India and Nepal share a long and intertwined history, marked by cultural, religious, and economic connections. 

• Ancient Ties: The historical connections between the people of India and Nepal date back to ancient times. There have been exchanges of culture, traditions, and religious practices, particularly due to the influence of Hinduism and Buddhism in the region.
• Political Relations: The emergence of powerful kingdoms in the Indian subcontinent, such as the Maurya and Gupta empires, influenced the political landscape of Nepal. Over the centuries, various dynasties ruled both regions, and they often maintained close ties.
• Medieval Period: During the medieval period, both regions witnessed the spread of Islam, and the Mughal Empire's influence in India impacted the political dynamics in Nepal. The rulers of Nepal maintained their autonomy during this period.
• The British Influence: As the British East India Company expanded its influence in the Indian subcontinent, the territories surrounding Nepal were affected. However, Nepal managed to remain independent and maintained its sovereignty.
• Anglo-Nepalese War (1814-1816): The Anglo-Nepalese War took place between the British East India Company and the Kingdom of Nepal. The war concluded with the signing of the Sugauli Treaty in 1815, which defined the boundary between British India and Nepal, establishing the Kali River as the western boundary of Nepal.
• Treaty of Friendship (1950): The Treaty of Peace and Friendship signed in 1950 between India and Nepal is a crucial document that governs their relations. The treaty establishes close ties, including provisions for free movement of people and goods between the two countries.
• Economic Cooperation: Over the years, economic cooperation has played a significant role in India-Nepal relations. Trade, transit facilities, and developmental assistance have been important aspects of their bilateral cooperation.
• Cultural and People-to-People Ties: The cultural affinities between the people of India and Nepal have remained strong. The open border allows for extensive people-to-people interactions, and shared religious practices, especially Hinduism, further contribute to the close bond between the two nations.
• India and Nepal boast robust defence cooperation. India supports Nepal's military modernization through equipment, training, and disaster assistance. Joint exercises like SURYA KIRAN foster collaboration. Since 1950, Chiefs of the Army exchanged honorary ranks, symbolizing the deep bond. Gorkha regiments showcase this connection further.

The India-Nepal border dispute, simmering for decades, continues to be a major point of contention between the two nations. Understanding the complexities of this issue requires delving into its historical roots, contested areas, and ongoing efforts towards resolution.

Tracing the Origins

• Treaty of Sugauli (1816): This treaty between the British East India Company and Nepal defined the initial border, but ambiguities in the document sowed the seeds of future disagreements.
• Kalapani Valley: This strategically located valley at the confluence of the Kali and Mahakali rivers is a major flashpoint. Both India and Nepal claim ownership, each citing historical records and maps.
• Lipulekh Pass: This mountain pass provides access to Kailash Mansarovar, a sacred pilgrimage site for Hindus. India's construction of a road here in 2020 reignited tensions.
• Susta Area: Located in Nepal's Terai region, this fertile land along the Gandak River is another disputed territory.

Impact of the Dispute

• Strained Bilateral Relations: The border issue casts a shadow on the otherwise friendly ties between India and Nepal.
• Local Communities Affected: Uncertain land ownership hampers development projects and impacts the lives of people living along the border.
• Security Concerns: Unresolved territorial claims can potentially pose security risks in the region.

Efforts Towards Resolution

• Joint Technical Level Boundary Working Group (JTLBWG): Established in the 1980s, this group has successfully demarcated most of the border but remains deadlocked on the disputed areas.
• Diplomatic Consultations: Both countries engage in regular talks to find a solution, but progress has been slow.
• Public Discourse: Civil society groups and media in both countries play a role in raising awareness and advocating for peaceful resolution.

Nepal is important to India for various strategic, cultural, economic, and geopolitical reasons. The close relationship between the two countries is rooted in historical, geographical, and sociocultural ties. Here are several reasons why Nepal is significant to India:

• Nepal shares a long and open border with India. This geographical proximity fosters people-to-people connections, facilitates trade, and allows for easy movement of goods and people between the two countries.
• India and Nepal share deep cultural and religious ties, with Hinduism being the predominant religion in both nations. Many Hindu pilgrimage sites, such as Pashupatinath Temple and Lumbini (the birthplace of Lord Buddha), are located in Nepal, attracting pilgrims from India.
• Nepal holds strategic importance for India due to its location between India and China. The geopolitical dynamics of the region make Nepal a crucial player in India's efforts to maintain regional stability and security.
• Several rivers originating in Nepal flow into India, making water resources a significant aspect of the relationship. Cooperation on river management and water-sharing agreements is essential for both countries.
• India and Nepal engage in extensive economic cooperation, including trade and transit agreements. The open border facilitates the movement of goods, contributing to economic integration between the two nations.
• Both countries share concerns related to regional security, including counter-terrorism and the maintenance of peace in the region. Collaboration on security matters is crucial for addressing common challenges.
• The historical relationship between India and Nepal is characterized by mutual respect and support. The Treaty of Peace and Friendship signed in 1950 solidified the close ties and included provisions for economic and security cooperation.
• India and Nepal maintain diplomatic relations at various levels. High-level visits and diplomatic engagements help in addressing bilateral issues and strengthening the overall relationship.
• As both India and China seek to expand their influence in the region, Nepal's strategic position becomes crucial. India aims to maintain strong ties with Nepal to counterbalance any growing influence from other countries, including China.
• Given the shared borders and historical connections, a stable and friendly Nepal is vital for ensuring overall regional stability. India's interests in maintaining peace and harmony in its neighbourhood underscore the importance of a positive relationship with Nepal.

• Balancing Act: Nepal often engages in a delicate balancing act between its two large neighbours, India and China. It seeks to maintain cordial relations with both countries while safeguarding its own interests.
• Infrastructure Projects: China's infrastructure projects in Nepal, particularly under the BRI, have been a source of concern for India. The geopolitical implications of such projects contribute to the complexity of trilateral relations.
• Regional Stability: Stability in Nepal is crucial for both India and China to ensure regional peace and security. The three countries have overlapping interests in maintaining stability in the Himalayan region.

