STAMPEDE
A stampede is a sudden rush or flight of a group of animals or people, usually caused by panic or fear. In the context of animals, it often refers to a herd of large mammals like cattle, horses, or elephants running together in the same direction. For humans, it describes a chaotic situation where a crowd moves rapidly and uncontrollably, often resulting in injuries or fatalities due to trampling or crushing.
Stampedes can be triggered by various factors, such as:
- Sudden loud noises
- Perceived threats
- Natural disasters
- Overcrowding in confined spaces
- Mass panic
Stampedes are particularly dangerous in crowded events or enclosed spaces, as people may be unable to escape the rushing crowd.
3. What causes stampedes?
Stampedes can be caused by several factors:
- Fear or panic: A perceived threat, real or imagined, can trigger a fight-or-flight response in a crowd.
- Overcrowding: When too many people are in a confined space, even small movements can create a domino effect.
- Poor crowd management: Inadequate planning or control of large gatherings can lead to chaotic situations.
- Sudden loud noises: Unexpected sounds like explosions or gunshots can startle a crowd into fleeing.
- Physical pressure: In dense crowds, people at the back pushing forward can create dangerous force on those in front.
- Limited exits: When escape routes are few or narrow, people may rush to leave, creating bottlenecks.
- Misinformation or rumors: False alarms or spreading of incorrect information can cause panic.
- Environmental factors: Extreme weather, fire, or structural collapses can prompt rapid evacuation attempts.
- Mob mentality: People tend to follow the actions of others in a crowd, amplifying panic.
- Cultural or religious events: Large gatherings for festivals or pilgrimages can sometimes lead to stampedes if not managed properly
India has unfortunately experienced several major stampedes. Here are some notable cases:
- Kumbh Mela stampede (2013): At least 36 people died at the Allahabad railway station during the Kumbh Mela festival.
- Ratangarh temple stampede (2013): Over 100 people died near a temple in Madhya Pradesh when rumors of a bridge collapse sparked panic.
- Sabarimala temple stampede (2011): 106 pilgrims died in Kerala during the Makara Jyothi festival.
- Pratapgarh temple stampede (2010): About 63 people died at a temple in Uttar Pradesh during a free food distribution event.
- Naina Devi temple stampede (2008): At least 162 people died in Himachal Pradesh when heavy rains caused panic among pilgrims.
- Mandher Devi temple stampede (2005): 291 people died in Maharashtra during a religious festival.
- Nashik Kumbh Mela stampede (2003): 39 people died during the holy bath ritual in Maharashtra.
- Nagpur stampede (1994): 114 people died on a narrow bridge during a religious procession
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For Prelims: Current events of national importance
For Mains: GS-II, GS-III: Government policies and interventions, Disaster Management
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RESERVATIONS AND A CAP OF 50 PERCENT
- Articles 15 and 16 of the Constitution uphold the principle of equality for all citizens in matters of state action, such as admissions to educational institutions and employment in the public sector.
- At the same time, these provisions empower the state to introduce special measures aimed at promoting the welfare of socially and educationally disadvantaged groups, including Other Backward Classes (OBCs), Scheduled Castes (SCs), and Scheduled Tribes (STs).
- Over the years, several key developments have shaped the reservation framework at the central level.
- Currently, the reservation quotas in central government institutions are — 27% for OBCs, 15% for SCs, 7.5% for STs, and 10% for the Economically Weaker Sections (EWS), amounting to a total of 59.5%.
- However, the percentage of reservations differs across States depending on their population composition and specific policy decisions
- The debate stems from two different interpretations of equality — formal equality and substantive equality. In Balaji v. State of Mysore (1962), the Supreme Court held that reservations under Articles 15 and 16 for backward classes must remain “within reasonable limits” and be balanced with the overall interests of society.
- The Court also observed that reservations should not cross 50%, reflecting a notion of formal equality where reservations are treated as exceptions to equal opportunity.
- By contrast, substantive equality recognizes that merely ensuring formal equality is inadequate to bridge the historical gap between privileged groups and marginalized communities.
- In State of Kerala v. N.M. Thomas (1975), a seven-judge Bench highlighted this perspective, stating that reservations are not an exception but an extension of the principle of equality. However, since the ceiling limit was not directly under consideration in this case, the Court did not make a binding pronouncement on that aspect.
- In Indra Sawhney v. Union of India (1992), a nine-judge Bench upheld the 27% quota for OBCs and ruled that caste, in the Indian context, is an indicator of social and educational backwardness.
- The Court reaffirmed the 50% ceiling on reservations (as established in Balaji) but allowed exceptions in extraordinary situations. It also introduced the concept of excluding the “creamy layer” among OBCs.
- More recently, in Janhit Abhiyan v. Union of India (2022), a 3:2 majority upheld the constitutionality of the 10% reservation for the Economically Weaker Sections (EWS).
- The Court clarified that economic criteria could serve as the basis for affirmative action and further reasoned that the 50% limit applied to reservations for backward classes, while EWS forms a distinct category within the unreserved sections
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Article 15 – Prohibition of Discrimination
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Provision: Prohibits the State from discriminating against any citizen on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth.
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Scope: Applies to access to shops, public restaurants, hotels, and places of public entertainment, as well as the use of wells, tanks, bathing ghats, roads, etc. maintained wholly or partly out of State funds.
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Special Provisions Allowed:
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Reservation and special measures for socially and educationally backward classes (SEBCs), Scheduled Castes (SCs), and Scheduled Tribes (STs).
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Special provisions for women and children.
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The 103rd Constitutional Amendment (2019) introduced reservation for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS)
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Article 16 – Equality of Opportunity in Public Employment
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Provision: Ensures equality of opportunity for all citizens in public employment and prohibits discrimination in matters relating to employment or office under the State.
