PRALAY AND AKASH MISSILES
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The missile flight trials were conducted as part of user validation exercises aimed at confirming the system’s performance across its defined maximum and minimum operational ranges.
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According to the Ministry of Defence, Pralay is a domestically developed missile that uses solid fuel propulsion and features advanced guidance and navigation technologies to ensure precision targeting. It is designed to carry a variety of conventional warheads to neutralize diverse types of targets.
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The first successful test of Pralay—named after the Sanskrit word for "widespread devastation"—was carried out in December 2021. The missile is being equipped with conventional warheads and is intended for integration into the Indian Army’s artillery units.
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The development of the missile system was spearheaded by the Research Centre Imarat (RCI) of the DRDO in Hyderabad, with support from three DRDO labs based in Pune: the Armament Research and Development Establishment (ARDE), High Energy Materials Research Laboratory (HEMRL), and the Research & Development Establishment (Engineers).
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Ballistic missiles are characterized by their use of projectile motion, where the missile is powered during the early phase of its flight and later follows a gravity-determined trajectory in an arc-like path.
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In contrast, quasi-ballistic missiles follow a lower and more flexible trajectory. While they initially adopt a ballistic path, they are capable of mid-course corrections and maneuvers, making them more adaptable and harder to intercept.
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The Akash Prime missile, an improved version of the original Akash surface-to-air missile system tailored for high-altitude operations, was successfully tested in Ladakh on July 16, where it demonstrated its ability to destroy fast-moving unmanned aerial targets with high precision.
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The test was conducted as part of the first firing trial of the production model, and according to the Ministry of Defence, it will pave the way for the missile's timely induction into service, significantly boosting India’s air defence capabilities in mountainous regions.
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The initial Akash missile had an effective range between 27 to 30 kilometres and could reach flight altitudes of approximately 18 kilometres. The Akash Prime, which had its first successful flight test in September 2021, maintains a similar range but incorporates a critical upgrade—an indigenously developed active Radio Frequency (RF) seeker to improve its targeting accuracy against aerial threats.
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The upgraded system features additional modifications to enhance its performance in sub-zero temperatures commonly encountered at higher altitudes. These improvements were integrated based on feedback from the armed forces to ensure effective deployment in regions above 4,500 metres, offering protection to strategic and sensitive locations.
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The Akash missile system, classified as a short to medium-range surface-to-air missile, was initiated in the late 1980s under the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) led by the DRDO. Initial trials for performance validation and target engagement took place in the late 1990s and early 2000s, followed by comprehensive user evaluations by the Indian Air Force and Army.
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Named after the Sanskrit word for "sky," the Akash missile represents a strategic deterrent in aerial defence, offering protection to critical infrastructure and vulnerable zones from enemy air threats.
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The system is capable of engaging multiple aerial targets simultaneously, operating either in group or autonomous mode. It is also equipped with Electronic Counter-Counter Measures (ECCM), which allows it to resist attempts by enemy electronic warfare systems to disrupt its targeting and detection mechanisms
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Ballistic missiles operate by launching warheads along a projectile path to strike designated targets. These missiles are propelled only during the initial phase of their flight; once the fuel burns out, they follow a gravity-driven arc to reach their destination. Based on their range, ballistic missiles are classified into different categories. They are capable of carrying either conventional or nuclear warheads. Indian examples include Agni I, Agni II, Prithvi I, Prithvi II, and Dhanush.
Classification of Ballistic Missiles by Range:
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Tactical Ballistic Missile (TBM): Less than 300 km
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Short-Range Ballistic Missile (SRBM): 300 to 1,000 km
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Medium-Range Ballistic Missile (MRBM): 1,000 to 3,500 km
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Intermediate-Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM): 3,500 to 5,500 km
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Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM): More than 5,500 km
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Cruise missiles, on the other hand, are unmanned aerial systems powered by jet engines, and can be launched from land-based, airborne, or naval platforms. Examples include BrahMos, Tomahawk, Kalibr, AGM-86 ALCM, and JASSM.
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The primary difference in flight path is that cruise missiles fly close to the ground, which allows them to evade radar detection, while ballistic missiles travel along a high, parabolic trajectory. Because of this, ballistic missiles are easier to track due to their predictable paths, whereas cruise missiles are more difficult to intercept as they can maneuver mid-flight and bypass air defence systems
- The Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD) is a sophisticated missile defense system developed by the United States with the primary purpose of intercepting and destroying short, medium, and intermediate-range ballistic missiles during their terminal phase—that is, the final stage of their flight as they descend toward the target.
- Unlike other air defense systems that engage enemy missiles during launch or midcourse, THAAD is specifically designed to track and neutralize missiles in the final moments before they strike.