6. India's Neighbourhood First Policy 

India's Neighbourhood First Policy is a strategic foreign policy initiative aimed at prioritizing and strengthening relations with its immediate neighbours. This policy, which gained prominence in the early 2000s, seeks to:

• Build friendly and mutually beneficial relationships with all neighbouring countries.
• Engage in active development partnerships through infrastructure projects, economic cooperation, and knowledge sharing.
• Create a stable and secure regional environment conducive to collective growth and prosperity.
• Promote regional cooperation and integration on issues like trade, security, and cultural exchange.

Key Pillars of the Policy

• Consultative and non-reciprocal approach: Engaging neighbours with respect for their sovereignty and prioritizing their needs.
• Focus on outcome-oriented solutions: Delivering tangible benefits through concrete projects and initiatives.
• People-to-people contacts: Fostering cultural exchange, educational opportunities, and tourism to build lasting bonds.
• Security cooperation: Addressing regional security threats through collaboration and joint efforts.

Examples of Implementation

• Boosting trade and investment: Free trade agreements, border trade facilities, and infrastructure development projects.
• Cooperation in energy, water resources, and disaster management: Sharing expertise, technology, and resources for mutual benefit.
• Cultural exchange programs: Promoting understanding and appreciation of each other's traditions and languages.
• Security partnerships: Joint training exercises, intelligence sharing, and border management cooperation.

Challenges and Opportunities

• Internal conflicts and political instability in some neighbouring countries can hinder progress.
• Competition from other major powers like China for influence in the region.
• Building trust and resolving bilateral issues like border disputes require ongoing dialogue and diplomacy.

KUKI INSURGENCY

• Naga movement is the country’s longest-running insurgency, underground Kuki groups, too, have fought the Indian government for an ‘independent Kuki homeland’, spread across Manipur
• The Kuki insurgency gained momentum after ethnic clashes with the Nagas of Manipur in the early 1990s, with the Kuki arming themselves against Naga aggression
• While the two tribes have shared a hostile relationship since colonial times, things came to a head in the 1990s when the Naga-Kuki clashes took place
• Land that the Kukis claim to be their “homeland” in the Manipur hills overlaps with the imagined Naga homeland of Greater Nagaland or Nagalim
• As many as 115 Kuki men, women and children were believed to have been killed by the NSCN-IM in Tengnoupal in 1993

• The Kukis are an ethnic group including multiple tribes originally inhabiting the North-Eastern states of India such as Manipur, Mizoram and Assam; parts of Burma (now Myanmar), and Sylhet district and Chittagong hill tracts of Bangladesh.
• While Kuki is not a term coined by the ethnic group itself, the tribes associated with it came to be generically called Kuki under colonial rule

• In Manipur, the various Kuki tribes, living mainly in the hills, currently make up 30% of the total 28.5 lakh population of the State.
• The rest of the population of Manipur is made up mainly of two other ethnic groups: the Meiteis or non-tribal, Vaishnavite Hindus who live in the valley region of Manipur, and the Naga tribes, historically at loggerheads with the Kukis, also living in the hilly areas of the State
• Of the 60 seats in the Manipur Assembly, 40 are held by Meiteis and the rest 20 seats are held by Kukis and Nagas

The people of Manipur are grouped into three main ethnic communities – Meiteis those inhabiting the valley and 29 major tribes in the hills dividing into two main ethno-denominations, namely Nagas and Kuki-Chins

 

4.What is Suspension of Operations Pact

 

• There are nearly 30 Kuki insurgent groups in Manipur, of which 25 are under tripartite Suspension of Operations (SoO) with the Government of India and the state
• As many as 17 are under the umbrella group Kuki National Organisation (KNO), and eight are under the United People’s Front (UPF)
• The SoO pact was signed on August 22, 2008, with the primary objective of initiating political dialogue
• Talks are ongoing under AB Mathur, former special secretary of the Research and Analysis Wing (RAW), as the interlocutor
• The Kuki outfits who were initially demanding a separate Kuki state have come down to a ‘Kukiland territorial council’, which would have financial and administrative powers independent of the Manipur Assembly and government

5. Terms of the Pact

 

• While the period of the Suspension of Operation agreement is one year, it is extendable according to the progress of its implementation
• To oversee the effective implementation of the SoO pact, a committee called the Joint Monitoring Group (JMG), with representatives from all the signatories, has been formed
• The important terms under the pact are that security forces, including state and central forces, are not to launch any operations, nor can the underground groups
• The signatories of UPF and KNO shall abide by the Constitution of India, the laws of the land and the territorial integrity of Manipur
• They are prohibited from committing all kinds of atrocities, extortion, among others
• The militant cadres are to be confined in designated camps identified by the Government
• Arms are deposited in a safe room under a double-locking system. The groups are given arms only to guard their camps and protect their leaders
• As a rehabilitation package, the UG(Underground) cadres living in the designated camps are given a monthly stipend of Rs 5000
• Financial assistance is also being provided to maintain the designated camps

 

6. What is the Suspension of Operations (SoO) agreement?

 

Over the past 27 months, Manipur has experienced extended phases of unrest and displacement, a breakdown of governance, the rise of armed groups, a Lok Sabha election, the imposition of President’s Rule, and more recently, a slow decline in violence. The following outlines five major concerns in the state and their present status.

