2. Conflict Over Governors' Assent to Bills

• In the ongoing conflict between states governed by opposition parties and their Governors appointed by the President on the Centre's advice, a recent development has emerged.
• Over the past year, several states, including Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, and Punjab, have taken legal recourse by approaching the Supreme Court regarding Governors withholding assent to Bills for extended periods.
• This situation underscores a larger issue concerning the balance of powers and the functioning of state legislatures within India's federal structure.

3. Governor's Role in Lawmaking

• Article 200 of the Constitution delineates the role of the Governor in the legislative process. After a Bill has been passed by the state legislature, it must be presented to the Governor. Subsequently, the Governor holds three options: to give assent to the Bill, withhold assent, or reserve the Bill for consideration by the President.
• In cases where assent is withheld, Article 200 allows the Governor to return the Bill to the legislature, accompanied by a message requesting reconsideration of the Bill or specific provisions. If the Bill is passed again by the legislature, with or without amendments, and presented to the Governor for assent, the Governor is obligated to grant assent.
• However, the absence of a stipulated timeline in the article has led to ambiguity and disputes. Governors have frequently withheld assent to Bills for prolonged periods, leaving them and the state legislature in a state of uncertainty. This lack of clarity has prompted states to seek intervention from the Supreme Court to resolve the issue.

4. President's Role in the Legislative Process

• Article 201 of the Constitution outlines the role of the President in the legislative process, particularly when a Bill is sent for consideration after being passed by a state legislature.
• If a Bill is sent to the President for consideration, the President can choose to either give assent or withhold assent, as specified in Article 201.
• In cases where assent is withheld, the President requests the Governor to return the Bill to the state legislature for reconsideration.
• The state government then has a period of six months to reconsider the Bill; failing to do so results in the Bill lapsing.
• If the Bill is reconsidered and passed once again by the state legislature, it must be sent back to the President for assessment.
• Unlike the Governor, the President is not obliged to give assent when reviewing the reconsidered Bill.
• This scenario represents the only instance where state governments do not have the final say in their own lawmaking process, as the decision ultimately rests with the President.

5. Issues Raised by the Kerala Government

The Kerala government has raised significant concerns regarding the actions of Governor Khan and President Murmu, terming them as "manifestly arbitrary" actions that violate fundamental rights and constitutional provisions.

• The petition filed by the Kerala government argues that the actions of Governor Khan and President Murmu are "manifestly arbitrary," indicating unreasonable and irrational decision-making. This characterization points to a violation of the right to equality, as such actions lack justification and fairness.
• The Kerala government's petition asserts that the decision to keep Bills pending without making a prompt decision violates Article 200 of the Constitution. The provision mandates that the Governor should decide on Bills "as soon as possible" after presentation. By not adhering to this requirement, the Governor's actions are seen as undermining the functioning of the state legislature and rendering it ineffective.
• The petition further argues that the prolonged withholding of assent by the Governor has subverted the functioning of the state legislature, rendering it ineffective and serving no practical purpose. This challenges the essence of legislative processes and the role of the Governor in the lawmaking procedure.
• Regarding President Murmu's decision to withhold assent to four Bills without providing reasons, the Kerala government contends that this action violates Article 201 of the Constitution. Article 201 stipulates that the President should return a Bill with recommended amendments if the assent is withheld, emphasizing the need for transparency and reasons for such decisions.

6. Governors' Actions and State Governments' Responses

Several states have encountered challenges related to Governors' actions in withholding assent to Bills and other matters, leading to disputes and legal interventions.

• Tamil Nadu's Experience: In November last year, the Supreme Court expressed concern over Tamil Nadu Governor R N Ravi withholding assent to 10 Bills enacted by the state legislature, some pending since January 2020. This action was criticized for its prolonged nature and lack of reasons provided. Additionally, disputes between Tamil Nadu's DMK government and Governor Ravi have been ongoing, including disagreements over ministerial appointments.
• Telangana's Grievance: Similarly, the Telangana government approached the Supreme Court in March 2023 due to former Governor Tamilisai Soundarajan's refusal to give assent to 10 Bills passed by the legislative assembly. Although Soundarajan eventually gave her assent, the delay and disputes highlighted tensions between the state government and the Governor's office.
• Legal Perspectives and Court Interventions: The issue of elected governments being subject to Governors' decisions, particularly in opposition-led states like Telangana. Despite legal arguments and requests for court directions, the Supreme Court refrained from passing detailed orders, emphasizing the constitutional intent behind timely decision-making as per Article 200.
• Political Dynamics and Future Implications: It's notable that Soundarajan, previously involved in assent disputes, is now a BJP candidate for the Lok Sabha elections. This political context adds complexity to the relationship between state governments and Governors, highlighting the ongoing challenges and potential implications for governance and constitutional principles.

