ONE NATION-ONE ELECTION
1. Context
2. About the ONOE Plan
- The ONOE plan revolves around a core concept synchronizing the timing of Lok Sabha (India's lower house of Parliament) and State Assembly elections across all states.
- The primary objective is to reduce the frequency of elections throughout the country.
3. Historical Perspective on Simultaneous Elections
- Taking a historical glance, the first-ever general elections to Lok Sabha and all State Assemblies occurred simultaneously in 1951-1952, immediately following the enforcement of the Constitution on January 26, 1950.
- This practice persisted through three subsequent Lok Sabha elections until 1967 when it was disrupted.
- The initial disruption took place in 1959 when Article 356 of the Constitution was invoked by the Centre to dismiss the Kerala government.
- Subsequently, due to political defections and counter-defections, several Legislative Assemblies dissolved post-1960, ultimately leading to separate elections for Lok Sabha and State Assemblies.
- Presently, assembly polls in the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Andhra Pradesh, and Odisha are held in conjunction with Lok Sabha elections.
4. Insights from Reports on ONOE
- In August 2018, the Law Commission of India (LCI), chaired by Justice B. S. Chauhan, released a draft report on simultaneous elections.
- This comprehensive report analyzed the constitutional and legal aspects of the ONOE issue.
- Notably, the LCI submitted that simultaneous elections are not feasible within the current framework of the Constitution.
- The LCI emphasized that conducting simultaneous polls would require amendments to the Constitution, the Representation of the People's Act 1951, and the Rules of Procedure of Lok Sabha and State Assemblies.
- Furthermore, the commission recommended that this proposal receive ratification from at least 50% of the states.
- However, in terms of the benefits of simultaneous elections, the commission argued that ONOE would result in substantial cost savings, reduced strain on the administrative setup and security forces, timely implementation of government policies, and a shift of managerial focus towards development activities instead of electioneering.
- Notably, this is not the first time such a proposal has been made, as a similar recommendation was made by the LCI in 1999, headed by Justice B. P. Jeevan Reddy.
5. Concerns Surrounding ONOE
- The feasibility of ONOE is a matter of paramount concern. Articles 83(2) and 172 of the Constitution specify that the tenure of Lok Sabha and State Assemblies, respectively, shall last for five years unless dissolved earlier.
- However, Article 356 provides for circumstances where assemblies can be dissolved earlier.
- Consequently, the ONOE plan raises crucial questions, such as what would happen if the Central or State government collapses mid-tenure.
- Would elections be held again in every state, or would President's rule be imposed
- Amending the Constitution to implement such a significant change would necessitate extensive consideration of various scenarios and provisions and could set a concerning precedent for further constitutional amendments.
- Another critical concern relates to the idea of ONOE not aligning with the concept of 'federalism.'
- Federalism is established on the notion that the entire nation is a "Union of States," which appears to contradict the concept of 'one nation' proposed by ONOE.
6. Benefits of Recurrent Elections
- The present system of recurrent elections is viewed by some as beneficial in a democracy.
- It allows voters to have their voices heard more frequently and ensures that issues at the national and state levels remain distinct.
- This separation of issues promotes greater accountability among elected officials.
- The Central government has highlighted the substantial costs associated with frequent elections as a key motivator for ONOE.
- The Election Commission's expenditure of ₹8,000 crore over five years, equivalent to ₹1,500 crore annually or ₹27 per voter per year, can truly be considered a 'massive' expense for maintaining India's status as the world's largest electoral democracy.
8. The Way Forward
- The 'One Nation, One Election' plan presents both advantages and challenges that warrant careful consideration and debate.
- It is essential to weigh the benefits of reduced election frequency against the potential disruption to the democratic process and the fundamental principles of federalism and accountability.
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For Prelims: One Nation-One Election, Article 356, Law Commission of India, Representation of the People's Act 1951, Article 83(2), Article 172, federalism,
For Mains:
1. What is One Nation-One Election? Explain how having simultaneous elections across Lok Sabha and State assemblies counter federalism. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. If the President of India exercises his power as provided under Article 356 of the Constitution in respect of a particular State, then (UPSC 2018)