- It does this by using a "hit-to-kill" approach—rather than carrying an explosive warhead, the THAAD interceptor uses kinetic energy to destroy an incoming missile by direct collision, making it a clean and highly effective method of neutralization.
- The THAAD system includes high-resolution radar (AN/TPY-2) for early detection, a fire control and communications system, and interceptor missiles. It is capable of engaging threats both inside and just outside the Earth's atmosphere, at altitudes up to 150 km, which helps extend the protective envelope for both military assets and civilian populations.
- Deployed in various strategic regions including South Korea, Guam, and the Middle East, THAAD plays a key role in US global missile defense architecture, especially in the context of rising missile threats from nations such as North Korea and Iran.
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For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance.
For Mains: General Studies III: Achievements of Indians in science & technology; indigenization of technology and developing new technology
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Previous Year Questions
1.Consider the following statements :(UPSC CSE 2023)
1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their flights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight.
2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A.1 only
B.2 only
C.Both 1 and 2
D.Neither 1 nor 2
Answer (D)
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BIOCHAR
- Biochar is a stable, carbon-rich material that is produced by heating organic matter—such as crop residues, animal manure, or forest waste—under limited or no oxygen conditions in a process known as pyrolysis. Although it resembles charcoal in appearance, its primary purpose is not as fuel but as a soil amendment and a climate mitigation tool.
- The idea behind biochar comes from ancient practices such as those used in the Amazon Basin, where indigenous communities enriched the soil using charred organic matter, creating fertile lands known as terra preta.
- Modern science has revived this technique to tackle contemporary issues like declining soil fertility, agricultural waste management, and rising carbon emissions.
- The process of pyrolysis breaks down biomass into three main products: biochar (a solid), bio-oil (a liquid), and syngas (a combustible gas).
- The resulting biochar retains much of the carbon from the original organic material and can be added to soil, where it remains stable for hundreds to thousands of years. This makes biochar a significant tool for carbon sequestration, as it locks carbon away from the atmosphere in a solid form.
- When applied to agricultural land, biochar improves soil health in multiple ways. It enhances water retention in sandy soils and improves aeration in clay soils. Due to its porous structure, it holds nutrients and releases them slowly to crops, reducing the need for chemical fertilizers.
- Moreover, it provides a favorable environment for beneficial soil microbes, which further boosts plant growth. Farmers also benefit from increased crop yields and better drought resistance when biochar is used effectively.
- From an environmental perspective, biochar helps reduce greenhouse gas emissions. It limits the release of nitrous oxide and methane from soils and prevents nutrients from leaching into groundwater. Since it is made from biomass that would otherwise decompose or be burned, its use also contributes to better waste management, particularly in agricultural regions.
- Despite its benefits, there are challenges in adopting biochar on a large scale. Producing biochar requires pyrolysis units, which involve upfront costs and technical expertise. In many parts of India, especially among small and marginal farmers, there is limited awareness about biochar’s potential.
- Moreover, its impact can vary depending on the type of feedstock used and the specific soil and climate conditions, making it difficult to standardize practices.
- In the Indian context, biochar aligns well with national priorities such as sustainable agriculture, climate change mitigation, and circular economy.
- Programs like the National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA), GOBARdhan scheme, and PM-PRANAM could integrate biochar as a viable solution to reduce dependence on chemical fertilizers, manage biomass waste, and promote climate-resilient farming
- India produces more than 600 million metric tonnes of agricultural residue and over 60 million tonnes of municipal solid waste every year. A considerable share of this waste is either openly burned or dumped in landfills, contributing significantly to air pollution through the release of particulate matter and greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide.
- If 30% to 50% of this surplus biomass and waste were diverted towards productive use, it could lead to the generation of approximately 15 to 26 million tonnes of biochar annually.
- This would help in removing an estimated 0.1 gigatonnes of CO₂-equivalent emissions each year.
- Additionally, the pyrolysis process used to produce biochar yields valuable byproducts such as syngas (20–30 million tonnes) and bio-oil (24–40 million tonnes), both of which have energy generation potential.
- In terms of energy substitution, syngas can potentially be used to generate between 8 and 13 terawatt-hours (TWh) of electricity, which is roughly 0.5% to 0.7% of India’s total yearly power output.
- This could also replace about 0.4 to 0.7 million tonnes of coal annually. Similarly, bio-oil could serve as an alternative to conventional fuels, potentially displacing 12 to 19 million tonnes of diesel or kerosene—accounting for around 8% of current usage.