7. Governor's Authority in Withholding Assent to Bills

• In November 2023, the Supreme Court deliberated on the issue of whether a Governor could withhold assent to Bills passed by the state legislature if they believed the session where the Bills were passed was convened illegally.
• This matter arose from Punjab, where Governor Banwarilal Purohit refused to give assent to four Bills passed by the Punjab Assembly, citing legal advice indicating a breach of law and procedure in their passage. Despite this, the Bills were not returned to the Assembly for reconsideration.
• The Supreme Court ruled that Governors do not possess the authority to obstruct the regular process of lawmaking by state legislatures.
• It clarified that the phrase "as soon as possible" in Article 200 implies that Governors cannot indefinitely delay action on Bills without any justification.
• The court emphasized that if a Governor chooses to withhold assent, they must adhere to the procedure outlined in the first proviso of Article 200, which involves returning the Bill to the state legislature for reconsideration.
• While the court outlined the responsibilities of Governors in the lawmaking process, it refrained from specifying a definitive timeline for Governors to make decisions on Bills.
• This omission has prompted the Kerala government to approach the Supreme Court seeking clarification on the issue.

8. The Way Forward

Addressing the challenges related to the Governor's assent requires a multi-dimensional approach that balances constitutional mandates, legal clarity, political responsibility, and public participation. Collaborative efforts among stakeholders and judicious use of constitutional mechanisms are key to ensuring robust and accountable governance in the legislative domain.

GAGANYAAN

1. Context 

Before it sends the actual human spaceflight mission under the Gaganyaan programme, the ISRO has been conducting simulation missions — known as ‘analog’ experiments — during which selected astronauts are spending several days in confined spacecraft-like conditions.

2. Gaganyaan Mission

• Gaganyaan, meaning "Sky Craft" in Sanskrit, is India's ambitious human spaceflight program aimed at sending Indian astronauts to space.
• It is a testament to India's growing prowess in the field of space exploration and a source of immense national pride.
• The program, spearheaded by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), envisions launching a crewed orbital spacecraft into low Earth orbit (LEO) for a period of up to seven days.
• The spacecraft will carry three astronauts, marking a historic first for India.

3. About The TV-D1 Mission

• The TV-D1 mission consists of two abort missions designed to test the safety mechanisms that will allow the Gaganyaan crew to escape the spacecraft during emergencies.
• In this mission, a rocket will ascend to an altitude of nearly 17 km before an abort signal triggers the separation of the crew module.
• The crew module will then descend using a parachute for a splashdown in the Bay of Bengal.
• The TV-D1 mission will have a total duration of 532 seconds, from liftoff at 8 a.m. to the crew module's splashdown about 10 km from the Sriharikota coast.
• The rocket used for this mission is ISRO's low-cost Test Vehicle, designed specifically for system testing.
• During the flight, the rocket will reach a peak relative velocity of 363 meters per second, approximately 1307 km per hour. It's important to note that the crew module will be empty for this test.

4. Key Objectives of the TV-D1 Mission

The TV-D1 mission serves two primary objectives.

1. It aims to demonstrate the capabilities of the new Test Vehicle, hence its name Test Vehicle-Demonstration 1 (TV-D1).
2. It will showcase a basic version of the crew module, testing the systems responsible for separating the crew module from the rocket during an abort mission and ensuring the safe escape of astronauts.

The TV-D1 mission simulates an abort condition during the ascent trajectory, corresponding to a Mach number of 1.2, as anticipated in the Gaganyaan mission.

5. The Low-Cost Test Vehicle

• Unlike the upcoming full-fledged test flight of the crew module into space and back, which will use the human-rated LVM3 rocket in 2024, the TV-D1 mission employs a low-cost basic rocket.
• This Test Vehicle utilizes existing liquid propulsion technology but introduces innovations such as the throttleable and restartable L110 Vikas engine, capable of controlling propellant use.
• ISRO developed this cost-effective solution as each GSLV Mk III launch, which was previously used for such missions, costs between Rs 300-400 crore.

6. Safety and Crew Escape System

• Safety remains a top priority for ISRO in the Gaganyaan project, especially in light of international incidents involving space missions.
• The TV-D1 mission aims to test the systems ensuring the crew module's safety, such as environmental control, life support systems, and an integrated vehicle health management system.
• This system can detect anomalies that may jeopardize astronauts' safety and initiate mission abort procedures.

7. Preparations and Timeline for Gaganyaan

• ISRO has set a target timeframe for the Gaganyaan mission in 2024, with flexibility based on the development stages and ensuring the mission's safety.
• The schedule includes an unmanned mission at the beginning of the next year, abort missions this year, and discussions of the manned mission for late 2024 or early 2025.
• ISRO has completed the human rating of the LVM 3 rocket and performed static tests for human-rated solid rocket boosters.

8. Conclusion

The TV-D1 mission represents a significant milestone in the Gaganyaan program, as it integrates a near-complete system for a flight test. The success of this mission paved the way for further qualification tests and unmanned missions, ultimately leading to the first Gaganyaan mission with Indian astronauts. ISRO's dedication to safety and rigorous testing is paramount as India advances its space exploration endeavours.