• Resettlement of displaced persons:
  Currently, more than 280 relief camps across Manipur are sheltering around 57,000 people who were forced to leave their homes, with many living there for over two years. Displacement has broadly occurred in two distinct forms. In July, the then Chief Secretary P.K. Singh introduced a three-stage resettlement programme aimed at closing down all relief camps by year-end.
• Mobility within the state:
  During the conflict, divisions between the valley and hill districts became sharper, preventing members of either community from moving freely in areas dominated by the other. These divides, monitored by security forces, have come to be known as “buffer zones.” While Kuki-Zo groups have agreed to permit the passage of essential supplies to the valley via highways, they continue to oppose Meitei movement across buffer zones. On the other hand, no comparable arrangement has been established to allow Kuki-Zo individuals safe access into the valley.
• Inter-community dialogue:
  For nearly 18 months, violent clashes between the two groups claimed over 250 lives, with the last major flare-up occurring in November 2024. Since then, the intensity of the conflict has subsided. The Ministry of Home Affairs is presently holding separate negotiations with both communities, and recently renewed the Suspension of Operations (SoO) agreement with Kuki-Zo insurgent groups under the banners of the Kuki National Organisation (KNO) and the United People’s Front (UPF).
• Government formation:
  Several NDA legislators from the valley and Naga regions have pressed for reinstating an elected government, citing public demand. However, the Union government has shown little interest in lifting President’s Rule, preferring to maintain the existing arrangement.
• Border concerns:
  The porous Indo-Myanmar border remains a contentious issue in the ongoing crisis. Meitei groups frequently allege that unchecked migration of Chin people from Myanmar—ethnically related to the Kuki-Zo—has contributed to instability. In response, the Centre has revoked the Free Movement Regime (which allowed border communities to cross up to 16 km into either country without a visa and stay for two weeks) and announced plans to fence the international border.
• Suspension of Operations (SoO):
  Initially signed in 2008 as a tripartite ceasefire between the Centre, the Manipur government, and insurgent groups under KNO and UPF, the SoO was meant to pave the way for political dialogue. The agreement has now been extended with revised conditions.

7.Conclusion

 

The SoO has been extended by the Government almost every year since 2008, with Kuki outfits threatening to breach the agreement by taking up arms again and boycotting the Government.

In 2012, the groups held a nearly eight month long blockade of highways around their area, costing the Government a couple of crores in losses each day.

 

For Prelims: Meitei and Kuki-Zo communities, Suspension of Operations (SoO) agreement, North-eastern region of India   For Mains: General Studies-II, III: Functions and responsibilities of the Union and the States, issues and challenges pertaining to the federal structure

 

Source: indianexpress

PROJECT TIGER

1. Context 

The Union Environment Ministry has approved the capture of eight tigers from the Tadoba-Andhari and Pench reserves for their translocation to the Sahyadri Tiger Reserve in western Maharashtra, a move aimed at reviving the big cat’s population in the northern Western Ghats.

 

2. About Project Tiger

• The Government of India launched "Project Tiger" on 1st April 1973 to promote the conservation of the tiger.
• Project Tiger has been the largest species conservation initiative of its kind in the world.
• While the field implementation of the project, protection and management in the designated reserves is done by the project States, who also provide the matching grant to recurring items of expenditure, deploy field staff/officers and give their salaries, the Project Tiger Directorate of the Ministry of Environment and Forests was mandated with the task of providing technical guidance and funding support.

3.Origin of Project Tiger

• In 1972, India implemented the Wildlife (Protection) Act (WLPA), which established 'National Parks' within designated forests, transferring the rights of forest-dwellers to the State government. It also introduced 'Wildlife Sanctuaries' where limited rights could be exercised. The launch of Project Tiger stemmed from these changes.
• Initially, there were nine tiger reserves spanning 9,115 sq. km in 1973. Presently, there are 54 reserves across 18 States, covering 78,135.956 sq. km. Critical Tiger Habitats (CTH) make up 26% of National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries, totaling 42,913.37 sq. km. As of 2022, data from camera-trap methods estimated the tiger population in India to be between 3,167 to 3,925.
• The creation of CTHs aimed to allocate specific forest areas for tiger-centric initiatives. These areas were accompanied by Buffer Areas, a blend of forest and non-forest land. However, the 'fortress conservation' approach, despite its inclusive agenda for the Buffer Area, led to the displacement of people who had coexisted with tigers for generations

4. What is Critical Wildlife Habitat’ (CWH)?

A 'Critical Wildlife Habitat' (CWH) refers to a specific area within a protected region or sanctuary that is identified and demarcated for the conservation and protection of a particular wildlife species or multiple species.

These areas are recognized for their crucial importance in providing habitats, breeding grounds, or essential resources necessary for the survival and well-being of endangered or vulnerable wildlife populations. CWH designations aim to ensure the preservation of these habitats and their ecological balance by implementing stricter conservation measures and regulations to safeguard the wildlife within those areas

5. Tiger Task Force

• The implementation of Project Tiger over the years has highlighted the need for a statutory authority with legal backing to ensure tiger conservation.
• Based on the recommendations of the National Board for Wild Life Chaired by the Hon'ble Prime Minister, a Task Force was set up to look into problems of tiger conservation in the country.
• The recommendations of the said Task Force, interalia include strengthening Project Tiger by giving it statutory and administrative powers, apart from creating the Wildlife Crime Control Bureau.
• It has also been recommended that an annual report should be submitted to the Central government for laying in Parliament, so that commitment to Project Tiger is reviewed from time to time, in addition to addressing the concerns of local people. 

Broadly the urgent recommendations of the said Task Force are

1. Reinvigorating the constitution of governance.
2. Strengthening efforts towards the protection of tigers, checking to poach, convicting wildlife criminals and breaking the international trade network in wildlife body parts and derivatives.
3. Expanding the undisturbed areas for tigers by reducing human pressure.
4.  Repair the relationship with local people who share the tiger's habitat by fielding strategies for coexistence.
5. Regenerate the forest habitats in the fringes of the tiger's protective enclaves by investing in forest, water and grassland economies of the people.