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Special Provisions Allowed:
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Reservation of posts in favor of backward classes not adequately represented in services.
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Preference for residents of a State/Union Territory in certain cases.
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Parliament may legislate for reservation in promotions (e.g., 77th Amendment, 1995 allowing reservation in promotion for SCs and STs)
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- In his Constituent Assembly address in November 1948, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar defended the necessity of reservations for historically disadvantaged groups, emphasizing that such measures should remain limited to a minority so as to preserve the principle of equality of opportunity.
- Over time, however, there has been growing pressure to expand reservation quotas beyond the judicial ceiling of 50% so that they align more closely with the actual share of backward classes in the population.
- This has fueled demands for a caste-based census to generate reliable data rather than relying on broad estimates. Yet, government replies in Parliament reveal that 40–50% of the seats reserved for OBCs, SCs, and STs at the Central level often remain vacant.
- Another major concern is the unequal distribution of reservation benefits.
- The Rohini Commission, tasked with examining sub-categorisation within OBCs, found that nearly 97% of reserved jobs and educational seats are concentrated among about 25% of OBC communities, while close to 1,000 out of 2,600 OBC groups have no representation in either domain.
- Similar patterns are visible within SCs and STs. Unlike OBCs, there is currently no “creamy layer” exclusion for SC and ST reservations. In State of Punjab v. Davinder Singh (2024), a majority of judges suggested that the Centre should consider policy measures to exclude the creamy layer from SC and ST quotas.
- Nevertheless, in August 2024, the Union Cabinet clarified that the creamy layer principle does not apply to these groups.
- Opponents of extending the creamy layer concept to SCs and STs contend that vacancies in these categories are already underfilled, and hence, the issue of relatively better-off members monopolizing opportunities is less relevant.
- They also warn that applying such exclusion may aggravate the backlog of vacancies, which could eventually be converted into unreserved posts—undermining the representation guaranteed to SCs and STs
The right to equality of opportunity is a guaranteed fundamental right, and raising the reservation quota to as high as 85% could be seen as infringing upon this principle. At the same time, the pursuit of substantive equality through affirmative action remains essential for uplifting disadvantaged groups. After the 2027 Census, which is expected to include data on backward classes, there should be broad-based consultations with stakeholders to determine an appropriate level of reservation. Alongside this, the sub-categorisation of OBCs, as recommended by the Rohini Commission and informed by census findings, must be implemented. For SCs and STs, the idea of a ‘two-tier’ reservation model—where the most marginalised sections receive priority before benefits extend to relatively better-off groups—could be considered to ensure more equitable distribution across generations.
At the same time, policymakers must recognise that reservations alone cannot address the employment aspirations of India’s growing youth population, especially given the limited opportunities in the public sector. A strong emphasis on skill development and capacity building is vital so that young people can access meaningful and sustainable employment opportunities beyond the reservation framework
Source: The Hindu
STUBBLE BURNING
1. Context
2. What is Stubble?
Stubble refers to the leftover plant material, mainly crop residues, that remains in the field after the primary crop has been harvested. This includes the stems, leaves, and other organic material that is left behind.
Stubble burning is a common agricultural practice where farmers set fire to crop residues, such as straw and stubble, that remain in the field after the main crop (usually paddy or wheat) has been harvested. This practice is typically used as a quick and cost-effective method to clear the field for the next planting season. Stubble burning is particularly prevalent in regions with mechanized farming, where machines like combine harvesters leave behind a significant amount of crop residues.
3. Stubble burning contributes to air pollution
When stubble is burned, it releases a variety of pollutants into the air, including particulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur dioxide. These pollutants can cause several health problems, including respiratory problems, heart disease, and cancer.
Stubble burning is a major contributor to air pollution in many parts of the world. In India, for example, stubble burning is responsible for up to 30% of the air pollution in Delhi during the winter months.
- Stubble burning generates fine particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) that can penetrate deep into the respiratory system, leading to respiratory problems and reduced air quality.
- The combustion of stubble releases carbon monoxide, which can have adverse health effects when inhaled, particularly in enclosed spaces.
- Stubble burning produces Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), which can react with other pollutants in the atmosphere, contributing to the formation of ground-level ozone, a major air pollutant.
- Burning stubble emits greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4), contributing to climate change.
- The combustion of crop residues can release various hazardous chemicals and pollutants, further deteriorating air quality.
4. About the Central Scheme for the Promotion of Agricultural Mechanisation for In-Situ Management of Crop Residue
The Central Scheme on Promotion of Agricultural Mechanisation for In-Situ Management of Crop Residue (AMICMR) is a scheme launched by the Government of India to promote the use of in-situ techniques for managing crop residue. In-situ techniques are those that are used to manage crop residue on the field, rather than burning it. Examples of in-situ techniques include:
- Mulching is the practice of covering the soil with a layer of organic material, such as straw or leaves. This can help to suppress weeds, retain moisture, and improve soil health.
- Zero tillage is the practice of planting crops without tilling the soil. This can help to prevent soil erosion and retain moisture in the soil.
- Direct seeding is the practice of planting seeds directly into the soil, rather than transplanting seedlings. This can help to reduce soil disturbance and prevent the spread of weeds.
The AMICMR scheme provides financial assistance to farmers to purchase machinery that can be used for in-situ management of crop residue. The scheme also provides training and extension services to farmers on how to use these techniques.
The AMICMR scheme is a promising initiative that could help to reduce air pollution caused by stubble burning. However, the scheme needs to be scaled up and made more widely available to farmers to have a significant impact.