 

For Prelims: Gaganyaan programme, TV-D1 mission, Low Earth Orbit, Isro, LVM3, GSLV Mk III,  For Mains:  1. Discuss the key objectives of the TV-D1 mission within the Gaganyaan program. How does this mission contribute to astronaut safety and the overall success of Gaganyaan? (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. With reference to India's satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2018) 1. PSLVs launch satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites. 2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth. 3. GSLV Mk III is a four-stage launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 C. 1 and 2 D. 3 only Answer: A   2. India's first human space mission "Gaganyaan" will be launched in which year? (ESIC UDC 2022) A. 2022          B. 2023          C. 2024          D. 2025      E.  2026   Answer: B   3. Find the incorrect statements, about the Gaganyaan Mission of India. (MPSC 2020) 1. Four pilots from Indian Air Force were shortlisted to be astronauts of Gaganyaan. 2. They will be trained at Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Centre in Russia. 3. This mission was announced by Prime Minister in 2014. 4. It is scheduled for 2022 with a team of 5 crew members and a month-long stay in space. A. 1, 2, 3, 4     B.  2, 3, 4           C. 3, 4          D. 2, 3   Answer: C   4. ISRO is related to: (SSC JE EE 2020) A. space research      B. agricultural research          C. seed research          D. marine research Answer: A   5.  Which of the following pairs is/are correctly matched? (UPSC 2014) Spacecraft                                    Purpose Cassini-Huygens:                  Orbiting the Venus and transmitting data to the Earth Messenger:                             Mapping and investigating the Mercury Voyager 1 and 2:                    Exploring the outer solar system Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only         (b) 2 and 3 only          (c) 1 and 3 only          (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: B 6. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2016) The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO 1. is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission 2. made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA 3. made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit the Mars in its very first attempt Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only        (b) 2 and 3 only          (c) 1 and 3 only            (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: C

Source: The Indian Express

 

 

ARTIFICIAL GENERAL INTELLIGENCE (AGI)

 

 

 

1. Context

Artificial Intelligence, technology and innovation will be the driving forces of India’s growth story, said the Union Commerce and Industry Minister,Shri Piyush Goyal while addressing the 58th Convocation Ceremony of the Indian Institute of Foreign Trade (IIFT), New Delhi today. Congratulating the graduating class of 2025, the Minister lauded their achievements and called upon them to harness their skills, agility, and vision to lead the country towards Viksit Bharat 2047

 

2. What is artificial intelligence (AI)? 

• AGI refers to a machine or software capable of executing any intellectual task within the human capacity. AGI aims to replicate human cognitive functions, enabling it to tackle unfamiliar challenges, learn from novel experiences, and apply acquired knowledge innovatively.

• The primary distinction between AGI and the more prevalent form of AI, termed narrow AI, lies in their breadth and capabilities. Narrow AI is engineered for specific tasks like image recognition, translation, or strategic games like chess, where it can surpass human performance, yet it remains constrained within predefined parameters. Conversely, AGI envisions a broader, more generalized intelligence akin to humans, not confined to singular tasks, which positions it as the pinnacle of AI advancements.

• The concept of AGI first surfaced in the 20th century through a seminal paper by Alan Turing, renowned as the progenitor of theoretical computer science and artificial intelligence.

• Theoretically, AGI holds vast potential across diverse domains such as healthcare, education, finance, and commerce.

• Despite the promising prospects of AGI, it elicits widespread concerns for various reasons. Notably, the immense computational resources required for AGI development raise apprehensions regarding its environmental impact, stemming from energy consumption and e-waste generation. Additionally, AGI adoption could precipitate significant job displacement and exacerbate socioeconomic disparities.

• AGI deployment may introduce novel security vulnerabilities, and its rapid advancement might outpace regulatory frameworks established by governments and international bodies. Moreover, reliance on AGI could potentially erode fundamental human skills and capabilities. Yet, the most pressing concern surrounding AGI is the possibility of its capabilities surpassing human comprehension, rendering its actions unpredictable and challenging to decipher

3. What are the different categories of AI?

 

Artificial Intelligence (AI) can be categorized into various types based on their capabilities and functionalities.

Here are the main categories:

• Narrow AI (Weak AI): Narrow AI is designed to perform specific tasks within a limited domain. These AI systems excel at performing one particular task or a set of closely related tasks, but they lack the ability to generalize or adapt to new situations outside their predefined scope. Examples of narrow AI include virtual assistants like Siri or Alexa, recommendation systems, spam filters, and autonomous vehicles.

• General AI (Strong AI): General AI refers to AI systems with the ability to understand, learn, and apply knowledge across different domains, similar to human intelligence. These systems possess cognitive abilities that enable them to solve a wide range of problems and tasks, adapt to new environments, and learn from experience. True general AI, which is capable of performing any intellectual task that a human can do, remains a theoretical concept and has not yet been achieved.

• Artificial Superintelligence (ASI): Artificial Superintelligence is an advanced form of AI that surpasses human intelligence in virtually every aspect. ASI would possess cognitive abilities far superior to the most intelligent human beings and could potentially solve complex problems and challenges beyond human comprehension. Achieving ASI remains a subject of speculation and debate in the field of AI research

4. What are the areas of AI application?

 

AI has a wide range of applications across various sectors and industries. Some of the key areas of AI application include:

• Healthcare: AI is used for medical image analysis, disease diagnosis, personalized treatment recommendation, drug discovery, patient monitoring, and healthcare management systems.