A. the Assembly of the State is automatically dissolved.
B. the powers of the Legislature of that State shall be exercisable by or under the authority of the Parliament.
C. Article 19 is suspended in that State.
D. the President can make laws relating to that State.
Answer: B
2. What is the provision in Article 356 of Indian Constitution? (Soldier Technical Paper 2021)
A. For jobs in reservation of backward classes
B. To impose President's rule in the states
C. For the protection of religious monument
D. To give special status to Jammu and kashmir
Answer: B
3. According to the Representation of the People Act, 1951, in the event of a person being elected to both houses of Parliament, he has to notify within ______ days in which house he intends to function. (Delhi Police Constable 2020)
A. 22 B. 10 C. 20 D. 15
Answer: B
4. Under what Article of the Constitution of India can the President take over the administration of a state in case its constitutional machinery breaks down? (MP Police Constable 2016)
A. Article 83 B. Article 352 C. Article 356 D. Article 343
Answer: C
5. Which one of the following in Indian Polity is an essential feature that indicates that it is federal in character? (UPSC 2021)
A. The independence of judiciary is safeguarded
B. The Union Legislature has elected representatives from constituent units
C. The Union Cabinet can have elected representatives from regional parties
D. The Fundamental Rights are enforceable by Courts of Law
Answer: A
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ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK (ADB)
- The Asian Development Bank (ADB) is a regional development bank established to promote social and economic development in Asia and the Pacific. Founded in 1966, ADB’s main goal is to reduce poverty and improve the quality of life for people in its member countries. It achieves this by providing loans, grants, technical assistance, and policy advice to governments and private enterprises.
- Headquartered in Manila, Philippines, the bank was created in response to the need for a financial institution that could support the development efforts of Asian countries, especially those emerging from colonial rule or struggling with underdevelopment. Its founding vision was to create a prosperous, inclusive, resilient, and sustainable Asia-Pacific region.
- ADB has 68 member countries, with both regional members (from Asia and the Pacific) and non-regional members (such as the United States and several European nations). Each member contributes to the bank’s capital and has a say in how it operates, although the influence of countries depends on the size of their financial contributions.
- The bank primarily focuses on sectors such as infrastructure, education, healthcare, agriculture, climate change, and regional integration. Over time, ADB has evolved to address more complex challenges, including gender equality, environmental sustainability, and digital transformation.
- ADB works closely with national governments, other international financial institutions, and the private sector. It also plays a key role in mobilizing investments and fostering cooperation among countries in the region.
The Asian Development Bank (ADB) was formed to address the urgent need for economic development and regional cooperation in Asia and the Pacific after World War II.
During the 1950s and early 1960s, many Asian countries were either newly independent or still recovering from the devastation of war. These nations faced widespread poverty, weak infrastructure, poor healthcare, low literacy rates, and a lack of industrial development. There was a strong need for financial support, technical expertise, and a platform for regional cooperation to help them grow and modernize.
At that time, existing global institutions like the World Bank were providing assistance, but Asia needed a dedicated regional institution that understood the specific challenges and development priorities of the region. The idea of a development bank for Asia gained momentum, especially with support from Japan and other industrialized countries, and in 1966, the ADB was officially established with its headquarters in Manila, Philippines.
In essence, ADB was formed to:
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Reduce poverty and improve the living standards in Asia and the Pacific.
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Mobilize resources for the region’s development, especially infrastructure and rural development.
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Promote economic growth and regional cooperation among member countries.
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Provide loans, grants, and technical expertise to both public and private sectors.
As of now, the Asian Development Bank (ADB) has 68 member countries.
Out of these:
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49 are from Asia and the Pacific region (regional members)
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19 are from outside the region (non-regional members), such as the United States, Canada, Germany, France, and the United Kingdom
Every member country holds shares in the bank and has a say in its governance, although voting power is weighted based on the size of their capital contributions.
This broad membership helps ADB pool financial resources and expertise from around the world to support development efforts in Asia and the Pacific
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For Prelims: Asian Development Bank, India's Gross Domestic Product, Capital expenditure, Current account deficit, Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership
For Mains: GS II - Asian development bank (ADB), Asian Infrastructure investment bank (AIIB)
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Previous Year Questions
1.Consider the following statements: (2020)
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only Answer (b) 2. Which one among the following South Asian countries has the highest population density? (2009) (a) India Answer (a) 3. The term ‘Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership’ often appears in the news in the context of the affairs of a group of countries known as (2016) (a) G20 Answer (b) |
SPARTAENAE KARIGIRI
A group of scientists has discovered a previously unknown species of jumping spider from the Spartaeinae subfamily in southern India. This group of spiders is noted for its clever hunting methods and its ability to invade other spiders’ webs. According to the researchers, this may be the first recorded instance of the genera Spartaeus and Sonoita—previously observed only in Southeast Asia and Africa—being identified in India. In their natural habitat, the male specimen was found concealed within rocky crevices, while the female was observed protecting a clutch of eggs.
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Spartaeinae is a primitive subfamily of jumping spiders, known for their unusual hunting techniques.