6. National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA)

• Considering the urgency of the situation, Project Tiger has been converted into a statutory authority (NTCA) by providing enabling provisions in the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 through an amendment, viz. Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2006.
• This forms one of the urgent recommendations of the Tiger Task Force appointed by the Prime Minister.
• The NTCA addresses the ecological as well as administrative concerns for conserving tigers, by providing a statutory basis for the protection of tiger reserves, apart from providing strengthened institutional mechanisms for the protection of ecologically sensitive areas and endangered species.
• The Authority also ensures enforcing guidelines for tiger conservation and monitoring compliance of the same, apart from the placement of motivated and trained officers having good track records as Field Directors of tiger reserves.
• It also facilitates capacity building of officers and staff posted in tiger reserves, apart from a time-bound staff development plan.
• The Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2006 has come into force with effect from the 4th of September, 2006 and the NTCA has also been constituted on the same date.

For Prelims & Mains

For Prelims: Project Tiger, Tiger Task Force, Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972,  Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2006, Global Tiger Summit, National Tiger Conservation Authority, For Mains: 1. Discuss the Role of the National Tiger Conservation Authority in increasing the tiger population in India. Explain the significance of the Tigers in the Ecosystem. (250 Words)

Previous Year Questions

1. The term ‘M-STRIPES’ is sometimes seen in the news in the context of (UPSC 2017) (a) Captive breeding of Wild Fauna (b) Maintenance of Tiger Reserves (c) Indigenous Satellite Navigation System (d) Security of National Highways Answer: (b) 2.  Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2014) 1. Animal Welfare Board of India is established under the Environment (Protection) Act, of 1986. 2. National Tiger Conservation Authority is a statutory body. 3. National Ganga River Basin Authority is chaired by the Prime Minister. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only    (b) 2 and 3 only    (c) 2 only    (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: (b) 3. Which one of the following is the well-publicized wildlife campaign in the world launched in 1973? (BPSC 2023)  1. Sunderbans 2. Project Project 3. Tiger Lion Project 4. More than one of the above 5. None of the above Answer: 2

Source: Tigernet.nic.in

 

 

TWO STATE SOLUTION

 

 

1. Context

On September 9, Israel mounted aerial strikes on a residential complex in a diplomatic area of Doha, the capital of Qatar. The complex housed the political office of Hamas where a meeting was in progress to discuss the US proposal on Gaza. The Hamas negotiators and leaders were not in the building which was targeted, but a few functionaries and a Qatari security officer were killed

 

2. What is a Two State Solution?

 

The two-state solution refers to a proposed resolution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, envisioning the establishment of two separate sovereign states, Israel and Palestine, coexisting side by side within agreed-upon borders.

Key elements of the two-state solution typically include:

• Borders: Negotiating the borders between Israel and Palestine, which would likely be based on the pre-1967 lines (also known as the Green Line), with potential land swaps to accommodate demographic realities and security concerns.

• Jerusalem: Addressing the status of Jerusalem, which is considered a holy city by Jews, Christians, and Muslims. The two-state solution often proposes Jerusalem as the capital of both Israel and Palestine, with East Jerusalem serving as the capital of the Palestinian state.

• Security: Ensuring the security of both states, including mechanisms for demilitarisation, border security, and counterterrorism cooperation.

• Refugees: Resolving the issue of Palestinian refugees, who were displaced during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war and subsequent conflicts. The two-state solution typically involves compensation, resettlement, and/or return options for Palestinian refugees, while also acknowledging Israel's right to exist as a Jewish state.

• Settlements: Addressing the status of Israeli settlements in the occupied Palestinian territories. Many proponents of the two-state solution advocate for the dismantlement of Israeli settlements located outside of the agreed-upon borders of Israel.

3. Origin and History of Two-State Solution

• The origins of the two-state solution can be traced back to the 1930s during the period of British rule in Palestine.
• In 1936, the British government formed a commission led by Lord William Robert Peel, commonly known as the Peel Commission, to investigate the reasons behind the Arab-Jewish conflicts in Palestine.
• A year later, the commission recommended dividing Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states. At that time, Jews constituted approximately 28% of the population of Palestine.
• According to the Peel Commission's proposal, the Arab state would encompass the West Bank, Gaza, and the Negev desert, while the Jewish state would include much of Palestine's coastline and the fertile Galilee region. However, the Arab population rejected this proposal.
• Following World War II, the United Nations Special Commission on Palestine (UNSCOP) presented another partition plan. This plan suggested dividing Palestine into three territories: a Jewish state, an Arab state, and an international zone for Jerusalem.
• Under the UNSCOP plan, Jews, who comprised about 32% of Palestine's population, were allocated 56% of the land.
• The partition plan was endorsed by the UN General Assembly (Resolution 181). Despite India's vote against it, the Arab nations rejected the plan, while the Zionist leadership of Jewish settlers in Palestine accepted it.
• Subsequently, on May 14, 1948, the Zionists unilaterally declared the establishment of the state of Israel.
• This declaration sparked the first Arab-Israeli war. By the time an armistice agreement was reached in 1949, Israel had seized approximately 22% more territory than initially proposed by the UN

4. International Legitimacy

 

• During the Six-Day War of 1967, Israel gained control of the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan, the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, and the Golan Heights from Syria.
• Israel still holds authority over these territories, except for the Sinai, which it returned to Egypt following the 1978 Camp David Accords. In the 1960s, Palestinian nationalism gained momentum under the leadership of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO).
• Initially, the PLO sought the complete "liberation" of all of Palestine, but later accepted the two-state solution based on the borders of 1967.
• Israel initially dismissed any Palestinian claims to the land and labeled the PLO as a "terrorist" organization.
• However, following the 1973 Yom Kippur War, during which Egypt and Syria launched a surprise attack on Israel, Israel agreed to the Framework for Peace in the Middle East agreement at the Camp David Accords.
• As part of the Framework, Israel consented to establish an autonomous self-governing Palestinian authority in the West Bank and Gaza Strip and to implement UN Resolution 242, which calls for Israel to withdraw from all territories it occupied in 1967.
• The Framework laid the groundwork for the Oslo Accords, signed in 1993 and 1995, which formalized the two-state solution.
• Under the Oslo process, a Palestinian National Authority, serving as a self-governing body, was established in the West Bank and Gaza, and the PLO was internationally recognized as the representative body of the Palestinian people.
• The Oslo Accords held the promise of creating a sovereign Palestinian state coexisting peacefully alongside Israel. However, this promise has yet to be realized

