensive.
  • However, such large-scale extraction projects have been accompanied by massive displacement of local and indigenous populations.
  • Compensation for those displaced is primarily monetary, determined according to the market value of land at the time when acquisition is first notified, not when it is actually taken over.
  • This approach fails to reflect the true value of the loss, as it overlooks non-economic aspects such as cultural identity, access to natural resources, forests, and traditional livelihoods.
  • Beyond inadequate compensation, displacement brings a host of social and economic consequences — homelessness, unemployment, food insecurity, loss of common property resources, social fragmentation, and deteriorating health conditions.
  • Ironically, the industrial projects and factories that emerge on these acquired lands seldom provide jobs to the displaced communities themselves, further marginalizing those who have already borne the cost of development
 
6. Special Economic Zones (SEZ)
 
 
  • The Special Economic Zones (SEZ) Act of 2005, enacted by the central government, exemplifies another dimension of India’s growth-oriented development model. SEZs were envisioned as self-contained economic hubs offering minimal taxation, tariff exemptions, and regulatory relaxations to encourage exports, attract foreign direct investment (FDI), create employment opportunities, and enhance infrastructure development.
  • Both domestic and international corporations have made significant investments in these zones. In return, the State has allocated large tracts of land and mineral resources, facilitating the establishment of industrial units, residential complexes, shopping centers, hotels, and even golf courses.
  • However, this model of development has also resulted in widespread displacement and dispossession of local communities who formerly inhabited or depended on these lands.
  • The Land Acquisition Act of 1894 played a crucial role in this process, empowering the government to acquire private land for ‘public purposes,’ often without adequately addressing the concerns or objections of affected individuals.
  • To mitigate such issues, the Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement (RFCTLARR) Act, 2013 was introduced, aiming to ensure fairer compensation and improved rehabilitation measures.
  • Yet, despite its progressive framework, the Act’s effectiveness has been undermined by several challenges—weak implementation, insufficient livelihood restoration, incomplete land records, dilution through state-level amendments, and the continued exclusion of tribal communities and women’s rights.
  • Additionally, the absence of a comprehensive land-use planning policy has further limited its impact on achieving equitable and sustainable development
 
 
7. Welfare Policy Implementation
 
 
  • India’s rehabilitation framework has often been criticised for failing to adequately protect those who have already experienced displacement. The Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013 includes provisions stating that individuals previously displaced should not face eviction again, or if they do, must receive double compensation.
  • However, available data on displacement and resettlement reveal that such safeguards are rarely implemented in practice.
  • As a result, many displaced individuals—particularly from indigenous communities—are compelled to migrate to other regions in search of livelihood opportunities.
  • Consequently, both displacement and rehabilitation have become central yet contentious elements of India’s broader development discourse, heavily influenced by the trickle-down model of growth.
  • The forced relocation of tribal and indigenous groups for infrastructure and industrial projects often fails to deliver tangible benefits to those directly affected. Empirical studies have consistently shown that the promised gains of development seldom reach these communities.
  • The Scheduled Tribes (STs), who form a significant portion of the rural poor and agricultural labour force, remain among the most vulnerable sections of Indian society.
  • Indicators related to health, education, and livelihood continue to reflect deep socio-economic disparities.
  • Although the government has launched multiple welfare schemes and development initiatives aimed at improving living standards in tribal areas, several scholars—including Virginius Xaxa—have argued that these policies often remain detached from the social and cultural realities of the communities they intend to serve.
  • The lack of institutional support, participatory mechanisms, and local involvement has rendered many such interventions ineffective. As a result, the challenges of displacement and inadequate rehabilitation persist, aggravating existing inequalities.
  • Poorly implemented welfare measures, combined with limited access to resources and representation, continue to intensify the hardships faced by India’s marginalized and indigenous populations
8. Way Forward
 
The experience of marginalized communities in India demonstrates that development strategies rooted solely in trickle-down growth fail to ensure inclusive and equitable outcomes. Displacement without meaningful rehabilitation undermines social justice and deepens structural inequalities. For development to be truly sustainable, policies must move beyond mere economic calculations to prioritize participation, cultural sensitivity, and the protection of rights for vulnerable populations. Inclusive growth, therefore, requires integrating robust rehabilitation, livelihood security, and social welfare measures into India’s development agenda, ensuring that progress benefits all sections of society rather than a privileged few
 