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Unlike most jumping spiders that rely on direct vision and leaping attacks, many Spartaeinae are araneophagic, meaning they prey on other spiders.
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They show intelligent hunting behavior, often mimicking vibrations on webs to lure other spiders.
Habitat and Discovery:
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The species was discovered in the Karigiri Hills, a hill range in Tamil Nadu, India.
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This area is a part of the Eastern Ghats, which is known for its rich biodiversity.
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These spiders are typically found in forest undergrowth, leaf litter, or shrubs, and they thrive in warm, moist environments.
- A new species of jumping spider, named Spartaeus karigiri, has been identified by researchers in the southern region of India. This discovery marks a significant addition to the country's biodiversity and provides valuable insights into the distribution of the Spartaeinae subfamily of spiders.
- This finding is particularly noteworthy as it represents the first documented record of the genus Spartaeus in India. Previously, members of this genus were known to inhabit areas in East and Southeast Asia. The discovery of S. karigiri in India extends the known geographical range of this group of jumping spiders.
- Spartaeus karigiri belongs to the family Salticidae, commonly known as jumping spiders, which is the largest family of spiders. The subfamily Spartaeinae, to which this new species belongs, is considered to be a basal group, meaning it diverged early in the evolutionary history of jumping spiders. They are known for their often-unusual hunting techniques and morphology compared to other jumping spiders
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For Prelims: Jumping spider, Spartaeinae subfamily, Karigiri Hills, Eastern Ghats
For Mains: GS III - Biodiversity Hotspots, Eastern Ghats biodiversity
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SPECIAL ECONOMIC ZONES (SEZ)
- Special Economic Zones (SEZs) are specifically demarcated geographical areas within a country that are governed by unique economic regulations and business laws, which are different from those applicable in the rest of the country.
- These zones are established with the primary aim of attracting foreign and domestic investment, boosting exports, generating employment, and encouraging industrial growth by providing a more liberal economic environment.
- The concept of SEZs gained momentum globally after their success in countries like China, where regions such as Shenzhen transformed into massive industrial and commercial hubs.
- India adopted the SEZ model in the early 2000s with the enactment of the Special Economic Zones Act, 2005, which provided a comprehensive legal framework for their establishment, operation, and regulation.
- Within an SEZ, companies often enjoy a host of incentives and facilities. These may include tax exemptions on income, customs and excise duties, and relaxed labor and environmental norms. The idea is to reduce bureaucratic hurdles and create an investor-friendly climate that encourages industries, especially those focused on export-oriented production, to flourish.
- Moreover, SEZs are treated as foreign territories for the purpose of trade operations, duties, and tariffs. This means that goods and services entering an SEZ from the rest of the country are treated as exports, and those leaving an SEZ to the domestic tariff area are considered imports. This unique status allows businesses in SEZs to operate with greater flexibility and global competitiveness.
- However, SEZs in India have not been without criticism. While they have succeeded in some areas in boosting exports and creating jobs, concerns have been raised over land acquisition practices, uneven regional development, and the environmental impact of industrialization. Additionally, the promise of large-scale employment and export-led growth has not materialized uniformly across all SEZs.
- In recent years, the Indian government has been looking to revamp and repurpose SEZs to align them with new economic goals, including the Make in India initiative and the promotion of green and digital manufacturing.
- As India aims to become a global manufacturing and logistics hub, SEZs are likely to play a key role, provided regulatory and infrastructural bottlenecks are addressed effectively
- Semiconductors are fundamental to our increasingly digital world, serving as the core components behind technologies like artificial intelligence and machine learning—part of a broader trend of growing automation and electronic integration.
- These minute chips enable the processing of large volumes of data, powering devices such as smartphones, laptops, tablets, smart TVs, voice assistants, vehicles, and virtually all modern electronic equipment.
- In 2021, data from the Semiconductor Industry Association indicated that China produced nearly 35% of the global semiconductor output.
- The disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic exposed the vulnerabilities of heavily centralized supply chains, prompting countries, including India, to recognize the strategic risk of relying on a single nation for critical components.
- As a result, many nations began efforts to strengthen and expand their own domestic semiconductor manufacturing capabilities
- On June 9, the Ministry of Commerce and Industry announced that it had recently made several changes to the Special Economic Zones (SEZ) Rules, 2006, aimed at promoting local semiconductor manufacturing.
- One key change involved amending Rule 5, which previously mandated that SEZs dedicated solely to semiconductor or electronic component production must cover a minimum of 50 hectares of contiguous land.
- This requirement has now been eased, reducing the land size threshold to just 10 hectares. This adjustment is expected to lower the entry barrier for companies, enabling smaller investments while still offering access to SEZ incentives like tax breaks, duty-free imports, and infrastructure assistance.