5. Conclusion
Stubble burning is a major contributor to air pollution in many parts of the world. However, there are several alternatives to stubble burning, such as in-situ management of crop residue. In-situ management of crop residue is a more sustainable way to manage stubble, as it does not release pollutants into the air and has several benefits for soil health and crop yields.
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For Prelims: Stubble burning, air pollution, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, PM2.5, PM10, Volatile Organic Compounds, ozone, carbon dioxide, methane, Climate Change, The Central Scheme on Promotion of Agricultural Mechanisation for In-Situ Management of Crop Residue,
For Mains:
1. Critically evaluate the effectiveness of the Central Scheme on Promotion of Agricultural Mechanisation for In-Situ Management of Crop Residue (AMICMR) in addressing the issue of stubble burning in India. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions 1. In the cities of our country, which among the following atmospheric gases are normally considered in calculating the value of Air Quality Index? ( UPSC 2016)
Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 Answer: B 2. Acid rain is caused by the pollution of the environment (UPSC 2013, 2022) (a) Carbon Dioxide and Nitrogen (b) Carbon Monoxide and Carbon Dioxide (c) Ozone and Carbon Dioxide (d) Nitrous Oxide and Sulphur Dioxide Answer:D 3. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a standard criterion for (UPSC 2017) (a) Measuring oxygen level in blood (b) Computing oxygen levels in forest ecosystems (c) Pollution assay in aquatic ecosystem (d) Assessing oxygen levels in high-altitude regions Answer: C 4. Consider the following: (UPSC 2019) 1. Carbon monooxide
2. Methane
3. Ozone
4. Sulphur dioxide
Which of the above are released into atmosphere due to the burning of crop/biomass residue? A. 1 and 2 only B. 2, 3 and 4 only C. 1 and 4 only D. 1, 2, 3 and 4 Answer: D 5. What is Particulate matter? (BPSC 2016) A. Solid residue B. Air pollutant C. Water pollutant D. Soil pollutant E. None of the above/More than one of the above Answer: B 6. Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas because it: (OPSC OAS 2021) A. Binds to digestive hormones
B. Damages lungs
C. Destroys RBCs
D. Binds to haemoglobin
Answer: D 7. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2019) 1. Agricultural soils release nitrogen oxides into environment.
2. Cattle release ammonia into environment.
3. Poultry industry releases reactive nitrogen compounds into environment.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 and 3 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 2 only D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: D 8. In the context of WHO Air Quality Guidelines, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022) 1. The 24-hour mean of PM2.5 should not exceed 15 μg/m³ and annual mean of PM2.5 should not exceed 5 μg/m³.
2. In a year, the highest levels of ozone pollution occur during the periods of inclement weather.
3. PM10 can penetrate the lung barrier and enter the bloodstream. 4. Excessive ozone in the air can trigger asthma.
Which of the statements given above are correct? A. 1, 3 and 4 B. 1 and 4 only C. 2, 3 and 4 D.1 and 2 only Answer: B 9. Which of the following is a VOC? (MP Vyapam Sub Engineer Mechanical 2022) A. Toulene B. Water C. Carbon dioxide D. Carbon monoxide Answer: A 10. Which of the following Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are emitted from anthropogenic sources only? (UGC NET 2023) A. Isoprene
B. Benzene
C. Terpene
D. Methane
E. Toluene
1. A, B and C Only 2. B and E Only 3. A and C Only 4. C, D and E Only Answer: 2 11. Which one of the following is associated with the issue of control and phasing out of the use of ozone-depleting substance? (UPSC 2015) A. Bretton Woods Conference B. Montreal Protocol C. Kyoto Porotocol D. Nagoya Protocol Answer: B 12. The increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the air is slowly raising the temperature of the atmosphere, because it absorbs (UPSC 2012) A. the water vapour of the air and retains its heat
B. the ultraviolet part of the solar radiation
C. all the solar radiations
D. the infrared part of the solar radiation
Answer: D 13. Which of the following adds/add carbon dioxide to the carbon cycle on the planet Earth? (UPSC 2014) 1. Volcanic action
2. Respiration
3. Photosynthesis
4. The decay of organic matter
Select the correct answer using the code given below A. 1 and 3 only B. 2 only C. 1, 2 and 4 only D. 1, 2, 3 and 4 Answer: C 14. Which of the following statements are correct about the deposits of 'methane hydrate'? (UPSC 2019) 1. Global warming might trigger the release of methane gas from these deposits.
2. Large deposits of 'methane hydrate' are found in Arctic Tundra and under the seafloor.
3. Methane in atmosphere oxidizes to carbon dioxide after a decade or two.
Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: D 15. With reference to two non-conventional energy sources called 'coalbed methane' and 'shale gas' consider the following statements: (UPSC 2014) 1. Coalbed methane is the pure methane gas extracted from coal seams, while shale gas is a mixture of propane and butane only that can be extracted from fine-grained sedimentary rocks. 2. In India, abundant coalbed methane sources exist, but so far no shale gas sources have been found. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: D Mains
1. Describe the key points of the revised Global Air Quality Guidelines (AQGs) recently released by the World Health Organisation (WHO). How are these different from its last update in 2005? What changes in India’s National Clean Air Programme are required to achieve revised standards? ( UPSC 2021)
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JAMES WEBB SPACE TELESCOPE (JWST)
4. Features of James Webb Space Telescope
The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) boasts several advanced features that make it a groundbreaking instrument for astronomical observations:
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Large Primary Mirror:
- The JWST's primary mirror is larger than the Hubble Space Telescope's mirror. This large mirror allows for greater light-gathering capability, enabling the telescope to observe faint and distant objects.