• Finance: In finance, AI is employed for algorithmic trading, fraud detection, risk assessment, credit scoring, customer service automation, and investment portfolio management.

• Education: AI applications in education include personalized learning platforms, intelligent tutoring systems, automated grading systems, adaptive learning tools, and educational content creation.

• Retail: In retail, AI is used for demand forecasting, inventory management, customer segmentation, recommendation systems, pricing optimization, and supply chain management.

• Transportation: AI is utilized in autonomous vehicles, traffic management systems, route optimization, predictive maintenance of vehicles, ride-sharing platforms, and logistics optimization.

• Manufacturing: AI applications in manufacturing include predictive maintenance, quality control, supply chain optimization, robotic automation, production scheduling, and process optimization.

• Customer Service: AI-powered chatbots and virtual assistants are used for customer support, helpdesk automation, natural language understanding, sentiment analysis, and personalized customer engagement.

• Marketing and Advertising: AI is used for targeted advertising, content recommendation, customer segmentation, sentiment analysis, campaign optimization, and social media analytics.

• Cybersecurity: AI is employed for threat detection, anomaly detection, malware analysis, behavior analysis, network security, and incident response in cybersecurity applications.

• Natural Language Processing (NLP): NLP applications include language translation, sentiment analysis, chatbots, speech recognition, text summarization, and language generation.

What is the Turing test?   The Turing test, proposed by British mathematician and computer scientist Alan Turing in 1950, is a test of a machine's ability to exhibit intelligent behavior indistinguishable from that of a human. The test is based on the premise that if a machine can engage in natural language conversation with a human evaluator to the extent that the evaluator cannot reliably distinguish between the machine and a human, then the machine is considered to possess artificial general intelligence (AGI). Here's how the Turing test typically works: A human evaluator interacts with both a human and a machine (hidden from view) through text-based communication channels, such as a computer terminal. The evaluator engages in a conversation with both the human and the machine, asking questions or engaging in dialogue on various topics. If the evaluator cannot reliably determine which participant is the machine and which is the human based on their responses, then the machine is said to have passed the Turing test. The test does not require the machine to demonstrate understanding or consciousness, only the ability to simulate human-like conversation convincingly.

 

 

5. What are the challenges associated with AGI?

 

Achieving Artificial General Intelligence (AGI) poses numerous challenges, both technical and ethical.

Some of the key challenges associated with AGI include:

• Complexity of Human Intelligence: Human intelligence is multifaceted and encompasses various cognitive abilities, including perception, reasoning, problem-solving, creativity, and emotional intelligence. Replicating these diverse capabilities in an AI system presents a significant technical challenge.

• Generalization and Adaptation: AGI systems must be able to generalize their knowledge and skills across different domains and adapt to new environments, tasks, and situations. Achieving robust generalization and adaptation capabilities remains a major research challenge in AI.

• Ethical and Societal Implications: The development and deployment of AGI raise ethical concerns regarding its potential impact on society, including issues related to job displacement, socioeconomic inequality, privacy, autonomy, and existential risks. Ensuring the responsible and ethical use of AGI is crucial but challenging.

• Safety and Control: AGI systems could potentially exhibit unpredictable behavior or unintended consequences, posing safety risks to humans and the environment. Ensuring the safety and controllability of AGI systems, including mechanisms for robust error handling and human oversight, is a critical challenge.

• Explainability and Interpretability: AGI systems are expected to make decisions and take actions autonomously, raising concerns about their transparency and interpretability. Ensuring that AGI systems can provide explanations for their decisions and actions in a human-understandable manner is essential for trust and accountability.

• Data Quality and Bias: AGI systems rely heavily on data for learning and decision-making, and the quality of the data can significantly impact their performance and behavior. Addressing issues such as data bias, fairness, and representativeness is crucial to prevent AI systems from perpetuating existing societal biases and inequalities.

• Resource Constraints: Building and training AGI systems require significant computational resources, including high-performance computing infrastructure and large-scale datasets. Overcoming resource constraints while ensuring scalability and efficiency is a practical challenge in AGI research.

• Interdisciplinary Collaboration: Achieving AGI requires collaboration across various disciplines, including computer science, cognitive science, neuroscience, psychology, philosophy, and ethics. Bridging the gap between these disciplines and integrating diverse perspectives is essential for advancing AGI research effectively

 

 

For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance For Mains: GS-III: Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, robotics, nano-technology, bio-technology and issues relating to intellectual property rights.

 

 

Previous Year Questions 1.With the present state of development, Artificial Intelligence can effectively do which of the following? (UPSC CSE 2020) 1. Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units 2. Create meaningful short stories and songs 3. Disease diagnosis 4. Text-to-Speech Conversion 5. Wireless transmission of electrical energy Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only  (c) 2, 4 and 5 only  (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 Answer (b) (b) 1, 3, and 4 only Explanation: Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units - AI can optimize energy usage and reduce consumption in industrial settings through predictive maintenance and optimization algorithms. Create meaningful short stories and songs - While AI can generate text and music, creating truly meaningful and original artistic content remains a challenge. Disease diagnosis - AI has demonstrated capabilities in disease diagnosis through medical imaging analysis, pattern recognition, and data-driven diagnostics. Text-to-Speech Conversion - AI can effectively convert text into speech with high accuracy and natural-sounding voice synthesis. Wireless transmission of electrical energy - While AI may be involved in optimizing energy transmission systems, the direct wireless transmission of electrical energy is primarily a technological and engineering challenge, not directly related to AI capabilities