- Another notable revision was made to Rule 7, which earlier required SEZ land to be entirely “encumbrance-free”—meaning it should be free of any legal claims, liens, or disputes and should have a clear and transferable title.
- Given the complexities of India’s land ownership systems and often time-consuming legal procedures, this requirement posed significant delays. The updated rule now gives the Board of Approval the discretion to relax this condition, allowing SEZs to be established more efficiently.
- The third change was to Rule 18, which now permits SEZ units involved in semiconductor and electronic component production to sell within the domestic market upon payment of applicable duties.
- Traditionally, SEZs have focused on exports. This shift not only provides a safeguard against global market volatility but also strengthens domestic supply chains by enabling steady availability of these critical components in the local market
The primary aim of the policy is to:
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Attract global semiconductor manufacturers to set up fabrication (fab) units in India.
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Promote design, fabrication, packaging, and testing of semiconductors.
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Create a skilled workforce for the semiconductor ecosystem.
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Enable India’s transition from being a consumer to a producer of semiconductors.
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Strengthen India’s position in global supply chains and reduce strategic vulnerabilities.
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For Prelims: Semicon India Programme, India Semiconductor Mission, Micron investment, India-USA semiconductor cooperation
For Mains: Self-reliance in technology, strategic industries, manufacturing and innovation, supply chain resilience
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SHANGHAI COOPERATION ORGANISATION
1. Context
2. About Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
- The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) is a Eurasian political, economic, international security and defence organisation.
- It is the world's largest regional organization in terms of geographic scope and population, covering approximately 60% of the area of Eurasia, and 40% of the world's population. Its combined GDP is around 20% of global GDP.
- The SCO was founded in 2001 by China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.
2.1. Structure
The SCO has several bodies that oversee its activities, including
- The Council of Heads of State, which is the supreme decision-making body of the SCO.
- The Council of Heads of Government, which is responsible for overseeing the implementation of the decisions of the Council of Heads of State.
- The Council of Foreign Ministers, which is responsible for coordinating the foreign policies of the SCO member states.
- The Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS), which is responsible for combating terrorism, separatism and extremism in the SCO region and
- The SCO Secretariat, which is responsible for the day-to-day running of the organization.
2.2. Members
- The SCO has eight full members China, India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.
- It also has six observer states Afghanistan, Belarus, Iran, Mongolia, Nepal and Sri Lanka.
- And six dialogue partners Armenia, Azerbaijan, Cambodia, Egypt, Qatar and Saudi Arabia.
2.3. Goals
- Political and security cooperation, including the fight against terrorism, separatism and extremism
- Economic cooperation, including trade, investment, energy and transportation
- Cultural and humanitarian cooperation and
- Coordination of positions on major international issues.
3. Criticism
- The SCO has been criticized by some for being a tool of Chinese and Russian imperialism.
- However, the organization has also been praised for its role in promoting stability and security in Central Asia.
4. The Way Forward
- The SCO has been expanding its membership in recent years, and it may continue to do so in the future.
- The organization is seen by some as a potential rival to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and its growing influence is being watched closely by the United States and its allies.
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For Prelims: SCO, NATO, India, Central Asia, United States, China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, terrorism,
For Mains:
1. Examine the potential challenges and opportunities for India as a full member of the SCO, highlighting its implications for India's political, economic, and security interests. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) Heads of State Summit was held on 10th November, 2020 in the video conference format. The Summit was hosted by: (OPSC OAS 2021)
A. Russia B. India C. Kazakhstan D. Uzbekistan
Answer: A
2. The Summit of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) was hosted by which country from 15-16 September 2022? (Rajasthan CET 2023)
A. Kazakhstan B. Tajikistan C. Uzbekistan D. India
Answer: C
3. The area known as 'Golan Heights' sometimes appears in the news in the context of the events related to (UPSC 2015)
A. Central Asia B. Middle East C. South-East Asia D. Central Africa
Answer: B
4. Siachen Glacier is situated to the (UPSC 2020)
A. East of Aksai Chin B. East of Leh C. North of Gilgit D. North of Nubra Valley
Answer: D
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GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT FACILITY (GEF)
- The Global Environment Facility (GEF) is an international partnership and financial mechanism established in 1991 to address some of the world's most pressing environmental challenges.
- It was created in response to the growing recognition that global environmental issues such as biodiversity loss, climate change, land degradation, and pollution required coordinated global action and financial resources.
- The GEF plays a pivotal role in funding projects that benefit the global environment while also promoting sustainable development in recipient countries. It works as a partnership among 184 countries, international institutions, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and private sector actors.