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Infrared Observations:
- JWST is primarily an infrared telescope, designed to observe the universe in the near-infrared (0.6 to 5 micrometers) and mid-infrared (5 to 28.5 micrometers) wavelengths. This capability is crucial for studying the early universe, star formation, and the atmospheres of exoplanets.
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Advanced Instruments:
- The telescope is equipped with four main scientific instruments:
- NIRCam (Near-Infrared Camera): Captures images in near-infrared light.
- NIRSpec (Near-Infrared Spectrograph): Performs spectroscopy in the near-infrared range.
- MIRI (Mid-Infrared Instrument): Observes in the mid-infrared spectrum, providing both imaging and spectroscopy.
- FGS/NIRISS (Fine Guidance Sensor and Near-Infrared Imager and Slitless Spectrograph): Aids in precise pointing and provides additional imaging and spectroscopic capabilities.
- The telescope is equipped with four main scientific instruments:
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Sunshield:
- JWST features a large, multi-layered sunshield the size of a tennis court. This sunshield protects the telescope's instruments from the heat and light of the Sun, Earth, and Moon, keeping them at extremely low temperatures necessary for infrared observations.
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Location:
- The telescope orbits at the second Lagrange point (L2), approximately 1.5 million kilometers (about 1 million miles) from Earth. This stable location allows for uninterrupted observations and a clear view of the cosmos without the interference of Earth's atmosphere.
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Deployment and Folding Design:
- Due to its large size, JWST was designed to be folded to fit into the rocket for launch. It then undergoes a complex unfolding process in space, including the deployment of its mirror and sunshield.
These features collectively make JWST a powerful tool for advancing our understanding of the universe, from the earliest galaxies to the potential for life on other planets.
Source: BBC
5. Way Forward
JWST, which by peering across vast cosmic distances is looking way back in time, observed the galaxy as it existed about 290 million years after the Big Bang event that initiated the universe roughly 13.8 billion years ago, the researchers said. This period spanning the universe’s first few hundred million years is called cosmic dawn
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Previous Year Questions
Mains PYQ:
Q. Launched on 25th December, 2021, James Webb Space Telescope has been much in the news since then. What are its unique features which make it superior to its predecessor Space Telescopes? What are the key goals of this mission? What potential benefits does it hold for the human race? (2022)
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Source: Indian Express
ANTI DUMPING DUTY
An anti-dumping duty (ADD) is a protectionist tariff imposed by a government on imported goods that are sold below their fair market value, a practice known as "dumping." Dumping occurs when a foreign company exports a product at a price lower than what it charges in its domestic market or below its production cost, potentially harming the importing country’s domestic industries. The duty aims to level the playing field by offsetting this price difference, protecting local businesses from unfair competition.
- Legal Basis: Governed internationally by the World Trade Organization (WTO) under the Agreement on Implementation of Article VI of GATT 1994 (Anti-Dumping Agreement). It allows countries to impose ADD if dumping causes or threatens "material injury" to domestic industries.
- Process:
- A domestic industry files a complaint.
- An investigation assesses dumping margins (export price vs. normal value), injury, and causality.
- If confirmed, the government imposes a duty, typically calculated as the difference between the export price and the "normal value" (domestic price or cost-plus-profit in the exporting country)
Countervailing duties (CVDs) are tariffs imposed by a government on imported goods to counteract subsidies provided by the exporting country’s government to its producers or exporters. These subsidies—such as tax breaks, grants, or low-interest loans—can artificially lower the price of exported goods, giving them an unfair advantage in the importing country’s market. CVDs aim to neutralize this advantage, protecting domestic industries from subsidized foreign competition.
- Legal Basis: Governed by the World Trade Organization (WTO) under the Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures (SCM Agreement), part of GATT 1994. Countries can impose CVDs if subsidies cause or threaten "material injury" to their domestic industries.
- Process:
- A domestic industry files a complaint with evidence of subsidies and injury.
- An investigation confirms the subsidy’s existence, calculates its value (subsidy margin), and assesses harm.
- If proven, a duty is levied, typically equal to the subsidy amount, to raise the import price to a fair level.
| Aspect | Countervailing Duties (CVDs) | Anti-Dumping Duties (ADDs) |
|---|---|---|
| Purpose | Counteract foreign government subsidies | Counteract dumping by foreign companies |
| Target | Government subsidies | Private companies selling below fair value |
| Legal Basis | WTO SCM Agreement | WTO Anti-Dumping Agreement |
| Investigation Focus | Subsidies and their impact | Dumping and its impact |
| Calculation | Based on subsidy amount | Based on price difference |
| Example | Solar panels subsidized by a foreign government | Steel sold below home market price |
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international body that regulates and facilitates global trade among its member nations. Established on January 1, 1995, under the Marrakesh Agreement, it succeeded the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which began in 1948. Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, the WTO provides a framework for negotiating trade agreements, resolving disputes, and promoting free and fair trade. As of March 2025, it has 164 member countries, representing over 98% of global trade, with India as a founding member since 1995.
Key Functions of the WTO
- The WTO oversees the implementation and operation of multilateral trade agreements negotiated by its member countries. These agreements cover goods, services, and intellectual property
- The WTO serves as a platform for member countries to negotiate trade liberalization and resolve trade-related issues. Notable negotiations include the Doha Round, which focuses on development and reducing trade barriers
- The WTO provides a structured process for resolving trade disputes between member countries. Its dispute settlement mechanism is binding and aims to ensure that trade rules are followed
- The WTO conducts regular reviews of member countries' trade policies and practices to ensure transparency and adherence to global trade rules
- The WTO provides support to developing and least-developed countries to help them integrate into the global trading system and comply with WTO rules
- The WTO collaborates with organizations like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank to ensure coherence in global economic policy-making
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For Prelims: World Trade Organisation (WTO), Anti Dumping duty
For Mains: GS III - Economy
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CORAL BLEACH IN 2023
- The primary cause of coral bleaching is the rising sea temperatures associated with climate change.