5. What are the hurdles to achieving the two-state solution?

 

• The assassination of Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin, a key architect of the Oslo Accords, in 1995, marked a turning point. The subsequent rise of a right-wing Israeli government and the Palestinian militant group Hamas, opposed to the agreements, further strained the peace process. Despite renewed diplomatic efforts, significant hurdles persist.
• One obstacle is the undefined borders. Israel's ongoing expansion through settlements in Palestinian territories clashes with Palestinian aspirations for a state based on the pre-1967 borders. The presence of hundreds of thousands of Israeli settlers who would need to be relocated creates a complex political challenge.
• Another issue is the contested status of Jerusalem. Both Palestinians, who view East Jerusalem as their capital, and Israelis, who claim the entire city, have deep religious and historical attachments to the city.
• The right of return for Palestinian refugees displaced in 1948 is another hurdle. International law supports their right to return, but Israel opposes it.
• These unresolved issues pose significant barriers to achieving a two-state solution in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict

6. Way Forward

While these are the structural factors that make the two-state solution complicated, on the ground, Israel’s rightwing leadership shows no willingness to make any concessions. Israel wants to continue the status quo — the status quo of occupation. The Palestinians want to break that status quo

 

 

For Prelims: GS II- Two State Solution, Conflict of Israel and Palestine For Mains: GS II - Current events of International relations, The Ongoing Conflict of Israel and Palestine

 

Previous Year Questions 1.The term "two-state solution" is sometimes mentioned in the news in the context of the affairs of (UPSC CSE 2018) A.China B.Israel C.Iraq D.Yemen Answer (B)

Source: The Hindu

 

 

TARIFFS

 

 

1. Context

 

To prevent loss of market share following the high 50% US tariffs, the government is ready to extend a series of mitigating measures such as subsidised interest rates, collateral-free loans and credit guarantee, to labour-intensive exporters. 

2. What is a Tariff?

• Most countries are limited by their natural resources and ability to produce certain goods and services.
• They trade with other countries to get what their population needs and demands. However, trade isn't always conducted in an amenable manner between trading partners.
• Policies, geopolitics, competition, and many other factors can make trading partners unhappy. One of the ways governments deal with trading partners they disagree with is through tariffs.
• A tariff is a tax imposed by one country on the goods and services imported from another country to influence it, raise revenues, or protect competitive advantages.

3. Key Take Aways

• Governments impose tariffs to raise revenue, protect domestic industries, or exert political leverage over another country.
• Tariffs often result in unwanted side effects, such as higher consumer prices.
• Tariffs have a long and contentious history, and the debate over whether they represent good or bad policy still rages.

4. History of Tariffs

4.1 Pre Modern Europe

• In pre-modern Europe, a nation's wealth was believed to consist of fixed, tangible assets,  such as gold, silver, land, and other physical resources.
• Trade was seen as a Zero-sum game that resulted in either a clear net loss or a clear net gain of wealth.
• If a country imported more than it exported, a resource, mainly gold, would flow abroad, thereby draining its wealth. Cross-border trade was viewed with suspicion, and countries preferred to acquire colonies with which they could establish exclusive trading relationships rather than trading with each other.
• This system, known as mercantilism, relied heavily on tariffs and even outright bans on trade. The colonizing country, which saw itself as competing with other colonizers, would import raw materials from its colonies, which were generally barred from selling their raw materials elsewhere.
• The colonizing country would convert the materials into manufactured wares, which it would sell back to the colonies. High tariffs and other barriers were implemented to ensure that colonies only purchased manufactured goods from their home countries. 

4.2 Late 19th and early 20th Centuries

• Relatively free trade enjoyed a heyday in the late 19th and early 20th centuries when the idea took hold that international commerce had made large-scale wars between nations so expensive and counterproductive that they were obsolete.
• World War I proved that idea wrong, and nationalist approaches to trade, including high tariffs, dominated until the end of World War II.
• From that point on, free trade enjoyed a 50-year resurgence, culminating in the creation in 1995 of the World Trade Organisation  (WTO), which acts as an international forum for settling disputes and laying down ground rules.
• Free trade agreements, such as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) now known as the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) and the European Union (EU), also proliferated.

4.3 In the 21st Century

• Skepticism of this model sometimes labeled neoliberalism by critics who tie it to 19th-century liberal arguments in favor of free trade grew, however, and Britain in 2016 voted to leave the European Union.
• That same year Donald Trump won the U.S. presidential election on a platform that included a call for tariffs on Chinese and Mexican imports, which he implemented when he took office.
• Critics of tariff-free multilateral trade deals, who come from both ends of the political spectrum, argue that they erode national sovereignty and encourage a race to the bottom regarding wages, worker protections, and product quality and standards.
• Meanwhile, the defenders of such deals counter that tariffs lead to trade wars, hurt consumers, and hamper innovation.

5. Understanding Tariffs

• Tariffs are used to restrict imports. Simply put, they increase the price of goods and services purchased from another country, making them less attractive to domestic consumers.
• A key point to understand is that a tariff affects the exporting country because consumers in the country that imposed the tariff might shy away from imports due to the price increase. However, if the consumer still chooses the imported product, then the tariff has essentially raised the cost to the consumer in another country.

There are two types of tariffs:

• A specific tariff is levied as a fixed fee based on the type of item, such as a $500 tariff on a car.
• An ad-valorem tariff is levied based on the item's value, such as 5% of an import's value.