- The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and the World Bank are its implementing agencies, ensuring that resources are directed efficiently to projects that align with its goals.
- GEF funding is primarily directed toward developing countries and countries with economies in transition. These funds help nations meet their obligations under major international environmental conventions, such as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), and others.
- Projects funded by the GEF often focus on areas such as renewable energy, sustainable agriculture, conservation of endangered species, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and combating land degradation.
- Since its inception, the GEF has provided over $22 billion in grants and leveraged more than $120 billion in co-financing for over 5,000 projects worldwide. It has also supported thousands of small-scale projects through its Small Grants Programme, empowering local communities and grassroots organizations to take action in protecting their environments.
- The GEF operates in replenishment cycles, where donor countries contribute funds that are then used over a four-year period. It has become a cornerstone of global environmental finance, with its efforts evolving to address new challenges, such as the protection of international waters and tackling pollutants like mercury and plastics.
- Overall, the GEF exemplifies the spirit of international cooperation, emphasizing that environmental protection and sustainable development are interconnected goals requiring collaborative global action.
- Its work is vital in ensuring that countries, particularly those with fewer resources, have the means to address environmental issues for the benefit of current and future generations
- The financial resources for these conventions are overseen by the Global Environment Facility (GEF), an international funding mechanism headquartered in the United States.
- GEF is set to initiate negotiations for its ninth replenishment in January 2025, which will secure funding through 2030.
- In addition to managing finances for the three Rio Conventions — the UN Convention on Biological Diversity, the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, and the UN Convention to Combat Desertification — GEF also administers funding for other environmental treaties, such as the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants and the Minamata Convention on Mercury.
- These discussions come at a critical time, as Parties to the Rio Conventions have expressed the need for increased funding to achieve their targets, citing significant financial shortfalls.
- For instance, addressing desertification will require $355 billion annually from 2025 to 2030, with an estimated funding gap of $278 billion. Similarly, the Global Biodiversity Framework highlights a biodiversity finance gap of $700 billion per year through 2030.
- During its eighth replenishment cycle, GEF secured pledges totaling $5.33 billion, with an ambitious co-financing ratio of 1:7. However, to bridge the substantial funding gaps, the ninth replenishment process will need to explore innovative ways to mobilize additional resources.
- This negotiation process, spanning 18 months, aims to determine how funds can be generated and allocated for the period of 2026-2030.
- At present, GEF appears to be stretched thin. During its 68th Council meeting in December, a nearly $700 million Work Program was approved, highlighting the growing scale of its commitments
The Council is responsible for several key functions, including:
- Reviewing and approving GEF policies, operational strategies, and funding decisions.
- Overseeing the use of GEF funds, ensuring that they are directed toward projects that align with global environmental goals.
- Monitoring and evaluating the implementation of GEF-funded projects to ensure accountability and effectiveness.
- Approving the GEF Work Program, which includes projects and programs submitted for funding.
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For Prelims: Global Environment Facility (GEF), Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
For Mains: GS III - Environment & Ecology
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Previous Year Questions
1.With reference to ‘Global Environment Facility’, which of the following statements is/are correct? (2014) (a) It serves as financial mechanism for ‘Convention on Biological Diversity’ and ‘United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change’ Answer (a)
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CORAL BLEACH IN 2023
- The primary cause of coral bleaching is the rising sea temperatures associated with climate change.
- When the water becomes too warm, corals become stressed, and as a survival mechanism, they expel the algae, which leads to the loss of their main source of food.
- Without the colourful algae, the corals appear bleached and are more vulnerable to disease and death
- Other factors can contribute to coral bleaching as well, including ocean acidification, pollution, and extreme weather events.
- All of these stressors can weaken the corals and make them more susceptible to bleaching.
- Coral bleaching is a significant concern for the health and survival of coral reefs around the world.
- Repeated or prolonged bleaching events can lead to mass coral die-offs, causing the loss of biodiversity and the degradation of entire reef ecosystems
- Coral reefs are hot spots of biodiversity. They are often referred to as the rainforests of the sea because they are home to the highest concentrations of species in the ocean.
- Healthy reefs are vibrant ecosystems that support fish and fisheries, which in turn support economies and food for millions of people
- Additionally, they provide billions of dollars in economic activity every year through tourism, particularly in places like the Florida Keys, where people go to scuba dive, snorkel, fish and experience the natural beauty of coral reefs
- If that isn’t enough, reefs also protect shorelines, beaches and billions of dollars in coastal infrastructure by buffering wave energy, particularly during storms and hurricanes.