- This substitution could reduce crude oil imports and cut India’s fossil fuel emissions by more than 2%
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- Biochar is known for its highly stable chemical structure, which enables it to lock carbon in the soil for periods ranging from 100 to 1,000 years. This durability makes it a promising long-term solution for carbon sequestration. Its adaptability across multiple sectors also offers scalable avenues for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
- In the agricultural sector, biochar plays a vital role in improving water retention, especially in semi-arid regions and nutrient-poor soils. This improvement contributes to a significant reduction—up to 30–50%—in nitrous oxide emissions, a greenhouse gas that has 273 times the global warming potential of carbon dioxide. Therefore, cutting nitrous oxide emissions through biochar application can be an important step in climate mitigation.
- Furthermore, biochar boosts soil organic carbon content, which helps in rejuvenating degraded lands and restoring soil health.
- In terms of industrial use, specially engineered biochar can be used to capture carbon dioxide from flue gases. Although current carbon capture efficiency through biochar is lower than that of conventional technologies, ongoing research suggests potential for improvement.
- The construction industry can also benefit from biochar, as it offers a low-emission substitute for conventional building materials. When 2–5% biochar is added to concrete mixes, it not only enhances mechanical strength and raises heat resistance by about 20% but also enables the capture of approximately 115 kilograms of CO₂ per cubic metre of concrete. This makes construction materials a viable and durable carbon sink.
- In wastewater treatment, biochar provides a cost-effective and efficient method to reduce contamination. With India producing over 70 billion litres of wastewater daily—72% of which remains untreated—there is significant potential for biochar-based treatment solutions.
- One kilogram of biochar, when combined with co-treatment substances, can purify between 200 and 500 litres of wastewater. This translates to an estimated demand for 2.5 to 6.3 million tonnes of biochar annually in this sector alone
- Although biochar holds considerable theoretical promise for carbon sequestration, it remains largely absent from formal carbon credit mechanisms. This is mainly due to the lack of standardized markets for feedstock and the absence of uniform carbon accounting protocols, both of which erode investor confidence and hinder large-scale investments.
- Scientific studies have validated biochar’s technical viability across various sectors. However, practical implementation continues to face obstacles such as limited financial resources, rapidly evolving technologies, market volatility, and insufficient policy backing. Scalable business models for widespread adoption are still in early stages.
- Moreover, the slow pace of market development is compounded by low awareness among stakeholders, weak frameworks for monitoring, reporting, and verification (MRV), and poor coordination between agriculture, energy, and climate-related policies.
- To accelerate the adoption of biochar at scale, consistent investment in research and development is crucial. This includes creating region-specific feedstock standards and determining optimal biomass use based on local agro-climatic conditions and crop varieties.
- Furthermore, biochar must be integrated into existing policy initiatives—such as crop residue management programs, rural and urban bioenergy projects, and state-level climate plans under the State Action Plans on Climate Change (SAPCCs).
- Recognizing biochar as a legitimate carbon removal tool under India's carbon market can unlock new income streams for both farmers and private investors through carbon credits.
- Localized deployment of biochar production systems, especially at the village level, has the potential to generate around 5.2 lakh rural jobs—contributing to both environmental and socio-economic goals.
- Additionally, the co-benefits of biochar—including improved soil quality, a 10–20% reduction in fertilizer use, and a 10–25% boost in crop yields—should be formally integrated into market incentives and policy frameworks. This will help fully harness the multidimensional value of biochar.
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For Prelims: PM-PRANAM, GOBARdhan, National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)
For Mains: GS II & III - Governance & Environment and Ecology
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HYDROGEN POWERED TRAIN
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The Integral Coach Factory (ICF) project holds strategic importance for Indian Railways, aligning with India’s broader goals to cut down greenhouse gas emissions and enhance the adoption of renewable energy sources. Using hydrogen — a much cleaner alternative to traditional fuels — is expected to help decrease reliance on fossil fuels.
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The initiative is spearheaded by the Northern Railway zone and was launched during 2020-21. It comprises two main tasks: transforming two conventional 1600 HP diesel power cars into hydrogen fuel cell-driven units, and establishing a hydrogen storage and refueling station in Jind, Haryana.
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The estimated cost of the entire project stands at around ₹136 crore. The core design work, testing, and validation are being carried out by the Research Design & Standards Organisation (RDSO) under Indian Railways.
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The train powered by hydrogen will operate between Jind and Sonepat in Haryana, covering two round trips over a stretch of 356 km. The Jind facility will be capable of storing up to 3,000 kilograms of hydrogen.
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Hydrogen-based fuel systems are still a relatively new domain for Indian Railways. Given hydrogen’s high flammability, the project faces numerous technical and safety hurdles. Each modified power car will house 220 kg of hydrogen in specially designed high-pressure (350 bar) cylinders. Ensuring the safety of these cylinders and fuel cell systems requires thorough structural testing and validation.