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

 

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

 

 

1. Context

A fraction of 2024 global military spending annually could help meet multiple SDGs: UN 10% ends poverty, vaccinates all 15% finances climate adaptation 5% ensures safe water, sanitation

 

2. Background

• Seven years after the adoption of Sustainable Development Goals (SDG)  halfway to the 2030 deadline the visionary promises of no poverty, zero hunger, good health and well-being, social justice and a rights-based, equitable and ecologically just world for all appear to be a distant dream.
• The Global People’s Assembly (GPA), organised by the Global Call to Action against Poverty (GCAP) during the 77th session of the United Nations General Assembly in September 2022, highlighted the fact that nations across the globe have failed to achieve both human security and climate change mitigation
• GPA voiced the concerns of 1,300 civil society participants from 127 countries representing diverse, excluded and marginalised people.
• The 2019 Social Progress Index, compiled by the United States-based non-profit Social Progress Imperative, ranked 149 countries’ social performance over the past five years. It forecast that at the current trends, the world will not meet the 2030 targets for SDGs until 2073 more than four decades past their target date
• It maintained that the biggest areas of underperformance are related to water and sanitation, nutrition, basic healthcare and shelter

3. Localising SDG's

 

• In Keonjhar district of Odisha, Out of 65 families in the village, multiple members of 45 families were affected by kidney ailments
• Occurrence of unnatural deaths at an average age of 45 has been a trend for the last several decades
• The residents blamed it on the quality of water they have to consume from the local sources
• Various government schemes for poverty alleviation, free housing, job guarantee and social security pension have failed to provide the villagers a secured and dignified life
• The Indian government’s endeavours towards localising the SDGs, which emphasises on aligning the local plans of the states and the Union territories with the SDGs scheme, seem to be quite promising
• However, they are still at a nascent stage and the result is yet to be reflected on the ground. 

4. African Countries 

• African countries are performing poorly in all aspects of SDGs, especially poverty, hunger, education, peace and justice
• The condition of people living in informal settlements in African countries like Kenya is miserable, Jane Anyango, director of Polycom, an organisation that works for women living in informal settlements, pointed out at the GPA
• The residents who already suffer scarcity of drinking water had a hard time maintaining hand hygiene
• Many people died of COVID-19 because they could not afford protective measures and medical facilities, she elaborated
• People in Kenya are losing hope and cases of suicide are shooting up in the current drought situation

5. Vaccine inequality

• Vaccine inequality between the countries of global South and Global North in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic is a serious matter of concern, pointed out people’s representatives at the GPA
• Countries like Haiti, Madagascar and Nigeria had never heard of life saving antivirals for COVID despite being accessible widely in the global north, said Dr Fifa Rahman, civil society representative of the Access to COVID-19 Tools (ACT) Accelerator
• ACT-Accelerator is a global collaboration to accelerate development, production, and equitable access to COVID-19 tests, treatments, and vaccines
• The GPA urged the nations to establish a global roadmap for vaccine equality to ensure free and universal access to all vaccines and treatments, prioritising the most marginalized countries, people and communities to ensure that No One is Left Behind

6. Countries Catalysing the Climate Actions

• Apart from the pandemic and human rights crises, the world is also faced with a climate crisis. Most nations have done “too little, too late” towards achieving SDG 13 (climate action)
• Developing countries like India and Kenya as well as industrialised countries like the European Union, the United Kingdom and South Africa are on track to achieving goals associated with limiting global warming to 1.5-2 degrees Celsius over pre-industrial levels
• However, developed countries like the US, Japan and Canada are lagging behind the target
• #FridaysForFuture is a youth-led global movement joined by thousands on the streets of New York on Fridays to put pressure on the leaders to catalyse climate actions to secure a peaceful, clean and green planet for the future
• The global- and national-level planning to achieve SDGs must incorporate the points of the declaration prepared by GPA
• It has galvanised the voices of the most marginalised communities and focused on issues like vaccine equality, democracy and human rights, gender equity, needs to meet Paris Climate Agreement as well as debt and economic justice

 

For Prelims: Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), Paris Climate Agreement,  ACT-accelerator For Mains:  1. Sustainable development does not stop at the Sustainability of the environment. It also requires sustainability of economic and Social Systems. Comment (250 Words)

 

 

Previous year Questions: 1. Consider the following statements 1. The Sustainable Development Goals were first proposed in 1972 by a global think tank called the 'Club of Rome 2. Sustainable Development goals has to be achieved by the year 2030 Which of the statements given above is/ are correct A. 1 Only            B. 2 Only                   C. Both 1 and 2                 D. Neither 1 Nor 2   Answer (B)

 

Source: DowToEarth

 

 

SOUTHWEST MONSOON

 

 

1. Context

The winds of the Southwest Monsoon (SWM) season may have possibly crossed the western Himalayan mountain range and reached Tibet, according to a scientifically trained observer. If this has indeed happened, it would be an extraordinary meteorological event.