For Prelims: Foreign direct investment (FDI), Special Economic Zones (SEZ) Act of 2005, Land Acquisition Act of 1894
 
For Mains: GS III - Economy
 
Source: Indianexpress
 
 

GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSION INTENSITY (GEI)

 
 
 
1. Context
 
The Centre has notified the first legally binding Greenhouse Gas Emission Intensity (GEI) Target Rules, 2025. 4 high-emission sectors for which it has been notified are —aluminium, cement, chlor-alkali, and pulp and paper.The emission targets were notified by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change on October 8
 
2. Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS)
 
  • The Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS) is an important initiative launched by the Government of India in 2023 under the Energy Conservation (Amendment) Act, 2022.
  • It represents India’s first step toward building a domestic carbon market, which aims to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in a market-driven, cost-effective manner while helping the country move toward its net-zero target by 2070.
  • At its core, the CCTS operates on the principle that carbon emissions carry an environmental cost, and those who can reduce emissions more efficiently should be rewarded.
  • Under this system, industries or entities that emit less than their allotted carbon limit can earn carbon credits—essentially certificates representing one tonne of carbon dioxide (or its equivalent) reduced or removed from the atmosphere.
  • These credits can then be sold to other entities that are unable to stay within their emission limits, creating a market for carbon.
  • The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) under the Ministry of Power serves as the nodal agency for implementing the CCTS, while the Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC) acts as the regulator to ensure transparency and fair trading.
  • The trading itself will occur on designated power exchanges, where buyers and sellers of carbon credits can transact under clearly defined rules.
  • Unlike the older Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT) scheme—which focused only on improving energy efficiency in certain industrial sectors—the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme is broader in scope.
  • It covers not only industries but also other sectors contributing to emissions, such as transport, waste management, agriculture, and forestry. This shift marks India’s transition from a narrowly focused energy efficiency mechanism to a comprehensive carbon market framework.
  • To ensure integrity and reliability, emission reductions will be verified by accredited agencies following international best practices. Each verified reduction will be converted into a tradable carbon credit, ensuring the environmental credibility of the system.
  • Over time, the government plans to link the domestic carbon market with international ones, allowing Indian companies to participate in global carbon trading and attract green investments.
  • In essence, the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme is both an environmental and economic tool. It encourages industries to innovate and adopt cleaner technologies by providing financial incentives for emission reductions.
  • Simultaneously, it helps India align its development trajectory with global climate commitments under the Paris Agreement.
  • By monetizing emission reductions, the CCTS transforms climate responsibility into a tangible economic opportunity—turning carbon savings into a tradable asset that drives sustainable growth
 
 
3. Paris Climate Agreement of 2015 & India
 
 
  • The Paris Climate Agreement of 2015 is a landmark international treaty adopted under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), aimed at combating climate change and accelerating actions for a sustainable low-carbon future.
  • It was signed during the 21st Conference of Parties (COP-21) held in Paris, France, in December 2015, and came into force on November 4, 2016.
  • The agreement’s central goal is to limit the rise in global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, and preferably to 1.5°C, to reduce the risks and impacts of climate change.
  • Unlike the earlier Kyoto Protocol, which imposed legally binding targets only on developed countries, the Paris Agreement calls for voluntary commitments from all nations, recognizing the principle of “Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities” (CBDR-RC). This means all countries share responsibility to act, but their efforts should reflect their differing capabilities and levels of development.

Under the Paris Agreement, India submitted its Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs), which later became its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) after ratification. These NDCs outline India’s commitments to combat climate change by 2030:

  • Emission Intensity Reduction – India pledged to reduce the emission intensity of its GDP by 33–35% from 2005 levels. This means producing less carbon dioxide per unit of economic output, not necessarily reducing total emissions immediately.

  • Renewable Energy and Non-Fossil Fuel Targets – India committed to achieving 40% of its cumulative electric power capacity from non-fossil fuel-based energy sources by 2030. This target has since been enhanced to 50% under updated NDCs, reflecting India’s growing renewable energy leadership.