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As the lightest chemical element, hydrogen is invisible, has no smell or taste, and is extremely combustible. These properties necessitate strict safety protocols in its handling and usage.
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The hydrogen-powered train will be equipped with a range of safety mechanisms, including pressure relief systems, sensors for flame and gas leakage detection, temperature monitoring, and advanced ventilation designs.
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To maintain high safety standards, a German independent agency — Technischer Überwachungsverein Süd (TÜV-SÜD) — has been appointed for auditing. The engineering design and retrofitting are being carried out at ICF Chennai by Medha Servo Drives, a company based in Hyderabad.
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Hydrogen, although the most abundant element in the universe, is not found in its pure form naturally. It must be separated from compounds like water (H₂O), which combines two hydrogen atoms with one oxygen atom. Despite being an environmentally friendly element, the extraction process requires significant energy input.
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The concept of using hydrogen as a sustainable energy source has been around for nearly a century and a half. However, it was the oil crises of the 1970s that sparked serious interest in exploring hydrogen as an alternative to fossil fuels.
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Hydrogen is classified based on its production methods, often referred to by color labels. The most widely produced form today is grey hydrogen, which is derived from fossil fuels without capturing the resulting emissions.
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When hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels but with carbon capture and storage technology, it is known as blue hydrogen. In contrast, green hydrogen is created through electrolysis powered by renewable energy, making it the cleanest variant.
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Green hydrogen offers specific advantages:
(i) It burns cleanly and can significantly reduce emissions across several hard-to-abate sectors such as transport, chemical manufacturing, and the iron and steel industry.
(ii) It enables the productive use of surplus renewable energy that cannot be immediately consumed or stored by the grid
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In 2023, the Union Cabinet gave its approval to the National Green Hydrogen Mission (NGHM), acknowledging the pivotal role that green hydrogen will play in helping India achieve energy self-reliance by 2047 and reach its Net Zero emissions target by 2070.
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The mission, spearheaded by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), identifies green hydrogen as a promising emerging sector. It aims to position India as a leading global center for the production, consumption, and export of green hydrogen and its related products.
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One of the key targets under the mission is to develop the capacity to produce at least 5 million metric tonnes (MMT) of green hydrogen annually by the year 2030
- Under the Paris Agreement of 2015, India is committed to reducing its greenhouse gas emissions by 33-35% from the 2005 levels.
- It is a legally binding international treaty on climate change to limit global warming to below 2°C compared to pre-industrial levels.
- At the 2021 Conference of parties in Glasgow, India reiterated its commitment to move from a fossil and import-dependent economy to a net-zero economy by 2070.
- India's average annual energy import bill is more than $100 billion.
- The increased consumption of fossil fuel has made the country a high carbon dioxide (CO2) emitter, accounting for nearly 7% of the global CO2 burden.
- To become energy independent by 2047, the government stressed the need to introduce green hydrogen as an alternative fuel that can make India the global hub and a major exporter of hydrogen.
| Characteristic | Green Hydrogen | Grey Hydrogen |
| Production Method | Electrolysis of water using renewable energy sources (solar, wind) | Steam methane reforming from natural gas |
| Environmental Impact | Virtually emissions-free, utilizing renewable energy and water as feedstock | High carbon emissions contribute to environmental degradation |
| Carbon Emissions | No carbon emissions during production or consumption | High carbon emissions during production |
| Sustainability | Represents an end-to-end green pathway for hydrogen production | Contributes significantly to carbon emissions and environmental degradation |
| Purpose | Offers a sustainable alternative to traditional hydrogen production | Predominantly used in industrial applications |
A hydrogen internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle operates similarly to traditional cars powered by diesel or petrol, but with a key difference: there are no carbon emissions produced during combustion.
Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) utilize hydrogen electrochemically by converting it into electricity through a fuel cell. This process involves storing hydrogen in a high-pressure tank and generating electricity, with water being the only byproduct. While hydrogen ICE vehicles don't emit carbon, research suggests that burning hydrogen is less energy-efficient compared to converting it into electricity in a fuel cell.
Advantages of Hydrogen FCEVs Over Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs)
Compared to battery electric vehicles (BEVs), where the battery constitutes the heaviest part of the vehicle, hydrogen FCEVs are typically lighter. This is because hydrogen is a lighter element, and a fuel cell stack weighs less than an electric vehicle (EV) battery. This feature makes hydrogen fuel cell technology a promising alternative to EV battery technology, particularly for heavy-duty trucks that can benefit from increased payload capacity without emitting smoke from burning diesel.