6. Why Government Imposes Tariffs?

Governments may impose tariffs for several reasons

6.1 Raise Revenues

Tariffs can be used to raise revenues for governments. This kind of tariff is called a revenue tariff and is not designed to restrict imports. For instance, in 2018 and 2019, President Donald Trump and his administration imposed tariffs on many items to rebalance the trade deficit. In the fiscal year 2019, customs duties received were $18 billion. In FY 2020, duties received were $21 billion.

6.2 Protect Domestic Industries

Governments can use tariffs to benefit particular industries, often doing so to protect companies and jobs. For example, in May 2022, President Joe Biden proposed a 25% ad valorem tariff on steel articles from all countries except Canada, Mexico, and the United Kingdom (the U.K. has a quota of an aggregate of 500,000 metric tons it can trade with the U.S.). This proclamation reopens the trade of specific items with the U.K. while taking measures to protect domestic U.S. steel manufacturing and production jobs.

6.3 Protect Domestic Consumers

By making foreign-produced goods more expensive, tariffs can make domestically-produced alternatives seem more attractive. Some products made in countries with fewer regulations can harm consumers, such as a product coated in lead-based paint. Tariffs can make these products so expensive that consumers won't buy them.

6.4 Protect National Interests

Tariffs can also be used as an extension of foreign policy as their imposition on a trading partner's main exports may be used to exert economic leverage. For example, when Russia invaded Ukraine, much of the world protested by boycotting Russian goods or imposing sanctions. In April 2022, President Joe Biden suspended normal trade with Russia. In June, he raised the tariff on Russian imports not prohibited by the April suspension to 35%.

7. Advantages of Tariffs

• Produce revenues: As discussed, tariffs provide a government a chance to bring in more money. This can relieve some of the tax burdens felt by a county's citizens and help the government to reduce deficits.
• Open negotiations: Tariffs can be used by countries to open negotiations for trade or other issues. Each side can use tariffs to help them create economic policies and talk with trade partners.
• Support a nation's goals: One of the most popular uses for tariffs is to use them to ensure domestic products receive preference within a country to support businesses and the economy.
• Make a market predictable: Tariffs can help stabilize a market and make prices predictable.

8. Disadvantages of Tariffs

• Create issues between governments: Many nations use tariffs to punish or discourage actions they disapprove of. Unfortunately, doing this can create tensions between two countries and lead to more problems.
• Initiate trade wars: A typical response for a country with tariffs imposed on it is to respond similarly, creating a trade war in which neither country benefits from the other.

For Prelims: Tariffs, Zero-sum game, Cross-border trade, World Trade Organisation  (WTO), North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA), and the European Union (EU). For Mains: 1. What is a Tariff and explain why government imposes tariffs. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages associated with Tariffs. (250 Words).

Source: Investopedia

 

ELECTION COMMISSION OF INDIA (ECI)

 

 

1. Context

 

Pointing out that the rules regarding revision of electoral rolls do not couch the obligation to do so within a timeline but leave it to the discretion of the Election Commission (EC), the poll body has told the Supreme Court that directing it to hold Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of the rolls at regular intervals would encroach on its exclusive jurisdiction

 

2. Election Commission of India (ECI)

 

• The Election Commission of India (ECI) is a permanent and independent constitutional body tasked with ensuring the conduct of free and fair elections across the Union and States of India.
• The ECI has the authority to supervise, direct, and manage elections to the Parliament, state legislatures, and the offices of the President and Vice President of India. However, since the ECI does not manage elections for state-level urban bodies such as municipalities and panchayats, a separate State Election Commission exists for this purpose.
• Notably, based on Dr. B. R. Ambedkar's guidance at the Constituent Assembly, a committee tasked with addressing Fundamental Rights suggested that the independence of elections and the protection from executive interference in legislative elections should be considered a fundamental right and included in the chapter on Fundamental Rights.
• While the idea was generally accepted, some members proposed that it be placed in a different section of the Constitution. Consequently, the Drafting Committee, following the House's decision, moved this provision from the Fundamental Rights chapter to another part of the Constitution

 

3. Constitution and Election Commission of India

 

The Constitution includes a series of articles (Articles 324–329) that grant powers to the Election Commission and outline its possible roles and responsibilities.

• Article 324: Grants the authority for overseeing, directing, and controlling the preparation of electoral rolls and the conduct of all elections to Parliament, state legislatures, and the offices of the President and Vice-President.

• Article 325: Prohibits exclusion from electoral rolls based on religion, race, caste, sex, or any of these factors.

• Article 326: Establishes adult suffrage as the foundation for elections to the House of the People and State Legislative Assemblies.

• Article 327: Allows Parliament to pass laws, in accordance with the Constitution, regarding all matters related to elections to Parliament and State Legislative Assemblies.

• Article 328: Empowers state legislatures to enact laws concerning all matters related to elections to the state's legislative bodies.

• Article 329: Prevents courts from interfering in electoral matters

4. ECI Responsibilities and Functions

 

The responsibilities and functions of the Election Commission of India (ECI) can be categorized into advisory, quasi-judicial, and administrative roles.

• Advisory: The Constitution grants the ECI the authority to advise on the post-election disqualification of sitting members of Parliament and State Legislatures. The ECI is also consulted in cases where individuals are found guilty of corrupt practices during elections, as brought before the Supreme Court and High Courts, to decide if they should be disqualified from contesting future elections and for how long. In such matters, the President or, where applicable, the Governor, is required to follow the ECI's advice.
• Quasi-Judicial: The ECI has the power to disqualify a candidate who fails to submit their election expense accounts within the legally required timeframe and format. It also has the authority to remove or reduce other legal disqualifications. Additionally, the ECI resolves disputes related to the recognition of political parties and the allocation of election symbols. The commission sets a model code of conduct and ensures compliance by all candidates and political parties during elections.
• Administrative: The ECI's administrative duties include delimiting electoral constituencies and managing the registration of eligible voters, as well as regularly updating electoral rolls. The commission is responsible for announcing election schedules and dates, reviewing nomination documents, recognizing political parties, and assigning them election symbols. The ECI can also nullify voting in cases of violence, booth capturing, tampering, or other irregularities. It oversees the financial expenditure of political parties on candidates' campaigns impartially.