- When the water becomes too warm, corals become stressed, and as a survival mechanism, they expel the algae, which leads to the loss of their main source of food.
- Without the colourful algae, the corals appear bleached and are more vulnerable to disease and death
- Other factors can contribute to coral bleaching as well, including ocean acidification, pollution, and extreme weather events.
- All of these stressors can weaken the corals and make them more susceptible to bleaching.
- Coral bleaching is a significant concern for the health and survival of coral reefs around the world.
- Repeated or prolonged bleaching events can lead to mass coral die-offs, causing the loss of biodiversity and the degradation of entire reef ecosystems
- Coral reefs are hot spots of biodiversity. They are often referred to as the rainforests of the sea because they are home to the highest concentrations of species in the ocean.
- Healthy reefs are vibrant ecosystems that support fish and fisheries, which in turn support economies and food for millions of people
- Additionally, they provide billions of dollars in economic activity every year through tourism, particularly in places like the Florida Keys, where people go to scuba dive, snorkel, fish and experience the natural beauty of coral reefs
- If that isn’t enough, reefs also protect shorelines, beaches and billions of dollars in coastal infrastructure by buffering wave energy, particularly during storms and hurricanes.
- They host a microscopic symbiotic algae called zooxanthella that photosynthesizes just like plants, providing food to the coral
Coral reefs are in danger, and there are many things that can be done to protect them. Here are some of the most important actions that individuals, businesses, and governments can take:
- Reduce your carbon footprint. The main threat to coral reefs is climate change, so reducing your carbon emissions is one of the most important things you can do to help. This means driving less, using less energy at home, and eating less meat.
- Support sustainable fishing practices. Overfishing is another major threat to coral reefs. When fish populations are depleted, it can lead to algae blooms that smother coral reefs. Choose to eat seafood that is sustainably caught, and support businesses that practice sustainable fishing methods.
- Use reef-friendly sunscreen. Some sunscreen ingredients can be harmful to coral reefs. Choose a reef-friendly sunscreen that does not contain oxybenzone or octinoxate.
- Support marine protected areas. Marine protected areas (MPAs) are areas of the ocean where fishing and other human activities are restricted. MPAs can help to protect coral reefs by reducing the amount of pollution and fishing pressure they face.
- Volunteer your time to coral reef conservation efforts. There are many organizations that are working to protect coral reefs. You can volunteer your time to help with beach cleanups, coral reef monitoring, or other conservation efforts.
- Establish Marine Protected Areas (MPAs): Designating and effectively managing marine protected areas can help protect coral reefs and the surrounding marine life from destructive activities such as overfishing, pollution, and habitat destruction.
- Encourage Responsible Tourism: Sustainable tourism practices can minimize the negative impacts on coral reefs. This includes promoting responsible diving and snorkeling practices, limiting physical contact with corals, and avoiding the use of harmful chemicals like sunscreen that can harm marine life
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For Prelims: Corals, Coral reefs, polyps, zooxanthellae
For Mains: 1.Examine the major human-induced threats to coral reefs, including pollution, overfishing, and coastal development. What measures can be taken to address these threats and conserve coral reef ecosystems?
2.Assess the role of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in safeguarding coral reefs. Discuss the challenges in establishing and effectively managing MPAs for coral reef conservation. |
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Previous Year Questions
1. Consider the following Statements
1. Most of the coral reefs are in tropical waters
2. More than one-third of the world's coral reefs are located in territories of Australia, Indonesia, and Phillippines
3. Coral reefs host far more number of animal phyla than those hosted by tropical rainforests
Which of the statements above given is/ are correct
A. 1 and 2 B. 3 Only C. 1 and 3 D.1, 2, 3
Answer- D
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URBAN LOCAL BODIES
Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) in India are institutions of local self-government that are responsible for the administration of urban areas. These bodies play a crucial role in local governance and are instrumental in the development and management of cities and towns.
The Evolution of Urban Local Bodies in India- Ancient Roots: The seeds of ULBs were sown in India's ancient past. Cities like Pataliputra and Mohenjo-daro thrived under councils or committees of citizens who oversaw public order, trade, and essential services like water and sanitation. These early forms of local governance laid the foundation for future ULBs.
- Colonial Legacy: The British Raj brought a formal system of local self-government to India, with elected municipal councils established in major cities. Madras (now Chennai) became the first with its municipal corporation in 1688. While this system offered a framework, it often lacked autonomy and true democratic representation.
- Post-Independence Evolution: After India's independence, the ULB system continued, but with significant modifications. The Constitution, through the 74th Amendment in 1992, cemented their status as a distinct tier of government, empowering them with greater autonomy and mandating their establishment through state-specific laws.
- Modern-Day ULBs: Today, ULBs play a multifaceted role in urban India. Their functions encompass crucial areas like urban planning and development, waste management, ensuring clean water supply, and managing efficient transportation systems. This diverse portfolio underscores the importance of ULBs in driving sustainable urban growth and enhancing citizen well-being.
The structure of ULBs
The structure of ULBs may vary across states, but they generally fall into three main categories:
- Municipal Corporation: Municipal Corporations are established in larger urban areas. They have a mayor-council form of governance. The mayor is the elected head of the corporation, and the council consists of elected members representing different wards. Municipal Corporations have a wide range of functions, including urban planning, public health, water supply, waste management, education, and infrastructure development.