  • Carbon Sink Creation – India aims to create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO₂ equivalent through afforestation and tree cover by 2030

 

4. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions intensity or GEI

 

  • Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions Intensity, often referred to as GHG Emission Intensity (GEI), is a key indicator used to measure how efficiently a country or an economy is producing goods and services while controlling its contribution to climate change.
  • In simple terms, GHG emissions intensity represents the amount of greenhouse gases emitted per unit of economic output, usually expressed as kilograms or tonnes of CO₂ equivalent (CO₂e) per unit of GDP. It tells us how much carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases are released for every unit of economic activity
  • Every country produces greenhouse gases—mainly carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), and fluorinated gases—through activities like energy production, transport, agriculture, and industry. However, not all emissions are equal when compared to the size of their economies.
  • For example, a country with a large industrial base may have high total emissions but still have low emissions intensity if it produces more output per unit of carbon released.
  • On the other hand, a country with inefficient energy use or older technology may have high emissions intensity even if its total emissions are smaller.
  • Thus, GHG emissions intensity reflects the efficiency and sustainability of a nation’s growth rather than just its absolute emission levels

 

GHG Emission Intensity=Total GHG Emissions (CO₂e)/Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

5. Carbon Credits

 

  • Under the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme, industries that successfully cut down their CO₂ emissions will be rewarded with carbon credits.
  • These credits can later be sold or exchanged in the domestic carbon trading market.
  • The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) will serve as the authority responsible for issuing carbon credit certificates to eligible entities.
  • Industries unable to meet their prescribed emission reduction targets will be required to purchase additional carbon credits from the market to make up for the deficit.
  • In cases where industries violate or fail to adhere to the provisions of the GHG Emission Intensity (GEI) Rules, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) will levy environmental compensation as a penalty.
  • Similar systems of carbon credit trading have already been implemented in other regions, such as Europe (since 2005) and China (since 2021).
  • In India, carbon credits are traded via the Indian Carbon Market platform, which operates under the supervision of the Bureau of Energy Efficiency within the Ministry of Power.

​

6. Initiatives of the Government of India

 

  • The National Clean Air Programme (NCAP), initiated in 2019, encompasses 130 cities across 24 States and Union Territories, aiming to bring about a notable improvement in air quality. Its target is to achieve up to a 40% reduction in particulate matter (PM) concentrations by 2025–26, using 2017–18 as the baseline year.
  • To ensure real-time monitoring and transparency, the ‘PRANA’ portal has been developed to continuously update and display air quality data.
  • The government has introduced Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) regulations for plastic, tyre, battery, used oil, and e-waste, with the goal of strengthening the circular economy and ensuring environmentally responsible waste management.
  • The ‘Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats & Tangible Incomes (MISHTI)’ seeks to restore and expand mangrove ecosystems, recognizing their crucial role in coastal resilience, biodiversity preservation, and livelihood generation for coastal communities.
  • The Nagar Van Yojana, implemented by the National Afforestation and Eco-Development Board (NAEB), focuses on increasing tree and green cover beyond forest areas, promoting biodiversity, and enhancing urban environmental quality to improve the well-being of city residents.
  • Mission LiFE (Lifestyle for Environment) is an Indian-led global campaign that advocates for sustainable living through conscious, environment-friendly choices.
  • It emphasizes seven key themes — water conservation, energy saving, waste reduction, e-waste management, elimination of single-use plastics, sustainable food practices, and healthy lifestyles — to promote a culture of mindful consumption.
  • The Eco-mark Rules are designed to encourage the production and use of eco-friendly goods, consistent with the ethos of LiFE.
  • The initiative promotes energy efficiency, responsible resource use, and circular economy principles, while ensuring accurate labeling to prevent greenwashing or misleading environmental claims.
  • The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) serves as the umbrella framework for India’s climate strategies.
  • It includes a set of national missions addressing areas such as solar energy, energy efficiency, sustainable habitats, water management, Himalayan ecosystem protection, afforestation (Green India Mission), sustainable agriculture, human health, and climate knowledge systems, all directed toward building climate resilience and sustainable growth

 

 
For Prelims: General issues on Environmental ecology, Bio-diversity and Climate Change – that do not require subject specialization
For Mains: General Studies III: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1.Global warming is attributed to the presence of the following gases in the atmosphere : (UGC NET 2022)
(A) Methane
(B) Sulphur dioxide
(C) Surface Ozone
(D) Nitrogen dioxide
(E) Carbon dioxide
Choose the correct answer from the options given below :
1.(A), (B), (C), (E) only
2.(A), (C), (E) only
3.(A), (C), (D), (E) only
4.(A), (B), (D), (E) only
Answer (2)
 
Source: Indianexpress
 

RESILIENT AND PROSPEROUS CITIES IN INDIA

 
 
 
1. Context
 
Recently, the World Bank, in collaboration with the Union Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, has released a report titled Towards Resilient and Prosperous Cities in India. The Report estimated that Indian cities will require $2.4 trillion by 2050 to build climate-resilient infrastructure and services.
 