The Promise of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Technology
Research indicates that long-haul FCEVs can carry freight amounts comparable to diesel trucks, whereas long-haul BEVs face a weight penalty of up to 25% due to heavier batteries. Given the imperative to reduce carbon emissions in the transportation sector while maintaining revenue-generating payload capacity, green hydrogen emerges as a promising solution.
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For Prelims: Green Hydrogen, compressed natural gas, Electric Vehicles, Hydrogen Fuel Cell vehicles, Grey Hydrogen, The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
For Mains:
1. Green hydrogen production utilizes electrolysis, a process powered by renewable energy sources. However, large-scale production of renewable energy also has environmental implications. Discuss the ethical considerations involved in promoting green hydrogen as a sustainable solution. (250 words)
2. India aspires to become a global hub for green hydrogen production and export. What are the strategic advantages India possesses to achieve this goal? Discuss the policy measures and technological advancements needed to make India a leader in this emerging field. (250 words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. With reference to 'fuel cells' in which hydrogen-rich fuel and oxygen are used to generate electricity, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2015)
1. If pure hydrogen is used as a fuel, the fuel cell emits heat and water as by-products.
2. Fuel cells can be used for powering buildings and not for small devices like laptop computers.
3. Fuel cells produce electricity in the form of Alternating Current (AC)
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
2. With reference to green hydrogen, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2023)
1. It can be used directly as a fuel for internal combustion.
2. It can be blended with natural gas and used as fuel for heat or power generation.
3. It can be used in the hydrogen fuel cell to run vehicles.
How many of the above statements are correct?
A. Only one B. Only two C. All three D. None
Answers: 1-A, 2-C
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ASIAN GIANT TORTOISE
- The Asian giant tortoise, scientifically known as Manouria emys, is the largest tortoise species found in mainland Asia. This slow-moving herbivore is native to the forested regions of Southeast Asia, including India (particularly the Northeast), Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, and parts of Indonesia. It inhabits moist deciduous and evergreen forests, often in hilly or mountainous terrain where the climate remains humid and cool.
- This tortoise is notable for its large, domed shell which can grow up to 60 centimeters in length, and its strong, elephantine limbs that help it navigate through dense undergrowth and muddy forest floors.
- Unlike many other tortoises, the Asian giant tortoise prefers cooler, wetter environments, and it is usually active during the early morning and late afternoon, resting during the heat of the day.
- One of the fascinating aspects of this species is its nesting behavior. The female constructs a large nest mound made of vegetation, which she guards actively for several weeks—an unusual trait among tortoises, which typically leave their eggs unattended after laying them.
- Primarily herbivorous, the Asian giant tortoise feeds on a variety of plant materials such as leaves, fruits, mushrooms, and grasses. It plays an important ecological role as a seed disperser in its forest ecosystem.
- Unfortunately, the Asian giant tortoise faces serious threats due to habitat destruction, illegal wildlife trade, and hunting for its meat and shell.
- As a result, it is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List and is protected under Schedule IV of India’s Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. Conservation efforts are ongoing in various parts of its range, including habitat preservation and breeding programs
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- The Asian giant tortoise (Manouria emys) is classified as Endangered due to a combination of natural and human-induced threats. Its declining population is the result of several interrelated factors that have made survival increasingly difficult for this species across its native range.
- One of the most significant threats to the Asian giant tortoise is the destruction of its forest habitat. Expanding agriculture, logging, infrastructure development, and human settlement have led to widespread deforestation in the tropical and subtropical forests of South and Southeast Asia. This has reduced the availability of suitable nesting and foraging grounds, making it difficult for the species to thrive
- The tortoise is heavily targeted by poachers for its meat, which is considered a delicacy in some regions, and for use in traditional medicine. It is also captured for the illegal pet trade, both locally and internationally. Despite legal protections, enforcement is often weak, and trade continues in black markets.
- Like many tortoises, the Asian giant tortoise has a slow reproductive rate. Females lay relatively few eggs and take many years to reach sexual maturity. This makes it difficult for populations to recover quickly from losses due to poaching or environmental changes.
- Even when nesting is successful, eggs and young hatchlings face high predation rates from animals such as monitor lizards, wild pigs, and dogs. Because adults are large and well-protected by their shells, they have few natural predators, but the young are especially vulnerable.
- Human activities such as collection for zoos, disturbance of nesting sites, use of fire in forests, and grazing by livestock all negatively impact tortoise populations. In many places, local communities are unaware of the ecological importance or protected status of the species.
- Changing temperature and rainfall patterns are beginning to affect the microhabitats in which the tortoise thrives. Climate change may also impact nesting behavior, sex ratios of hatchlings (which can be temperature-dependent), and food availability
- Schedule IV of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 is one of the six schedules under the Act that classifies wild animals and plants based on the level of protection they require
- Schedule IV includes animals that are protected but with comparatively lesser protection than those listed in Schedule I and II. Offences involving species listed in this schedule are subject to lower penalties
- While Schedule IV animals are not critically endangered, they are still important components of India’s wildlife and ecosystem. The schedule aims to ensure that common species do not become vulnerable or threatened over time due to neglect or overexploitation.