- They host a microscopic symbiotic algae called zooxanthella that photosynthesizes just like plants, providing food to the coral
Coral reefs are in danger, and there are many things that can be done to protect them. Here are some of the most important actions that individuals, businesses, and governments can take:
- Reduce your carbon footprint. The main threat to coral reefs is climate change, so reducing your carbon emissions is one of the most important things you can do to help. This means driving less, using less energy at home, and eating less meat.
- Support sustainable fishing practices. Overfishing is another major threat to coral reefs. When fish populations are depleted, it can lead to algae blooms that smother coral reefs. Choose to eat seafood that is sustainably caught, and support businesses that practice sustainable fishing methods.
- Use reef-friendly sunscreen. Some sunscreen ingredients can be harmful to coral reefs. Choose a reef-friendly sunscreen that does not contain oxybenzone or octinoxate.
- Support marine protected areas. Marine protected areas (MPAs) are areas of the ocean where fishing and other human activities are restricted. MPAs can help to protect coral reefs by reducing the amount of pollution and fishing pressure they face.
- Volunteer your time to coral reef conservation efforts. There are many organizations that are working to protect coral reefs. You can volunteer your time to help with beach cleanups, coral reef monitoring, or other conservation efforts.
- Establish Marine Protected Areas (MPAs): Designating and effectively managing marine protected areas can help protect coral reefs and the surrounding marine life from destructive activities such as overfishing, pollution, and habitat destruction.
- Encourage Responsible Tourism: Sustainable tourism practices can minimize the negative impacts on coral reefs. This includes promoting responsible diving and snorkeling practices, limiting physical contact with corals, and avoiding the use of harmful chemicals like sunscreen that can harm marine life
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For Prelims: Corals, Coral reefs, polyps, zooxanthellae
For Mains: 1.Examine the major human-induced threats to coral reefs, including pollution, overfishing, and coastal development. What measures can be taken to address these threats and conserve coral reef ecosystems?
2.Assess the role of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in safeguarding coral reefs. Discuss the challenges in establishing and effectively managing MPAs for coral reef conservation. |
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Previous Year Questions
1. Consider the following Statements
1. Most of the coral reefs are in tropical waters
2. More than one-third of the world's coral reefs are located in territories of Australia, Indonesia, and Phillippines
3. Coral reefs host far more number of animal phyla than those hosted by tropical rainforests
Which of the statements above given is/ are correct
A. 1 and 2 B. 3 Only C. 1 and 3 D.1, 2, 3
Answer- D
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POLAR RESEARCH VEHICLE (PRV)
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A Polar Research Vessel (PRV) is a specialized ship designed for conducting scientific studies in the polar areas near the Arctic and Antarctic. It also supports oceanographic research, equipped with cutting-edge instruments that allow scientists to investigate deep-sea environments and marine biodiversity.
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India currently runs three research stations in the polar zones — Bharati and Maitri in Antarctica, and Himadri in the Arctic. The country has long aimed to acquire its own PRV to bolster its independent research capabilities.
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The National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR), functioning under the Ministry of Earth Sciences, is the main agency overseeing India's scientific missions to the Arctic, Antarctic, and the Himalayan regions.
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The polar areas offer untouched natural settings that are ideal for examining various scientific fields such as atmospheric, oceanic, biological, geological, and glaciological sciences. Growing concerns over climate change have recently increased the focus on Arctic studies.
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The Arctic’s sea ice has been steadily diminishing over the past few decades, with a 12.6% decrease in ice coverage per decade over the last 40 years, according to a 2023 MIT Climate Portal report. Research missions have explored topics including winter lightning activity in the Arctic, how precipitation patterns affect climate, radio frequency conditions, and the impact of aerosols on climate change. The initiative to construct India's first polar research vessel marks a major milestone in this context
- A Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) was signed in Oslo, witnessed by Sarbananda Sonowal, India’s Union Minister for Ports, Shipping, and Waterways. He described it as a significant step toward promoting scientific research, enhancing India’s strengths in polar and marine studies, and supporting international initiatives to tackle critical issues such as climate change
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Arctic Council
The region located north of latitude 66° 34’ N, known as the Arctic Circle, spans across parts of eight nations — the United States, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, and Sweden — all of which are members of the Arctic Council. This area also includes the Arctic Ocean. Scientific activities in the Arctic are regulated by various international agreements, such as the 1920 Svalbard Treaty and the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, in addition to the national laws of the Arctic states
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India became a signatory to the Svalbard Treaty in Paris in 1920. As per the Arctic Portal website, this treaty grants Norway absolute sovereignty over the Svalbard archipelago. Svalbard is officially a territory of Norway, which holds the authority to implement and uphold laws applicable to the region.