2. Key takeaways from Towards Resilient and Prosperous Cities in India
 

  • According to the report, India’s urban population is expected to nearly double, reaching around 951 million by the year 2050. By 2030, cities are anticipated to contribute 70% of all newly created jobs. Alongside the accelerating trend of urbanisation, Indian cities are likely to encounter two significant challenges under a business-as-usual trajectory: increased flooding and extreme heat.

  • The report highlights that both climate change and current urban development patterns are the primary contributors to the heightened risk of stormwater (pluvial) flooding. These risks are projected to surge by 3.6 to 7 times by 2070. The economic impact of such flooding is also expected to escalate, with annual losses potentially rising from $4 billion in 2023 to between $14 billion and $30 billion by 2070, affecting as many as 46.4 million people.

  • Global warming and the urban heat island effect may lead to a dramatic rise in heat-related fatalities, with annual deaths possibly surpassing 3 lakh by 2050. However, the report suggests that interventions such as modifying work hours to cooler periods of the day, increasing green cover, implementing early warning systems, and promoting the use of cool roofs could help prevent over 1.3 lakh of these deaths.

  • The urban heat island phenomenon intensifies the effects of more frequent and intense heatwaves. Without proactive measures, the number of heat-related deaths in Indian cities is expected to double by mid-century.

  • To tackle these challenges, the report advises a range of policy actions at both national and state levels. These include enhancing municipal capacity through standard-setting, involving the private sector, and developing a strategic financing framework. At the city level, it stresses the importance of conducting risk assessments and attracting capital — particularly private investment — to fund climate resilience and adaptation initiatives.

 
3. Types of Urban Flooding
 
 

The World Bank categorizes urban flooding into three main types:

  • (a) Pluvial Flooding: This type of flooding happens when intense rainfall exceeds the soil’s absorption capacity and overwhelms urban drainage systems, resulting in surface water accumulation. The World Bank notes that urbanisation exacerbates this problem by increasing non-permeable surfaces and adding channels that amplify peak water flow during floods.
  • (b) Coastal Flooding: As explained by the UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR), this occurs primarily due to storm surges and strong winds, especially when they coincide with high tides. These surges are typically caused by rising sea levels due to low atmospheric pressure.
  • (c) Fluvial Flooding: This form of flooding results when rivers overflow their banks because of heavy rainfall or melting snow. The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) describes it as a sudden rise in water levels, which then recede gradually. The threat becomes serious when human settlements encroach upon floodplains, increasing vulnerability.

Apart from these, urban areas also frequently experience flash floods, which are sudden and highly localized events that occur within a short time frame—typically between three to six hours. In India, these are often triggered by cloudbursts, which involve extremely intense rainfall over a short period. Additionally, states in the Himalayan region face growing risks from glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs), caused by the rising number of glacial lakes formed from rapidly melting glaciers

 

4. Urban Local Bodies (ULB)

 

“In order for cities to invest in climate resilience and undertake mitigation and adaptation measures, they must have the authority and independence to make and execute decisions,” stated Auguste Tano Kouame, the World Bank’s Country Director for India, during a press briefing. He added that while some argue this autonomy hinges on the complete enforcement of the 74th Constitutional Amendment, others hold differing views.

  • The 74th Constitutional Amendment Act (1992) accorded constitutional recognition to Urban Local Bodies (ULBs), aiming to empower them and promote decentralized governance. However, as of 2022, audits show that several states are yet to implement its provisions in full.

  • India’s journey in urban governance began with the establishment of its first municipal corporation in Madras (now Chennai) in 1687, followed by similar institutions in Bombay and Calcutta. In 1882, Lord Ripon, widely regarded as the father of local self-government in India, laid the groundwork for democratic urban governance through his landmark resolution.