- This classification allows authorities to allocate resources and focus on stricter protection for species in Schedule I and II, while still maintaining a legal mechanism to prevent harm to moderately vulnerable species
Examples of Species under Schedule IV:
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- The Critically Endangered (CR) status is the highest risk category assigned by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) on its Red List of Threatened Species. It indicates that a species faces an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future
- A species is classified as Critically Endangered when it meets specific scientific criteria that signal it is on the brink of extinction. These criteria are based on population size, rate of decline, geographic range, and other factors that assess the species’ overall survival prospects
IUCN Criteria for Critically Endangered Status (at least one of the following must apply):
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Population decline of ≥90% over the last 10 years or 3 generations, whichever is longer.
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Fewer than 250 mature individuals remaining, with a continuing decline.
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Severely fragmented population or occurrence in only one location.
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Extremely small geographic range (extent of occurrence <100 km² or area of occupancy <10 km²).
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Quantitative analysis shows a ≥50% probability of extinction in the wild within 10 years or three generations
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For Prelims: Critically Endangered, International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Wildlife Protection Act, 1972
For Mains: GS III - Environment and Ecology
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Previous Year Questions
1.The "Red Data Books" published by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) contain lists of (UPSC CSE 2011)
1. Endemic plant and animal species present in the biodiversity hotspots.
2. Threatened plant and animal species.
3. Protected sites for the conservation of nature and natural resources in various countries.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
A.1 and 3
B.2 only
C.2 and 3
D.3 only
Answer (B)
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GRASSLAND BIRD CENSUS
Among the significant findings was the identification of a breeding colony of the endangered Finn’s Weaver, a bird unique to the Brahmaputra floodplains. The study focused on ten priority species that are either globally threatened or endemic to this region:
| Species Name | Scientific Name | IUCN Status |
|---|---|---|
| Bengal Florican | Houbaropsis bengalensis | Critically Endangered |
| Swamp Francolin | Ortygornis gularis | Near Threatened |
| Indian Grassbird | Graminicola bengalensis | Near Threatened |
| Finn’s Weaver | Ploceus megarhynchus | Endangered |
| Swamp Grass Babbler | Laticilla cinerascens | Endangered |
| Jerdon’s Babbler | Chrysomma altirostre | Vulnerable |
| Slender-billed Babbler | Argya longirostris | Vulnerable |
| Black-breasted Parrotbill | Paradoxornis flavirostris | Vulnerable |
| Marsh Babbler | Pellorneum palustre | Vulnerable |
| Bristled Grassbird | Schoenicola striatus | Vulnerable |
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Grasslands, dominated by the Poaceae family which includes between 10,000 to 12,000 species, span large portions of the Earth's surface and support rich biodiversity. These ecosystems are typically found in regions with low to moderate rainfall, ranging from 600 to 1,500 mm annually.
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Often underestimated, grasslands are even more beneficial than forests in several ways. They deliver crucial ecosystem functions such as water and carbon storage, nutrient recycling, and climate regulation. Importantly, they also sustain both human agriculture and livestock, alongside wild herbivores — which in turn support carnivores by serving as their prey base.
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In India, grasslands cover nearly 25% of the country’s land area. These include diverse types such as the alpine meadows in the Himalayas, the chaurs at their base, the terai grasslands along the floodplains of the Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers, the floating phumdis of Manipur (home to the famous “dancing deer”), the dry savannas of central and western India, and the sholas in the Western Ghats.
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Globally, grasslands are known by various names depending on the region. The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) notes that they are referred to as ‘savannah’ in Africa, ‘cerrado’ in South America, ‘prairie’ in North America, ‘steppe’ in Central Asia, and ‘meadow’ in the United Kingdom.
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What makes grasslands unique is their resilience — they can continue to grow even after being grazed by animals. This quality allows them to support a diverse range of wildlife. For instance, Kaziranga and Manas host species like the one-horned rhinoceros and wild water buffalo in their moist grasslands, the terai supports swamp deer, and the rare Sangai deer flourishes on the floating islands of Loktak Lake in Manipur.