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India’s involvement in Arctic research began in 2007 when a team of five Indian scientists visited the International Arctic Research Facilities at Ny-Ålesund. The visit aimed to start studies in areas like Arctic microbiology, atmospheric science, and geology. India established its own research base, Himadri, in July 2008.
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In Antarctica, India established its first research base, Dakshin Gangotri, in 1983, two years after its inaugural expedition to the continent. Although Dakshin Gangotri is now buried under ice, the other two stations, Maitri and Bharati, remain active. These operations fall under the governance of the Antarctic Treaty.
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The Antarctic Treaty was signed on December 1, 1959, by 12 nations — including countries like the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and Australia — with the aim of promoting peaceful activities and collaborative scientific research in Antarctica.
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As of now, the treaty has 56 member countries. Among them, 29 nations — including the 12 founding members — hold the status of ‘Consultative Parties,’ meaning they have a role in shaping policy decisions. India, which became a member in 1983, is also recognized as a Consultative Party.
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India is taking significant steps to revitalize its shipbuilding industry. The Union Budget for 2025 introduced several key initiatives, including the creation of maritime mega clusters, a ₹25,000-crore Maritime Development Fund (MDF), customs duty waivers, and the designation of infrastructure status for large vessels, all aimed at strengthening the sector.
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The ₹25,000 crore Maritime Development Fund is designed to offer broad-based support and encourage competitive growth. The government will provide 49% of the funding, while the remaining portion will come from contributions by ports and private players.
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India’s growing investment in shipbuilding hubs comes as outward payments for transport services continue to rise due to increasing exports. In 2022 alone, over $109 billion was paid by Indian traders for transportation services.
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The MDF aims to support ship purchases and expand the share of Indian-flagged vessels in global shipping to 20% by the year 2047. Additionally, the fund is projected to drive up to ₹1.5 lakh crore in investments in the shipping industry by 2030.
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The budget also continued support for the Shipbuilding Financial Assistance Policy (SBFAP) 2.0, allocating ₹18,090 crore. This policy provides direct financial aid to Indian shipyards to improve their global competitiveness
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For Prelims: National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR), polar research vehicle (PRV)
For Mains: GS III - Research centres at poles
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Previous Year Questions
1.Consider the following countries: (UPSC CSE 2014) 1. Denmark 2. Japan 3. Russian Federation 4. United Kingdom 5. United States of America Which of the above are the members of the ‘Arctic Council’? (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 3 and 5 only Answer (d) |
INITIAL PUBLIC OFFERING (IPO)
IPO stands for Initial Public Offering. Put simply, it is the process by which a company goes public.
It refers to the process by which a privately held company, or a government-owned enterprise like LIC, raises funds by offering shares to the public or to new investors.The IPO is the first step in the process of listing a company on the stock exchange.
In India, a company listing an IPO first has to file its offer document with the market regulator, Securities and Exchange Board of India (Sebi). The offer document contains all relevant information about the company, its promoters, its projects, financial details, the object of raising the money, terms of the issue, etc
3. Significance of IPO
A company often chooses to list on the stock exchange mainly to secure funding. Additionally, it helps expand and diversify its group of shareholders. Being listed requires the company to follow stricter disclosure norms and regulatory compliance, which ultimately protects the interests of shareholders. Moreover, it offers a convenient exit route for current investors
An Initial Public Offering (IPO) marks a major milestone for any company. It represents the transition from a privately held entity to a publicly traded one and brings several key benefits and strategic advantages:
- The most important reason for launching an IPO is to raise funds. The money raised can be used for business expansion, product development, debt repayment, infrastructure upgrades, or other strategic initiatives
- Going public significantly increases a company's brand recognition and trust among investors, customers, and partners. It demonstrates a level of transparency and financial strength that boosts the company’s reputation
- An IPO enables a company to broaden its shareholder base, reducing the ownership concentration among founders and early investors. This can bring in a wide range of institutional and retail investors
- Listing on the stock exchange provides a market for buying and selling shares, allowing early investors, promoters, and employees holding equity to exit or liquidate their holdings over time.
- Public companies are required to follow stricter regulatory norms and disclose financial and operational information regularly. This promotes better transparency, governance, and accountability—beneficial for both investors and the company
- With public listing, companies can offer Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPs), making it easier to attract and retain talent by offering equity-based incentives that can be traded on the stock exchange
4. Eligibility
In India, the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) has set specific eligibility norms that companies must fulfill before they can raise funds from the public:
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The company should possess net tangible assets worth at least ₹3 crore and a net worth of ₹1 crore or more in each of the last three complete financial years.