 

2. What is the southwest monsoon?

 

• The southwest monsoon is a seasonal weather pattern that brings significant rainfall to large parts of South Asia, particularly India, between June and September
• The southwest monsoon typically begins in early June and lasts until late September. It starts with the arrival of the monsoon winds in the southern part of India, usually marked by the onset over the state of Kerala

• The southwest monsoon brings about 70-90% of India’s annual rainfall. The distribution of rainfall varies, with some regions receiving heavy rains, while others may experience scanty showers.
• The Western Ghats, the northeastern states, and the Himalayan foothills typically receive very heavy rainfall.
• The monsoon is critical for the Kharif crop season in India, which includes crops like rice, maize, pulses, and cotton. Adequate and timely monsoon rains are essential for a good harvest
• The monsoon starts retreating from northwestern India in early September and completely withdraws from the Indian subcontinent by mid-October. This phase is also known as the retreating or northeast monsoon

Mechanism:

• High-Pressure Area: During the summer, intense heating of the landmass in the Indian subcontinent creates a low-pressure area over northern India and the Tibetan Plateau.
• Low-Pressure Area: The Indian Ocean remains relatively cooler, creating a high-pressure area.
• Wind Movement: Air moves from the high-pressure area over the ocean to the low-pressure area over the land, carrying moisture from the ocean and resulting in rainfall.

The monsoon trough is an elongated area of low pressure extending from the heat low over Pakistan and northwestern India to the Bay of Bengal. It influences the distribution and intensity of the monsoon rains.

 

3. What are easterly and westerly winds?

 

Easterly Winds

 

• Easterly and westerly winds refer to the direction from which the winds originate
• Easterly winds are winds that blow from the east towards the west
• Easterly winds can affect weather patterns, including the development of tropical storms and cyclones. For instance, easterly waves in the tropics can lead to the formation of tropical cyclones in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans

Characteristics:

• Trade Winds: One of the most well-known examples of easterly winds are the trade winds. These winds blow from the east towards the west in the tropics, from the subtropical high-pressure areas toward the equatorial low-pressure areas.
• Tropical Regions: In the tropical regions, particularly between 30 degrees north and south of the equator, easterly winds are prevalent. These are crucial for the weather patterns and climatic conditions in these regions.
• Monsoon Winds: During certain seasons, such as the northeast monsoon in India, easterly winds play a significant role. These winds bring dry air from the land towards the ocean during the winter months.

Westerly Winds

 

• Westerly winds are winds that blow from the west towards the east

• Westerly winds play a significant role in the weather of temperate regions, influencing the climate and the movement of storm systems.
• They are also responsible for carrying warm and moist air from the oceans inland, affecting precipitation patterns in coastal and inland regions.
• The westerlies can affect transoceanic travel and weather prediction due to their influence on the movement of high and low-pressure systems

Characteristics:

• Prevailing Westerlies: These winds are predominant in the mid-latitudes (between 30 and 60 degrees north and south of the equator). They blow from the subtropical high-pressure belts towards the poles.
• Jet Streams: High-altitude westerly winds known as jet streams are important in influencing weather patterns and the movement of weather systems across the globe. They are fast flowing and occur in the upper levels of the atmosphere.
• Polar Front: In the mid-latitudes, the westerlies interact with polar easterlies near the polar front, leading to the development of extratropical cyclones and storms

 

 

4.How does monsoon occur in India?

Monsoons in India occur due to seasonal changes in wind patterns and temperature differences between land and sea.

Here's a concise explanation of the process:

• Differential heating: During summer, the Indian landmass heats up more quickly than the surrounding Indian Ocean.
• Low pressure system: The heated land creates a low-pressure area over the Indian subcontinent.
• Wind direction shift: This low pressure draws in moisture-laden winds from the cooler Indian Ocean towards the land.
• Orographic lift: As these winds encounter geographical features like the Western Ghats or the Himalayas, they are forced to rise.
• Condensation and precipitation: The rising air cools, causing water vapor to condense and form clouds, leading to heavy rainfall.
• Duration: This pattern typically lasts from June to September, bringing the majority of India's annual rainfall.

 

5.What are the conditions that determine the onset of monsoon?

 

• The primary driver is the temperature difference between the land and the surrounding sea. During summer, the land heats up faster than the ocean, creating a low-pressure area over the land and a high-pressure area over the ocean. This pressure difference leads to the movement of moist air from the ocean to the land
• Warm sea surface temperatures are crucial as they increase the evaporation rate, contributing to the formation of moist air masses that drive the monsoon rains.
• The monsoon winds, which are part of the larger atmospheric circulation, shift according to the seasonal temperature differences. The southwest monsoon, for instance, is driven by the southwest winds that carry moisture from the Indian Ocean to the Indian subcontinent.
• The geographical features, such as mountain ranges, play a significant role. For example, the Western Ghats in India force moist air to rise, cool, and condense, leading to heavy rainfall on the windward side
• The movement and strength of the high-pressure systems over the oceans and low-pressure systems over the land influence the intensity and timing of the monsoon.
• Phenomena such as El Niño and La Niña can affect the strength and timing of the monsoon. For example, El Niño can lead to weaker monsoons due to altered wind patterns and sea surface temperatures

6.What is the impact of La-Nina and El Nino on monsoon?