The ECI also designates specific roles to register political parties for elections and grants them the status of national or state parties based on their performance in the polls. These roles include the person in charge of elections, the District Election Officer, and the Election Registration and Returning Officer

 

5. Composition of Election Commission of India

• Since its inception in 1950, the Chief Electoral Commissioner (CEC) was the sole member of the Election Commission of India (ECI). However, after the voting age was lowered from 21 to 18 in 1989, a large influx of new voters was added. To manage this increased workload, two additional commissioners were appointed, expanding the ECI to include three commissioners.
• In January 1990, some changes were made to the structure of the ECI, but it was soon reverted to its original form. Following discussions and debates in the political sphere, the President ultimately reconstituted the commission in 1993, adding two more commissioners, establishing the current structure of the ECI.
• The Chief Election Commissioner and the other election commissioners are appointed by the President, who also determines their terms of office and service conditions. All commissioners, including the CEC, receive the same salary, benefits, and powers as judges of the Supreme Court.
• If there is a disagreement among the three members, decisions are made by a majority vote. Commissioners serve a term of up to six years or until they reach the age of 65, whichever comes first. They hold a status equivalent to that of Supreme Court justices in India.
• The Chief Election Commissioner can only be removed from office through the same process used to remove a Supreme Court judge. This involves the President dismissing the CEC based on a resolution supported by a special majority in both Houses of Parliament, on grounds of proven misconduct or incapacity.
• In conclusion, as outlined by the Constitution, the ECI is responsible for supervising, directing, and conducting elections for the offices of President, Vice President, state legislatures, and Parliament.
• For elections to state-level urban bodies like municipalities and panchayats, a separate State Election Commission exists. The ECI plays a crucial role in upholding the democratic process by ensuring free and fair elections for key political positions in the country

 

For Prelims: Election Commission of India, Chief Election Commissioner, Election Commission (Conditions of Service of Election Commissioners and Transaction of Business) Act, 1991, State Election Commission, Article 324, Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) and Voter Verified Paper Audit Trails (VVPATs). For Mains: 1. Discuss the powers and functions of the Election Commission of India. How does the Election Commission ensure the conduct of free and fair elections in the Country? (250 words).

 

Previous year Question 1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2017) 1. The Election Commission of India is a five-member body. 2. Union Ministry of Home Affairs decides the election schedule for the conduct of both general elections and bye-elections. 3. Election Commission resolves the disputes relating to splits/mergers of recognized political parties. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 only C. 2 and 3 only D. 3 only Answer: D   2. Consider the following statements : (UPSC 2021) 1. In India, there is no law restricting the candidates from contesting in one Lok Sabha election from three constituencies. 2. In the 1991 Lok Sabha Election, Shri Devi Lal contested from three Lok Sabha constituencies. 3. As per the- existing rules, if a candidate contests in one Lok Sabha election from many constituencies, his/her party should bear the cost of bye-elections to the constituencies vacated by him/her in the event of him/her winning in all the constituencies. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only B. 2 only C. 1 and 3 D. 2 and 3 Answer: B

Source: Indianexpress

 

DEMOGRAPHIC DIVIDEND

 

 

 

1. Context

Sri Lanka in 2022. Bangladesh in 2024. Indonesia in August 2025…and now Nepal, a month later. The past few years have been littered with youth-led uprisings in Asian countries, coming at a time when the headline growth numbers have not resulted in better lives for those entering the labour force.

 

2. What is the demographic dividend? 

 

• The demographic dividend refers to a period of economic growth that can occur when a country experiences a favorable demographic shift. This shift typically involves a declining birth rate, leading to a relatively large working-age population compared to the dependent population (children and elderly).
• During a demographic dividend, the working-age population becomes a larger proportion of the total population, leading to increased productivity, higher savings and investment rates, and overall economic growth.
• This phenomenon occurs because there are fewer dependents to support, allowing families and governments to allocate more resources towards education, healthcare, and infrastructure development.
• The demographic dividend is often seen as an opportunity for countries to accelerate their economic development and improve living standards.
• However, to fully realize the benefits of the demographic dividend, governments need to invest in education, job creation, and healthcare to ensure that the growing working-age population is equipped with the skills and opportunities needed to contribute to economic growth. Additionally, effective policies are necessary to manage the challenges associated with an ageing population that may follow once the demographic dividend period ends

3. What are the various stages of demographic transition?

 

The demographic transition theory outlines the process through which populations transition from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates as they undergo economic and social development.

This transition typically occurs in several stages:

• Stage 1 - High Birth and Death Rates: In the initial stage, both birth rates and death rates are high, resulting in relatively slow population growth. This stage is characteristic of pre-industrial societies where limited access to healthcare, high infant mortality rates, and agricultural economies contribute to high death rates. Despite the high death rates, birth rates are also high due to factors such as the need for labor in agriculture and cultural preferences for large families.

• Stage 2 - Declining Death Rates: In this stage, improvements in healthcare, sanitation, and nutrition lead to a significant reduction in death rates while birth rates remain high. As a result, there is a rapid increase in population growth. This stage is often associated with the early stages of industrialization and urbanization, where advancements in medicine and public health lead to lower mortality rates.

• Stage 3 - Declining Birth Rates: As societies continue to develop economically and socially, birth rates begin to decline. Factors such as increased access to education, urbanization, and the empowerment of women contribute to this decline in fertility. Family planning programs and the availability of contraceptives also play a role in reducing birth rates. During this stage, population growth continues, but at a slower pace than in Stage 2.

• Stage 4 - Low Birth and Death Rates: In the final stage of the demographic transition, both birth and death rates are low, resulting in a stable or slowly growing population. This stage is characteristic of advanced industrialized societies where economic development, urbanization, and social changes have led to small family sizes, increased opportunities for women in the workforce, and higher living standards overall.