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Additionally, it must have recorded an average pre-tax profit of ₹15 crore or more in at least three out of the five most recent financial years
The IPO share price is determined by the issuing company in collaboration with the merchant banker. This pricing is based on several factors, including the company's assets, income, profit margins, and anticipated future cash flows. Once the overall valuation is established, it is divided by the total number of shares to be available after the offer to calculate the price per share.
It is important to note that SEBI, the market regulator, does not have any involvement in setting this price
6.Who can invest in IPO?
Anyone who is 18 years or older can participate in investing, provided they have a brokerage account.
There are different types of investors eligible to apply for IPOs:
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Qualified Institutional Buyers (QIBs): This group includes entities such as foreign portfolio investors (FPIs), mutual funds, banks, insurance firms, and pension funds.
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Retail Individual Investors (RIIs): These are individuals who apply for an amount up to ₹2 lakh in a single IPO.
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High Net Worth Individuals (HNIs): Retail investors who invest more than ₹2 lakh fall under this category
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For Prelims: The Companies Act, 2013, The Securities and Exchange Board of India Act, 1992, The Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act, 1956 (SCRA), The Depositories Act, 1996, Securities exanchange board of India (SEBI).
For Mains: 1. Explain how stock market is regulated in India and discuss the objectives of SEBI?
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Source: Indianexpress
BOW ECHO
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A Bow Echo is a radar signature of a severe thunderstorm that has a characteristic bow-shaped (arc-like) appearance. It typically indicates strong straight-line winds and is often associated with damaging windstorms, known as derechos
A bow echo refers to a line of thunderstorms, also known as a squall line, that appears bow-shaped on radar. At times, this bow echo may be part of a larger squall line system. It typically spans a distance of 20 to 100 kilometers and can persist for three to six hours. The term "bow echo" was first introduced in the 1970s by Ted Fujita, a renowned Japanese-American meteorologist who also created the tornado classification scale known as the Fujita Scale
- When cool air from rainfall descends and spreads across the ground, it creates a boundary known as the gust front, which separates the cooler air from the warm, moist air at the surface. This boundary forces the warm air to rise into the atmosphere, triggering the formation of new thunderstorms.
- These fresh storms bring more rainfall, producing additional cool air, which helps reinforce the gust front. As this cycle continues, the airflow begins to enter from the rear of the storm line, causing it to curve into a bow-like shape, similar to an archer’s bow. The process sustains itself as long as new thunderstorms form ahead of the system, allowing it to intensify and advance with strong winds
4. Effects of bow echo
- Damaging Straight-Line Winds Bow echoes produce severe straight-line winds that can cause major damage, with an axis of enhanced winds that spread horizontally and repeatedly enforce the bowing structure.Wind speeds can reach extreme levels, with 100+ mph winds reported in severe cases
- Downbursts and Microbursts All along the leading edge of bow echoes, thunderstorms may produce downbursts and microbursts
- Macroburst and microburst winds are common with these storms creating concentrated areas of extremely damaging winds that hit the ground and spread outward
- Brief Tornado Formation Bow echoes can occasionally produce tornadoesthough these are typically brief and weaker than supercell tornadoes. Weak to occasionally strong tornadoes may occurespecially near the bookend vortices at the ends of the bow structure.
- Surface Wind Damage The straight-line winds create distinctive damage patterns different from tornadoes:
- Trees blown down in the same direction rather than twisted
- Structural damage to buildings from sustained high winds
- Power line failures creating widespread outages
- Agricultural crop damage over large areas
5. Way forward
Bow echoes are not a recent occurrence. For instance, on May 31, 2022, one developed over Delhi and Noida, although it lasted only about an hour and generated wind speeds reaching 100 km/h. A similar squall line was also noted during thunderstorm activity in Odisha earlier this month
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For Prelims: Flash floods, bow echo, Thunderstorms.
For Mains: 1. Analyze the major challenges and threats faced by the Yamuna River, including pollution, encroachments, and over-extraction of water. (250 words).
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Previous year questions1. Consider the following tributaries of River Yamuna and arrange them from West to East : (UPSC 2020)
1. Betwa
2. Ken
3. Sindh
4. Chambal
Select the correct answer from the codes given below.
A. 4, 3, 1 and 2
B. 1, 2, 3 and 4
C. 3, 2, 1 and 4
D. 2, 3, 1 and 4
Answer: A
2. Consider the following pairs: (UPSC 2019)
Glacier River
1. Bandarpunch Yamuna
2. Bara Shigri Chenab
3. Milam Mandakini
4. Siachen Nubra
5. Zemu Manas
Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
A. 1, 2 and 4
B. 1, 3 and 4
C. 2 and 5
D. 3 and 5
Answer: A
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