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Despite their importance, most of India’s grasslands — like its wetlands — lack formal protection. A UNCCD report released last year on rangeland degradation revealed that less than 5% of the country’s grasslands are in protected zones. Furthermore, India’s grassland area reduced significantly from 18 million hectares in 2005 to just 12 million hectares by 2015
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On July 29, Tuesday, authorities released the 2024 summary report titled ‘Status of Tigers in the Kaziranga Tiger Reserve’, based on the Phase IV monitoring efforts carried out across the Eastern Assam, Nagaon, and Biswanath Wildlife Divisions. This assessment was conducted under the directives of the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA).
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The latest count recorded 148 tigers within the reserve — a notable increase from 104 in 2022, 99 in 2018, and 96 in 2014. According to Reserve Director Sonali Ghosh, this growth positions Kaziranga as having the third-highest tiger density globally, following Corbett Tiger Reserve in Uttarakhand and Bandipur Tiger Reserve in Karnataka.
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The monitoring exercise lasted 103 days and employed 293 pairs of camera traps spread over 1,307.49 square kilometres. These traps captured 4,011 tiger images from 242 different sites. Based on the unique stripe patterns on their right flanks, 148 adult tigers were identified — comprising 83 females, 55 males, and 10 whose gender could not be determined.
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While the increase in population is encouraging, the report also highlights ongoing threats to Kaziranga’s tigers, including habitat loss, conflicts with humans, and the impact of expanding agriculture and infrastructure around the reserve
- Kaziranga National Park holds immense ecological, cultural, and conservation significance in India and globally. Located in the floodplains of the Brahmaputra River in Assam, Kaziranga is celebrated for its remarkable biodiversity, particularly as the single largest habitat of the Indian one-horned rhinoceros.
- In fact, it is home to more than two-thirds of the world's population of this species, making it the cornerstone of rhino conservation in South Asia.
- Declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1985, Kaziranga is not just a sanctuary for rhinos but also a thriving ecosystem that supports tigers, elephants, wild water buffalo, swamp deer, and numerous bird species.
- It is part of the Eastern Himalayan biodiversity hotspot and represents one of the last remaining undisturbed natural areas in the Brahmaputra Valley floodplain.
- What sets Kaziranga apart is its dynamic riverine ecosystem shaped by annual floods, which sustain its vast expanses of grasslands, wetlands, and forests. These natural cycles create ideal conditions for a diverse range of flora and fauna, particularly large herbivores. This, in turn, supports a healthy population of carnivores, including one of the highest tiger densities in the world.
- Kaziranga is also significant from a conservation policy perspective. It is one of the first protected areas in India to implement rigorous anti-poaching strategies and community engagement models. The park’s success in wildlife protection has become a case study in how conservation can be balanced with tourism and local livelihoods.
- Moreover, Kaziranga plays a vital role in climate regulation, water retention, and flood mitigation in the region. It acts as a natural buffer during the Brahmaputra’s monsoon overflow, absorbing excess water and reducing downstream damage. The park is also an important carbon sink, contributing to climate resilience in northeast India.
- In essence, Kaziranga is not just a wildlife reserve; it is a living landscape that reflects the intricate relationship between nature, people, and policy. Its continued protection is essential for maintaining ecological balance, conserving endangered species, and supporting the broader environmental and economic health of the region
- The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) is a statutory body under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), Government of India. It was established in 2006 under the provisions of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, as amended by the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 2006
- The NTCA was created to strengthen tiger conservation efforts in India and to implement the Project Tiger program more effectively. Its formation followed concerns about declining tiger populations and the need for a more focused, accountable, and legally empowered body to oversee their protection
- NTCA has the power to issue binding directions to states regarding tiger conservation. It also coordinates with law enforcement agencies, forest departments, and international organizations to curb wildlife crime and illegal trade in tiger parts
- The NTCA plays a central role in India's tiger conservation success, helping the country maintain over 70% of the world’s wild tiger population. Through data-driven conservation, policy advocacy, and strict protection measures, NTCA has helped reverse the decline in tiger numbers, as reflected in the results of All India Tiger Estimations
Key Features of Project Tiger:
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Tiger Reserves:
Specially designated protected areas known as tiger reserves were established. India began with 9 reserves in 1973; as of now (2024), there are over 53 tiger reserves across 18 states. -
Core-Buffer Strategy:
Each tiger reserve is divided into:-
Core Zone: Strictly protected; human activity is prohibited.
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Buffer Zone: Sustainable use area where conservation and local livelihoods coexist.
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Monitoring & Research:
Uses scientific methods like camera traps, pugmark tracking, and radio telemetry. The All India Tiger Estimation is conducted every four years. -
Community Participation:
Local communities are involved through eco-development programs to reduce dependence on forest resources and promote conservation awareness. -
Rehabilitation and Relocation:
Voluntary relocation of villages from core areas to reduce pressure on tiger habitats
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🐅 Tiger’s Conservation Status – Know the Protection Levels!
