2. Abour National Clean Air Programme (NCAP)

The National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) was initiated by the Indian government to address the alarming levels of atmospheric pollution, particularly the concentration of Particulate Matter (PM). Under NCAP, cities in India exceeding annual PM levels are required to develop and execute Clean Air Action Plans (CAAPs) annually. To support this initiative, the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change has allocated ₹10,422.73 crore.

Challenges in NCAP Implementation

Despite the proactive submission of CAAPs by most cities, the implementation of NCAP has faced inconsistencies. According to the Ministry, only 60% of the allocated funds have been utilized on average, with 27% of cities spending less than 30% of their designated budgets. Notably, cities like Visakhapatnam and Bengaluru have spent minimal percentages of their NCAP funds, hindering progress.

Barriers to Implementation

• Delays in implementation primarily stem from bureaucratic hurdles and a lack of standard operating procedures.
• Approval delays from competent authorities, such as technical specifications for tendering processes and procurement of necessary equipment like mechanical sweepers and electric buses, have been significant impediments.
• Additionally, the absence of well-defined timelines and time-consuming tasks further exacerbate delays.
• Overcoming these challenges requires a systematic approach integrating Emissions Inventory (EI), Air Quality (AQ) modelling, and Source Apportionment (SA).
• Recent findings questioning the efficacy of outdoor smog towers have also fueled doubts among decision-makers, necessitating a comprehensive reevaluation of proposed mitigation measures.

3. Role of Scientific Tools in Pollution Management

Scientific tools play a crucial role in addressing air pollution challenges, particularly in identifying and understanding its origins.

• EI studies provide valuable insights into local pollution sources and their contributions, enabling experts to forecast future emissions and shape targeted pollution control strategies.
• Despite their usefulness, EI studies have limitations, especially in assessing the impact of transboundary pollution sources, such as stubble burning outside Delhi, on local air quality.
• SA studies offer detailed analyses of contributions from various pollution sources, including distant ones.
• However, they lack predictive capabilities and require substantial resources for chemical analysis.
• Additionally, SA studies struggle to differentiate between pollution origins with similar chemical signatures, such as emissions from diesel trucks nearby versus those further away.
• AQ modelling bridges gaps left by EI and SA studies by informing our understanding of pollution dispersion, including from distant sources.
• By simulating the movement of pollutants in the atmosphere, AQ modelling enhances our ability to assess and mitigate air pollution's impacts.

4. Utilization of Scientific Data in Air Pollution Management

• Cities ideally utilize Emissions Inventory (EI) and Source Apportionment (SA) data to identify air pollutants and devise targeted mitigation measures for each polluting activity.
• However, according to the Portal for Regulation of Air Pollution in Non-Attainment Cities, only 37% of cities have completed EI and SA studies, leaving 63% without a clear understanding of their air pollution sources.
• This lack of data raises concerns about the effectiveness of Clean Air Action Plans (CAAPs), as cities may not accurately gauge the emission reduction potential of proposed measures.
• To address this, cities must establish proper yearly targets based on their potential and infrastructure capabilities.

Challenges and Considerations

• The reliance of the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) on concentration data, which measures population exposure to pollution, adds complexity.
• Pollution from high-emitting industries and sources beyond city limits, transported into urban areas by wind, complicates urban air quality management.
• Additionally, many existing control measures primarily target primary PM emissions, overlooking their secondary precursors.
• There's a need for a shift towards comprehensive strategies addressing both primary and secondary pollutants.
• Furthermore, while NCAP aims to establish infrastructure for air quality forecasting, only a few cities like Delhi, Pune, Mumbai, and Ahmedabad have implemented decision-support systems.
• Implementing such systems across cities is crucial for timely and effective pollution management.

5. Key Factors for NCAP Success

The success of the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) relies on several critical elements beyond just data and models.

• Efficient implementation on the ground is paramount. To achieve this, implementation agencies must streamline bureaucratic processes by adopting shared, standardized technical evaluations. This will expedite the execution of NCAP initiatives and ensure timely action on pollution reduction measures.
• Given that NCAP funding is tied to cities' performance in reducing annual average PM concentrations, proactive budgeting and meticulous time management are essential. Initial plans should encompass thorough assessments of technical feasibility, budget requirements, and timeframes to facilitate successful execution.
• NCAP's vision for cleaner air in India necessitates a multifaceted approach. Success requires integrating rigorous scientific studies, strategic allocation of funds, and prompt, efficient implementation of mitigation measures.

6. The Way Forward

The successful implementation of the NCAP requires concerted efforts to address challenges, utilize scientific data effectively, and adopt a comprehensive approach towards pollution management. By addressing these key factors, India can make significant progress towards achieving cleaner air for its citizens.