- Municipal Council: Municipal Councils are established in smaller urban areas. They have elected members, including a chairperson. The structure may vary, with some councils having a municipal commissioner as an executive head. Municipal Councils perform functions similar to Municipal Corporations but are tailored to the scale and needs of smaller urban areas.
- Nagar Panchayat: Nagar Panchayats are established for transitional areas, emerging towns, or areas in transition from rural to urban. They have elected members and a chairperson. Nagar Panchayats focus on basic civic amenities and services, and their functions may include sanitation, water supply, and street lighting.
3. Constitutional and Legal Provisions Governing Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) in India
Constitution of India: Part IXA and 12th Schedule
- Article 243-P: Deals with the composition of municipalities at the district and metropolitan levels.
- Article 243-Q: Addresses the reservation of seats for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in municipalities.
- Article 243-R: Specifies the duration of municipalities.
- Article 243-S: Discusses the dissolution of municipalities.
- Article 243-T: Outlines the powers, authority, and responsibilities of municipalities.
- Article 243-U: Enlists the functions that municipalities are authorized to perform.
- Article 243-V: Pertains to the constitution of state finance commissions responsible for reviewing the financial position of municipalities.
State Municipal Acts: Each state in India has its own Municipal Act, providing a comprehensive legal framework for the functioning of ULBs within that state. These acts define the structure, composition, powers, functions, administration, and financing mechanisms of ULBs.
The Metro Railways (Construction of Works) Act, 1978: This Act addresses the construction and maintenance of rapid transit systems in metropolitan cities across India. It establishes provisions for the creation of a Metro Railways Administration tasked with overseeing the construction and operation of these transit systems.
4. Functions of Urban Local Bodies in India
Basic Amenities and Services
- Water Supply and Sanitation: Ensuring access to clean drinking water and proper sanitation facilities is a top priority for ULBs. They handle water treatment and distribution, sewerage systems, drainage, and waste management.
- Public Health: ULBs are responsible for maintaining public health standards through initiatives like immunization programs, healthcare infrastructure development, and disease prevention measures.
- Street Lighting and Maintenance: ULBs ensure proper lighting and cleanliness of streets, roads, and public spaces for safety and aesthetics.
- Public Transportation: ULBs may manage public bus systems, rickshaws, and other forms of local transport to provide efficient and affordable mobility options.
Urban Planning and Development
- Land Use Planning: ULBs prepare and implement master plans for urban development, including zoning regulations, land use allocation, and infrastructure development plans.
- Building Permits and Construction: ULBs grant building permits, regulate construction activities, and ensure adherence to building codes for safe and sustainable urban development.
- Parks and Recreation: ULBs create and maintain parks, gardens, playgrounds, and other recreational spaces for the well-being of citizens.
- Slum Improvement and Redevelopment: ULBs address challenges like slums and urban poverty through improvement programs, infrastructure upgrades, and relocation projects.
Social Welfare and Education
- Primary Education: ULBs may manage primary schools, libraries, and other educational facilities within their jurisdiction.
- Social Welfare Programs: ULBs implement government programs for poverty alleviation, social welfare schemes for marginalized groups, and support for vulnerable populations.
- Community Development: ULBs promote community engagement through initiatives like cultural events, sports activities, and citizen participation programs.
- Disaster Management: ULBs prepare for and respond to natural disasters and emergencies, ensuring public safety and minimizing damage.
Financial Management and Revenue Generation
- Local Taxes and Fees: ULBs levy property taxes, user charges for services like water and sanitation, and other fees to generate revenue for their operations.
- Government Grants and Funding: ULBs receive grants from central and state governments for specific development projects and programs.
- Public-Private Partnerships: ULBs may collaborate with private companies to develop infrastructure, manage services, and attract investments for urban development.
Transparency and Accountability
- Public Meetings and Grievance Redressal: ULBs hold public meetings, maintain transparency in their decision-making processes, and establish grievance redressal mechanisms for citizen concerns.
- Right to Information Act: ULBs are obligated to provide information to citizens under the Right to Information Act, promoting transparency and accountability.
- E-Governance Initiatives: ULBs are increasingly adopting e-governance solutions for online service delivery, permit applications, and citizen engagement to enhance efficiency and accessibility.
5. Sources of Revenue for Urban Local Bodies
- Property Tax: A tax on the value of properties within the jurisdiction of the ULB.
- User Charges: Fees for services such as water supply, sewerage, and solid waste management.
- Professional Tax: A tax on the income earned by individuals engaged in various professions.
- Grant-in-Aid: Financial assistance provided by the state and central governments.
- Development Charges: Fees levied for allowing construction and development activities.
- License Fees: Charges for licenses issued for various commercial activities.
6. Challenges Faced by Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) in India
- Limited Financial Resources: ULBs often grapple with limited revenue-raising powers, resulting in insufficient funds for essential services and infrastructure development. Low levels of tax collection and revenue generation contribute to financial constraints.
- Lack of Autonomy: ULBs frequently lack autonomy in decision-making processes, relying on state governments for financial and administrative support. Dependence on higher authorities can hinder prompt responses to local needs and demands.
- Ambiguity of Functional Domain: Some states witness ambiguity in defining the functional domain of ULBs and parastatal bodies, creating confusion and hindering effective municipal governance.
- Limited Human Resources: Shortages of skilled and qualified personnel within ULBs impact their ability to efficiently execute tasks and deliver services. Insufficient manpower can be a barrier to effective urban governance.
- Poor Infrastructure: Many ULBs face challenges related to inadequate infrastructure, including deficient road networks, water supply systems, and sewage facilities. Insufficient infrastructure hampers the provision of basic services to urban residents.
- Political Interference: Political interference in the functioning of ULBs can compromise their independence and impartiality in decision-making processes. Political considerations may influence administrative and developmental activities.