 

La Niña and El Niño, both phases of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon, have significant impacts on the monsoon patterns around the world.

 

Here’s how each affects the monsoon:

El Niño

• El Niño is generally associated with a weaker Indian monsoon. The warming of the central and eastern Pacific Ocean during El Niño tends to disrupt the normal atmospheric circulation patterns, leading to reduced rainfall over the Indian subcontinent.
• The onset of the monsoon can be delayed, and the overall intensity of the rainfall during the monsoon season might be lower than usual
•  El Niño often brings drier conditions to Southeast Asia and northern Australia, leading to droughts and reduced rainfall
• Eastern and southern Africa may experience drier conditions as well

La Niña

• La Niña, characterized by cooler-than-average sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific Ocean, is typically associated with a stronger Indian monsoon. It often leads to increased rainfall over the Indian subcontinent
• The enhanced monsoon can lead to heavier rains and potentially more frequent and intense flooding
• La Niña tends to bring wetter conditions to Southeast Asia and northern Australia, potentially causing heavy rains and flooding
• La Niña can lead to wetter conditions in parts of northern South America

 

7.Way Forward

 

The intermittent development of a wind shear zone — where winds move with different velocities and directions — along latitudes 20 ° N between central and peninsular India

 

 

 

For Prelims: Indian and World Geography For Mains: GS-I, GS-III: Important Geophysical phenomena and environment

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2012)   1. The duration of the monsoon decreases from southern India to northern India. 2. The amount of annual rainfall in the northern plains of India decreases from east to west.   Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 Only B. 2 Only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor Answer (C) The duration of the monsoon indeed decreases from southern India to northern India. The southern part of India experiences the monsoon earlier and for a longer duration compared to the northern part. The amount of annual rainfall in the northern plains of India decreases from east to west. The eastern part of the northern plains receives more rainfall compared to the western part, largely due to the influence of the Bay of Bengal branch of the Southwest Monsoon.

 

 

Source: The Hindu

 

 

PLASTIC WASTE

 

 

1. Context

The nightmare is coming true. Of plastic swamping our cities, choking our lives, shutting the light out

 

2. What is Plastic Waste?

 

• Plastic waste refers to any discarded or abandoned plastic material that is no longer useful or needed. It encompasses a wide range of items made from plastic, including packaging materials, bottles, containers, wrappers, bags, utensils, and various other disposable products.
• Plastic waste can be generated at various stages of production, distribution, consumption, and disposal.
• Plastic waste poses significant environmental challenges due to its durability, persistence, and widespread use.
• Unlike organic materials, plastic takes a long time to decompose naturally, leading to accumulation in landfills, water bodies, and ecosystems. Improper disposal of plastic waste can result in pollution, habitat destruction, harm to wildlife, and negative impacts on human health.
• Efforts to address plastic waste include recycling, waste reduction strategies, alternative materials development, and policy interventions such as plastic bans or taxes. Recycling plastic waste can help mitigate its environmental impact by diverting it from landfills and reducing the demand for virgin plastic production.
• However, challenges such as low recycling rates, limited infrastructure, and contamination issues need to be addressed to improve the effectiveness of plastic waste management efforts

3. What are the different types of plastic waste?

 

Plastic waste can be categorized into various types based on their chemical composition, characteristics, and intended use.

Some of the common types of plastic waste include:

• Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET or PETE): PET is commonly used in the production of beverage bottles, food packaging, and synthetic fibers. It is lightweight, transparent, and has good barrier properties against moisture and gases.

• High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE): HDPE is a versatile plastic used in the manufacturing of bottles for milk, detergent, shampoo, and other household products, as well as plastic bags, pipes, and containers. It is known for its high strength, resistance to chemicals, and durability.

• Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC): PVC is used in a wide range of applications, including construction materials (pipes, window frames), packaging, electrical insulation, and medical devices. It is characterized by its rigidity, durability, and resistance to abrasion and weathering.

• Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE): LDPE is commonly used in flexible packaging materials such as plastic bags, shrink wraps, and films. It is also used in the production of squeeze bottles, tubing, and wire insulation. LDPE is known for its flexibility, toughness, and moisture resistance.

• Polypropylene (PP): PP is used in various applications, including packaging (bottle caps, food containers), textiles, automotive parts, and medical devices. It is valued for its high melting point, chemical resistance, and lightweight properties.

• Polystyrene (PS): PS is used in the production of disposable food containers, packaging materials, insulation, and disposable cutlery. It can exist in both rigid (e.g., foam cups, packaging) and expandable (e.g., foam packaging) forms.