  • Urban Local Bodies—including Municipal Corporations, Municipalities, and Nagar Panchayats—form the core of city-level governance. These institutions serve as the primary interface between the government and urban residents, tasked with providing essential services like sanitation, waste management, and town planning.

  • Part IX-A of the Constitution outlines the structure, functions, and powers of these bodies, authorizing them to manage a broad spectrum of urban services such as land use planning, public health, and infrastructure.

  • The 12th Schedule of the Constitution lists 18 specific functions delegated to ULBs. It also mandates regular elections every five years, with councillors elected from defined local wards. While the mayor holds a ceremonial position, administrative control largely rests with the municipal commissioner, typically an officer appointed by the state.

  • Despite their wide-ranging responsibilities, many municipal bodies struggle with insufficient funding, limited manpower, and growing urban challenges, stretching their capacities across functions from garbage collection to city infrastructure.

  • In response to these constraints, the Union Budget 2025–26 proposed the creation of a ₹1 lakh crore Urban Challenge Fund. This initiative aims to promote urban growth through projects such as ‘Cities as Growth Hubs,’ creative redevelopment efforts, and enhanced water and sanitation infrastructure

 

 5. What is the urban heat island effect?

 

  • The urban heat island (UHI) effect refers to the phenomenon where urban areas experience significantly higher temperatures than their surrounding rural regions. This temperature difference arises primarily due to human activities and the way cities are built.
  • In urban settings, natural landscapes like forests, wetlands, and open soil are replaced with concrete, asphalt, and buildings. These artificial surfaces absorb and retain heat from the sun during the day and release it slowly at night, causing cities to remain warmer for longer periods.
  • In contrast, rural areas with more vegetation and open land tend to cool down more quickly after sunset because plants and soil do not store as much heat.
  • Several factors contribute to the UHI effect. One major cause is the lack of greenery and open spaces in cities. Trees and vegetation help cool the air through a process called transpiration, where they release water vapor.
  • When greenery is replaced by impermeable surfaces, this cooling effect is lost. Additionally, high-density buildings trap heat and reduce air circulation, further intensifying the warmth.
  • Human activities such as the use of air conditioners, vehicles, factories, and lighting also release heat into the environment, adding to the overall temperature. The widespread use of dark-colored roofing and pavement materials, which absorb more heat than lighter surfaces, further exacerbates the problem.
  • The UHI effect can have serious consequences. It increases the energy demand for cooling, especially during summer, leading to higher electricity consumption and emissions.
  • It also worsens air pollution and can negatively impact public health, particularly for vulnerable groups like the elderly and children. During heatwaves, the elevated temperatures in urban areas can result in a higher number of heat-related illnesses and fatalities.
  • To mitigate the UHI effect, strategies such as increasing urban green cover, using reflective or "cool" roofing materials, improving building designs, and enhancing city ventilation through proper planning are being promoted globally

 

6.10-Point City Climate Action Plan

 

Assess Risk & Plan for Climate Action

  1. Local climate and disaster risk assessment, Monitoring and Evaluation

Invest in Disaster Resilience & Climate Adaptation

  1. Impact-based, multi-hazard, warning and response

  2. Climate-sensitive new urban development

  3. Floods and heat stress resilience

  4. Prioritize the urban poor and vulnerable

  5. Private sector’s role in risk transfer and resilience

Invest in Resilient & Green Development

  1. Compact and green city expansion, densification

  2. Efficient, resilient, green municipal services – SWM (Solid Waste Management)

  3. Resilient and green construction – new housing

  4. Resilient and green public transport

 
For Prelims: Urban Local Bodies (ULB),  74th Amendment, Urban heat island
 
For Mains: GS I & II - Geography & Polity
 
Previous Year Questions
 

1.Which of the following is/are true regarding Urban Local Bodies in India? (UPSC CAPF 2014)

1. The Constitution’s 74th Amendment Act envisages three types of urban local bodies, namely Nagar Panchayat, Municipal Council, and Municipal Corporation.

2. Municipal Corporations are established in cities with a population greater than 1 million.

3. Bombay and Calcutta Corporations were the first Municipal Corporations that were established during British time.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 2 only

(c) 1 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer (a)
 
Source: Indianexpress
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