- Limited Public Participation: ULBs often struggle with a lack of public participation in decision-making, diminishing their effectiveness and accountability. Inadequate citizen engagement can result in policies that do not align with community needs.
- Lack of Capacity: Many ULBs cannot plan, implement, and monitor development projects and programs effectively. Insufficient capacity can lead to inefficiencies and the misallocation of resources.
7. Successful Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) in India
- Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) Implemented innovative initiatives to enhance citizens' quality of life. Ahmedabad Janmarg Limited (AJL) is a successful public-private partnership operating bus rapid transit corridors.
- Pune Municipal Corporation (PMC) Recognized for effective waste management practices. Implemented door-to-door waste collection, waste segregation, and processing facilities.
- Surat Municipal Corporation (SMC) Successfully used technology to monitor infrastructure projects and manage emergencies. Developed pedestrian-friendly streets, public parks, and other civic amenities.
- Indore Municipal Corporation: Consistently ranked as one of the cleanest cities in India. Focus on cleanliness, waste management, and sustainable urban development.
- Chandigarh Municipal Corporation: Known for well-planned urban infrastructure and green spaces. Efforts to preserve the architectural heritage of the city.
- Bhubaneswar Municipal Corporation (BMC) Implemented various smart city projects for urban development. Emphasis on improving public services and infrastructure.
- Hyderabad Municipal Corporation focuses on enhancing urban infrastructure and connectivity. Initiatives for the restoration of lakes and water bodies.
- Thiruvananthapuram Municipal Corporation Emphasizes sustainable development and eco-friendly initiatives. Encourages citizen participation in civic activities.
8. What is property tax?
Property tax is a form of direct tax imposed by local governments on the owners of real estate, such as land and buildings. It is a recurring tax that property owners are required to pay, and the amount is typically determined based on the assessed value of the property. The tax collected from property owners is used to fund local public services and infrastructure projects.
Key features of property tax include:
- The local government assesses the value of the property to determine the amount of tax owed. This assessment is often conducted periodically to account for changes in property values.
- Property tax is levied on the owner of the property rather than the occupant. Even if the property is rented out, the owner is responsible for paying the property tax.
- Property tax is a significant source of revenue for local governments, including municipal corporations, municipal councils, and other urban or rural local bodies.
- The revenue generated from property tax is used to finance various public services and community development projects, such as road maintenance, sanitation, education, and other essential municipal services.
- In some jurisdictions, property tax is designed to be progressive, meaning that properties with higher values pay proportionally more in taxes. This is often achieved by applying higher tax rates to properties with higher assessed values.
8.1. Is property tax collected by the central government?
- No, property tax is typically not collected by the central government. Instead, property tax is a local tax, and its collection falls under the jurisdiction of local or municipal governments. In most countries, including India, the United States, and many others, property tax is assessed and collected by local authorities such as municipal corporations, municipal councils, or other urban and rural local bodies.
- Local governments use property tax revenue to fund essential services and local infrastructure projects. The tax amount is generally based on the assessed value of the property, and the rates may vary depending on the local government's policies and regulations.
- While the central government may play a role in setting broad guidelines or frameworks for property taxation, the actual assessment, collection, and utilization of property tax revenue are carried out at the local level. It is a decentralized form of taxation that allows local authorities to have control over their revenue sources and make decisions based on the specific needs of their communities.
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For Prelims: Property Tax, Urban Local bodies, municipal Corporation, Municipal Council, Nagar Panchayats For Mains: 1. Discuss the significance of property tax as a source of revenue for Urban Local Bodies (ULBs). What are the challenges in efficient property tax assessment and collection, and how can they be addressed? (250 Words) |
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Previous Year Questions
1.Local self-government can be best explained as an exercise in (UPSC CSE 2017) (a) Federalism Answer (b) 2.The fundamental object of the Panchayati Raj system is to ensure which among the following? (UPSC CSE 2015)
Select the correct answer using the code given below (a) 1, 2 and 3 only Answer (c) |
ARTIFICIAL GENERAL INTELLIGENCE (AGI)
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AGI refers to a machine or software capable of executing any intellectual task within the human capacity. AGI aims to replicate human cognitive functions, enabling it to tackle unfamiliar challenges, learn from novel experiences, and apply acquired knowledge innovatively.
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The primary distinction between AGI and the more prevalent form of AI, termed narrow AI, lies in their breadth and capabilities. Narrow AI is engineered for specific tasks like image recognition, translation, or strategic games like chess, where it can surpass human performance, yet it remains constrained within predefined parameters. Conversely, AGI envisions a broader, more generalized intelligence akin to humans, not confined to singular tasks, which positions it as the pinnacle of AI advancements.
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The concept of AGI first surfaced in the 20th century through a seminal paper by Alan Turing, renowned as the progenitor of theoretical computer science and artificial intelligence.
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Theoretically, AGI holds vast potential across diverse domains such as healthcare, education, finance, and commerce.
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Despite the promising prospects of AGI, it elicits widespread concerns for various reasons. Notably, the immense computational resources required for AGI development raise apprehensions regarding its environmental impact, stemming from energy consumption and e-waste generation. Additionally, AGI adoption could precipitate significant job displacement and exacerbate socioeconomic disparities.
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AGI deployment may introduce novel security vulnerabilities, and its rapid advancement might outpace regulatory frameworks established by governments and international bodies. Moreover, reliance on AGI could potentially erode fundamental human skills and capabilities. Yet, the most pressing concern surrounding AGI is the possibility of its capabilities surpassing human comprehension, rendering its actions unpredictable and challenging to decipher
Artificial Intelligence (AI) can be categorized into various types based on their capabilities and functionalities.