CHATRAPATI SHIVAJI

1. Context 

On April 3, the death anniversary of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj who passed away at 50 in 1680, a lookback through books, charters and memoirs to understand what made the king a transformative force in a feudal age

Source: Wikicommons

2. Key points

• For a long time in history, before air power took centre stage in military tactics and strategy, forts were crucial to the defence of any country.
• They acted as a force multiplier for the defender and a safe refuge for civilians often the first casualties of war.
• Nowhere is this more apparent than in the Maratha Countryside forts of all sizes and shapes dot the landscape.
• In their heyday, control of these forts translated into control of the territory.
• Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, at the time of his death, is said to have control of over 200 forts across his territories with some estimates putting the number over 300.
• In many ways, the Marathas took fort-building to its zenith, not only building forts capable of surviving long sieges and battles but putting special attention to their placement and locations.
• Grant Duff, a soldier of the East India Company and the first comprehensive historian of the Marathas wrote: "There is probably no stronger country in the world than the Deccan from the military defence point of view".

3. The terrain of the Maratha Country

• Unlike the plains of Northern India, suited to conventional battle with large standing armies, the terrain of the Maratha country was different.
• With the Arabian Sea on one side, the Konkan plains in the centre and the Western Ghats overlooking the plains, in the 17th century much of the region was covered in thick jungles.
• Warfare in such terrain is qualitatively different, with large conventional armies prone to getting bogged down.
• Thus, as Shivaji began to consolidate and expand his influence in the region, his strategies evolved to be significantly different from the common military doctrine of the time.
• Crucial to his military strategy were hill forts.

4. A native of hill forts

• Historian Gunakar Muley called Shivaji "a fort-native".
• The Maratha icon was born and raised in the hill fort of Shivneri (around 100km from Pune), given to his grandfather by the Sultan of Ahmadnagar instead of his services as a military commander.
• Shivneri is a typical hill fort found in the Western Ghats a small but strong fortification, a top hill overlooking the surrounding terrain.
• It had a permanent source of water inside in the form of two freshwater springs and according to some accounts (to be taken with a pinch of salt), the fort was well-stocked to feed its residents for seven years.

In "Sivaji and the Rise of the Mahrattas" by Richard Temple, M.G. Ranade, G.S. Sardesai, R.M. Netham and James Douglas and Shivneri is described as the following: "You will see what a rugged precipitous place this is and what a fitting spot it was for a hero to be born!".

• Thus, growing up in the hills and valleys around Pune, Shivaji understood the salience of hill forts in controlling the land.
• Over his storied life, he captured multiple such forts, including Torna (When he was only 16), Rajgadh, Sinhagadh and Purandar.

5. Shivaji's guerilla tactics

• Shivaji's armed forces had some major limitations.
• First, he did not have the man or horsepower compared to most of his enemies, especially during the early stages of his life.
• Second, he was heavily reliant on obtaining supplies such as muskets and gunpowder from the Europeans, mainly the Portuguese.
• This meant that in conventional battle, he would have seldom stood a chance against his foes.
• Thus, Shivaji adopted guerilla tactics: his men would travel in small, highly mobile and heavily armed attachments, wreak havoc in the often sluggish Mughal or Adil Shahi armies, loot supplies and treasure and quickly retreat.
• Crucial to such plans were hill forts. Marathas forces would strike quickly and retreat to the many hill forts of the region.
• These forts were designed such that the approach to them was tricky, often treacherous, to large groups of men.
• Consequently, these were perfect defensive positions where either the bigger armies would not bother to attack or would have to sacrifice their strength in numbers if they did choose to attack.

Hill forts also were constructed such that they were perfect vantage points to keep a lookout for any threat. "There should not be a higher point near the fort amongst the surrounding hills," wrote Ramchandrra Pant Amatya, Shivaji's Finance Minister.

 

• Often, if there were higher points nearby, smaller forts would be constructed there.
• This can be seen in the case of the Purandar fort, which is flanked by the smaller Vajragad fort.

6. Creating an empire with the help of hill forts

• What hill forts effectively allowed Shivaji to do was project his power, beyond what would have been possible through conventional means.
• The relative safety of his forts allowed him to successfully carry his lighting tactics while fighting formidable enemies.
• As his territories grew, these forts became all the more important, as local strongholds and seats of local administration.
• From forts nestled atop great heights, he could govern the land around. They also became symbols that projected his power and presence.
• The Maratha Empire emerged from humble beginnings. While a variety of factors, concerning both the Marathas and their rivals, contributed to their rise, the significance of hill forts cannot be overlooked.

For Prelims & Mains

 

For Prelims: Chhatrapati Shivaji, Maratha Empire, Guerilla Tactics, Mughal Empire For Mains: 1. Why were forts so important for the consolidation of the Maratha Empire? discuss the uniqueness of these forts. (250 Words)

 

Source: The Indian Express