4.What is the difference between demographic transition and demographic dividend?

 

Subject	Demographic Transition	Demographic Dividend
Definition	Process of transitioning from high to low birth and death rates as societies develop economically and socially.	Period of economic growth resulting from a favorable demographic shift, typically characterized by declining birth rates and a relatively large working-age population.
Focus	Changes in population structure and dynamics over time.	Economic benefits derived from a specific demographic situation.
Key Stages	Pre-industrial (High birth and death rates), Early industrial (Declining death rates), Late industrial (Declining birth rates), Advanced industrial (Low birth and death rates).	Period when the working-age population is a larger proportion of the total population, leading to increased productivity and economic growth.
Driving Factors	Improvements in healthcare, education, living standards, and changes in social norms and family planning practices.	Declining birth rates and a growing working-age population.
Economic Impact	Leads to changes in population growth rates and age distribution.	Results in increased productivity, higher savings and investment rates, and overall economic growth.
Policy Implications	Requires investments in healthcare, education, and family planning to manage population dynamics effectively.	Governments need to implement policies to capitalize on the economic potential of the growing working-age population through education, job creation, and infrastructure development.

 

 

5. What is the significance of India’s demographic dividend?

 

India's demographic dividend holds significant implications for its economic growth, social development, and global competitiveness.

Here are some key aspects of the significance of India's demographic dividend:

• Large Working-Age Population: India is home to one of the largest working-age populations in the world, with a significant proportion of its population under the age of 35. This demographic advantage presents an opportunity for a substantial labor force that can drive economic growth and development.

• Potential for Economic Growth: A large working-age population can contribute to increased productivity, innovation, and entrepreneurship, leading to higher economic growth rates. With the right policies and investments in education, skills training, and job creation, India can harness the potential of its demographic dividend to accelerate economic development.

• Increased Consumer Market: A growing working-age population also translates into a larger consumer market, creating opportunities for businesses to expand their markets and drive domestic consumption-led growth. This can spur demand for goods and services across various sectors of the economy, further stimulating economic activity.

• Global Workforce Competitiveness: India's demographic dividend enhances its competitiveness in the global workforce. With a large pool of young and skilled workers, India can meet the demands of the global labor market and attract investment from multinational companies seeking talent and expertise.

• Human Capital Development: Investing in education, healthcare, and skill development is crucial to fully realize the potential of India's demographic dividend. By empowering its youth with quality education and training, India can build a skilled workforce capable of driving innovation, productivity, and sustainable development.

• Window of Opportunity: The demographic dividend is not permanent and requires timely policy interventions to maximize its benefits. As India's population ages in the future, the window of opportunity presented by the demographic dividend will gradually diminish. Therefore, strategic planning and investments in human capital and economic sectors are essential to capitalize on this demographic advantage

6. What are the challenges associated with India’s demographic dividend?

 

While India's demographic dividend presents significant opportunities for economic growth and development, it also comes with several challenges that need to be addressed to fully realize its potential.

Some of the key challenges associated with India's demographic dividend include:

• Unemployment and Underemployment: Despite the large working-age population, India faces challenges of unemployment and underemployment, particularly among youth and educated individuals. Inadequate job creation in both the formal and informal sectors leads to a mismatch between the skills of the workforce and the demands of the labor market.

• Skills Mismatch: There is often a mismatch between the skills possessed by the workforce and the skills demanded by employers. Many young people lack the necessary skills and training required for employment in emerging sectors such as technology, manufacturing, and services. This skills gap hampers productivity and limits job opportunities.

• Quality of Education: While access to education has improved in India, there are concerns about the quality of education provided, especially in rural areas and government schools. The education system often fails to equip students with the skills and knowledge needed to succeed in the modern workforce, leading to low employability.

• Informal Economy: A significant portion of India's workforce is employed in the informal sector, which lacks job security, social protection, and access to basic rights. Informal workers often face low wages, exploitative working conditions, and limited opportunities for skill development and career advancement.

• Gender Disparities: Gender disparities in education, employment, and workforce participation remain significant challenges in India. Women are often underrepresented in the workforce, particularly in higher-skilled and leadership roles. Addressing gender inequalities and promoting women's participation in the labor force is crucial for maximizing the demographic dividend.

• Urbanization and Infrastructure: Rapid urbanization and migration from rural to urban areas pose challenges related to urban infrastructure, housing, transportation, and social services. Inadequate urban planning and infrastructure development lead to overcrowding, pollution, inadequate housing, and strained public services, affecting the quality of life for urban residents.

• Healthcare Needs: As the population grows, there is an increasing demand for healthcare services, including preventive care, maternal and child health, and treatment of non-communicable diseases. Ensuring access to quality healthcare for all citizens is essential for maintaining a healthy and productive workforce

7. Way Forward

 

India’s demographic dividend is, however, a double-edged sword. On the one hand, it presents the country with a short window during which it will have a huge supply of young workers and human capital. On the other hand, it presents the country with a severe challenge in matching these workers to productive jobs

 

For Prelims: Economic and Social Development- Sustainable Development, Poverty, Inclusion, Demographics, Social Sector Initiatives, etc For Mains: General Studies III: Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilisation of resources, growth, development and employment

 

Previous Year Questions 1.India is regarded as a country with a “Demographic Dividend”. This is due to (UPSC CSE 2011) (a) Its high population in the age group below 15 years (b) Its high population in the age group of 15-64 year  (c) Its high population in the age group above 65 years (d) Its high total population Answer (b) A demographic dividend refers to the economic benefit a country can experience when a large share of its population is in the working age group (typically 15-64 years old). This age group is both productive and has a relatively low dependency ratio, meaning there are fewer dependents (children and elderly) to support. India currently has a large young population, which presents a window of opportunity for economic growth if the right investments are made in education, skill development, and job creation

Source: Indianexpress