Here are the main categories:
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Narrow AI (Weak AI): Narrow AI is designed to perform specific tasks within a limited domain. These AI systems excel at performing one particular task or a set of closely related tasks, but they lack the ability to generalize or adapt to new situations outside their predefined scope. Examples of narrow AI include virtual assistants like Siri or Alexa, recommendation systems, spam filters, and autonomous vehicles.
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General AI (Strong AI): General AI refers to AI systems with the ability to understand, learn, and apply knowledge across different domains, similar to human intelligence. These systems possess cognitive abilities that enable them to solve a wide range of problems and tasks, adapt to new environments, and learn from experience. True general AI, which is capable of performing any intellectual task that a human can do, remains a theoretical concept and has not yet been achieved.
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Artificial Superintelligence (ASI): Artificial Superintelligence is an advanced form of AI that surpasses human intelligence in virtually every aspect. ASI would possess cognitive abilities far superior to the most intelligent human beings and could potentially solve complex problems and challenges beyond human comprehension. Achieving ASI remains a subject of speculation and debate in the field of AI research
AI has a wide range of applications across various sectors and industries. Some of the key areas of AI application include:
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Healthcare: AI is used for medical image analysis, disease diagnosis, personalized treatment recommendation, drug discovery, patient monitoring, and healthcare management systems.
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Finance: In finance, AI is employed for algorithmic trading, fraud detection, risk assessment, credit scoring, customer service automation, and investment portfolio management.
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Education: AI applications in education include personalized learning platforms, intelligent tutoring systems, automated grading systems, adaptive learning tools, and educational content creation.
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Retail: In retail, AI is used for demand forecasting, inventory management, customer segmentation, recommendation systems, pricing optimization, and supply chain management.
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Transportation: AI is utilized in autonomous vehicles, traffic management systems, route optimization, predictive maintenance of vehicles, ride-sharing platforms, and logistics optimization.
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Manufacturing: AI applications in manufacturing include predictive maintenance, quality control, supply chain optimization, robotic automation, production scheduling, and process optimization.
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Customer Service: AI-powered chatbots and virtual assistants are used for customer support, helpdesk automation, natural language understanding, sentiment analysis, and personalized customer engagement.
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Marketing and Advertising: AI is used for targeted advertising, content recommendation, customer segmentation, sentiment analysis, campaign optimization, and social media analytics.
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Cybersecurity: AI is employed for threat detection, anomaly detection, malware analysis, behavior analysis, network security, and incident response in cybersecurity applications.
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Natural Language Processing (NLP): NLP applications include language translation, sentiment analysis, chatbots, speech recognition, text summarization, and language generation.
| What is the Turing test?
The Turing test, proposed by British mathematician and computer scientist Alan Turing in 1950, is a test of a machine's ability to exhibit intelligent behavior indistinguishable from that of a human. The test is based on the premise that if a machine can engage in natural language conversation with a human evaluator to the extent that the evaluator cannot reliably distinguish between the machine and a human, then the machine is considered to possess artificial general intelligence (AGI). Here's how the Turing test typically works:
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Achieving Artificial General Intelligence (AGI) poses numerous challenges, both technical and ethical.
Some of the key challenges associated with AGI include:
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Complexity of Human Intelligence: Human intelligence is multifaceted and encompasses various cognitive abilities, including perception, reasoning, problem-solving, creativity, and emotional intelligence. Replicating these diverse capabilities in an AI system presents a significant technical challenge.
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Generalization and Adaptation: AGI systems must be able to generalize their knowledge and skills across different domains and adapt to new environments, tasks, and situations. Achieving robust generalization and adaptation capabilities remains a major research challenge in AI.
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Ethical and Societal Implications: The development and deployment of AGI raise ethical concerns regarding its potential impact on society, including issues related to job displacement, socioeconomic inequality, privacy, autonomy, and existential risks. Ensuring the responsible and ethical use of AGI is crucial but challenging.
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Safety and Control: AGI systems could potentially exhibit unpredictable behavior or unintended consequences, posing safety risks to humans and the environment. Ensuring the safety and controllability of AGI systems, including mechanisms for robust error handling and human oversight, is a critical challenge.
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Explainability and Interpretability: AGI systems are expected to make decisions and take actions autonomously, raising concerns about their transparency and interpretability. Ensuring that AGI systems can provide explanations for their decisions and actions in a human-understandable manner is essential for trust and accountability.
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Data Quality and Bias: AGI systems rely heavily on data for learning and decision-making, and the quality of the data can significantly impact their performance and behavior. Addressing issues such as data bias, fairness, and representativeness is crucial to prevent AI systems from perpetuating existing societal biases and inequalities.
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Resource Constraints: Building and training AGI systems require significant computational resources, including high-performance computing infrastructure and large-scale datasets. Overcoming resource constraints while ensuring scalability and efficiency is a practical challenge in AGI research.
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Interdisciplinary Collaboration: Achieving AGI requires collaboration across various disciplines, including computer science, cognitive science, neuroscience, psychology, philosophy, and ethics. Bridging the gap between these disciplines and integrating diverse perspectives is essential for advancing AGI research effectively
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For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance
For Mains: GS-III: Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, robotics, nano-technology, bio-technology and issues relating to intellectual property rights.
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Previous Year Questions
1.With the present state of development, Artificial Intelligence can effectively do which of the following? (UPSC CSE 2020) 1. Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units 2. Create meaningful short stories and songs 3. Disease diagnosis 4. Text-to-Speech Conversion 5. Wireless transmission of electrical energy Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only (c) 2, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 Answer (b) (b) 1, 3, and 4 only Explanation:
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