• Other Plastics: This category includes plastics that do not fall into the above categories, such as polycarbonate (PC), acrylic (PMMA), and polyethylene terephthalate glycol-modified (PETG). These plastics are used in various applications, including automotive parts, electronics, and consumer goods

4. Plastic and Climate 

• Since the 1950s, there has been a significant surge in global plastic production. Starting from a mere 2 million tonnes in 1950, it has escalated to over 450 million tonnes by 2019. Projections indicate a doubling of this production by 2050 and a tripling by 2060 if measures are not taken to curb it.
• As per a study released in 2023 by The Lancet, approximately 400 million tonnes of plastic waste is generated annually, with expectations of a 62% increase between 2024 and 2050.
• A considerable portion of this plastic waste finds its way into the environment, particularly into rivers and oceans, where it undergoes fragmentation into smaller particles known as microplastics or nanoplastics. These particles contain over 16,000 chemicals capable of causing harm to ecosystems and organisms, including humans.
• Furthermore, plastic production and disposal contribute to climate change. According to a report from the OECD, plastics were responsible for emitting 1.8 billion tonnes of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in 2019, accounting for 3.4% of global emissions.
• While the details of the treaty are yet to be finalized, experts suggest that it may extend beyond merely imposing caps on plastic production in UN member states. The treaty could potentially outline guidelines on how wealthier nations can assist poorer ones in meeting their plastic reduction targets.
• However, negotiations for the treaty have been highly contentious thus far. Since the inaugural round of talks in Uruguay in November 2022, oil-producing nations such as Saudi Arabia, Russia, and Iran have opposed plastic production caps and have employed various delay tactics, such as procedural disputes, to disrupt constructive dialogues

5. Why is a global plastics treaty needed?

 

A global plastics treaty is needed for several compelling reasons:

 

• Plastic pollution has become a global environmental crisis. Plastic waste contaminates land, water bodies, and ecosystems, leading to habitat destruction, wildlife entanglement, and ingestion. A treaty can provide a framework for coordinated international action to address plastic pollution and protect the environment
• Plastic pollution not only harms the environment but also poses risks to human health. Microplastics, tiny plastic particles resulting from the breakdown of larger plastic items, have been found in food, water, and even the air we breathe.
• These particles can contain toxic chemicals and pollutants, which may pose health risks when ingested or inhaled. A treaty can help regulate plastic production and disposal to safeguard public health
• The production and disposal of plastics contribute to greenhouse gas emissions and climate change. Plastic manufacturing processes release carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, while plastic waste in landfills emits methane, a potent greenhouse gas.
• By addressing plastic production, consumption, and disposal, a global treaty can help mitigate climate change and promote sustainable development
• Plastic pollution knows no borders and can travel long distances through ocean currents and atmospheric transport.
• Efforts to address plastic pollution must therefore be coordinated at the international level to effectively combat this global problem. A global plastics treaty can facilitate cooperation among countries to implement measures for waste management, pollution prevention, and plastic reduction
• Plastics are made from non-renewable fossil fuels, such as oil and natural gas. As global demand for plastics continues to rise, there is growing concern about the depletion of finite resources and the environmental impact of extractive industries.
• A treaty can promote resource conservation and the transition to more sustainable alternatives through measures such as recycling, reuse, and the promotion of biodegradable materials

6. What is the Paris Agreement?

 

The Paris Agreement is an international treaty adopted in December 2015 at the 21st Conference of the Parties (COP21) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) held in Paris, France. It represents a landmark global effort to address climate change by committing countries to undertake actions to limit global warming and its impacts.

Key features of the Paris Agreement include:

 

• Mitigation Goals: The agreement sets a long-term goal to limit the increase in global average temperature to well below 2 degrees Celsius (°C) above pre-industrial levels, and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C. Countries are required to submit nationally determined contributions (NDCs) outlining their efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to climate change.

• Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): Each country determines its own contribution to the global effort to combat climate change based on its national circumstances, capabilities, and priorities. NDCs may include targets for reducing emissions, increasing renewable energy use, enhancing carbon sinks, and implementing adaptation measures.

• Transparency and Accountability: The Paris Agreement includes provisions for transparency and accountability to ensure that countries are fulfilling their commitments. Countries are required to regularly report on their emissions and progress in implementing their NDCs, and to participate in a global stocktake every five years to assess collective progress towards the agreement's goals.

• Adaptation and Support for Developing Countries: The agreement recognizes the importance of adaptation to the impacts of climate change, particularly for vulnerable countries and communities. It calls for increased support for adaptation efforts, including financial assistance, technology transfer, and capacity-building, especially for developing countries.

• Finance and Technology Transfer: The Paris Agreement emphasizes the importance of providing financial resources and technology transfer to support developing countries in their climate action efforts. Developed countries are expected to contribute financial resources to help developing countries transition to low-carbon and climate-resilient development pathways.

 

 

 

For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance, General issues on the Environment For Mains:  GS-II, GS-III, Environment, environmental pollution and degradation, Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s interests

 

Previous Year Questions 1.In India, ‘extend producer responsibility’ was introduced as an important feature in which of the following? (UPSC CSE 2019) (a) The Bio-medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998 (b) The Recycled Plastic (Manufacturing and Usage) Rules, 1999 (c) The e-Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011 (d) The Food Safety and Standard Regulations, 2011 Answer (c) The concept of "extended producer responsibility" (EPR) was introduced as an important feature in the (c) The e-Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011 in India. These rules were established to address the growing concern of electronic waste (e-waste) management and handling in the country

Source: Indianexpress