🔖 Under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 🌍 IUCN Red List Classification 🌐 CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species) |
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For Prelims: Kaziranga National Park, Indian Forests Act, 1927, Wildlife Protection Act, 1972
For Mains:
1. What are the prohibitions for visitors in case of National Parks, Discuss the laws governing National Parks and Tiger reserves
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MANGROVES
- Mangroves are a special category of vegetation made up of salt-tolerant trees and shrubs that typically grow in coastal zones where freshwater from rivers and streams mixes with seawater — specifically in estuarine and intertidal environments.
- These plants are known for their specialized breathing or aerial roots and thick, waxy leaves, and they belong to the category of flowering plants.
- Mangroves flourish in regions that receive high annual rainfall ranging from 1,000 to 3,000 mm and have temperatures between 26°C and 35°C.
- A remarkable feature of mangroves is their method of reproduction. Their seeds, called propagules, begin germinating while still attached to the parent plant — a process termed vivipary.
- Once matured, these seedlings fall into the water and eventually establish themselves in muddy, sediment-rich environments. This adaptation enhances their survival in highly saline and unstable coastal conditions.
- Species like the red mangrove (Rhizophora), Avicennia marina, and the grey mangrove are among the commonly found varieties. These ecosystems are typically found in marshes and swamps and are classified as littoral forests, thriving in saline or brackish waters along coastal belts.
Mangrove Distribution in India
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- Mangrove forests are found across 123 countries and territories, predominantly within tropical and subtropical latitudes.
- According to the Indian State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2023, India’s mangrove cover stands at approximately 4,992 square kilometers, making up about 0.15% of the nation’s total geographical area.
- West Bengal leads with the most extensive mangrove area, particularly in the Sundarbans. Gujarat ranks second, with about 1,177 sq. km, especially concentrated around the Gulf of Kutch and Gulf of Khambhat. Within Gujarat, Kutch district alone accounts for nearly 794 sq. km, the highest in the state.
- Other Indian states with significant mangrove ecosystems include Andhra Pradesh (notably in the Godavari-Krishna delta), Kerala, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
- The Sundarbans, extending across India and Bangladesh, represent the largest continuous mangrove forest on the planet and have been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
- This biodiverse region is home to iconic species such as the Royal Bengal tiger and Gangetic dolphin. In contrast, Bhitarkanika, the second largest mangrove area in India, is well known for hosting Olive Ridley turtles and saltwater crocodiles, both considered ecologically significant and vulnerable species
- Coastal Protection (Natural Bio-shields):
Mangroves serve as a natural buffer against coastal hazards. Often termed ‘bio-shields’, these dense root systems absorb and reduce the intensity of storm surges, tidal waves, and high winds. They effectively minimize soil erosion and protect vulnerable coastlines from the impacts of climate-induced disasters. - Carbon Sequestration:
These forests are highly effective carbon sinks, meaning they absorb more carbon dioxide than they emit. According to UNESCO, one hectare of mangrove can store approximately 3,754 tonnes of carbon, equivalent to removing over 2,650 vehicles from the road for a year. - Unlike other trees that release stored carbon when they die, mangroves trap carbon in the underlying soil, where it can remain locked for thousands of years, even if the vegetation above is destroyed. This makes mangroves uniquely effective in combating global warming and contributing to long-term climate stability
- Livelihood and Economic Contributions:
Being located in coastal areas, mangroves are closely tied to the livelihoods of local communities. Activities such as fishing, aquaculture, collection of honey, non-timber forest produce, and small-scale boating are directly supported by these ecosystems. - Furthermore, mangroves support the growth of commercially valuable species like fish, shrimps, and prawns, making them critical for the blue economy
- Biodiversity Hotspots:
Mangrove ecosystems are teeming with life and support complex, interdependent communities. They act as nursery grounds for marine species, shelter for terrestrial animals like monkeys, deer, and birds, and feeding grounds for a variety of organisms. - Their flowers provide nectar for honeybees, while the dense vegetation offers refuge for endangered and migratory species alike. Some mangrove zones even support unusual inhabitants such as kangaroos in other parts of the world
- As per UNESCO, mangrove forests—despite their ecological and economic importance—are vanishing at a rate three to five times faster than other global forest types. This alarming trend has far-reaching environmental and socio-economic consequences. Over the past four decades, global mangrove cover has been reduced by half.
- Multiple human-induced pressures such as deforestation, pollution, and the construction of dams significantly endanger these ecosystems.
- Additionally, climate change has emerged as a critical threat, intensifying the risks through rising sea levels and the increased frequency of extreme weather events like storms and cyclones.
- Studies suggest that as sea levels rise, mangroves naturally migrate inland. However, this landward shift is increasingly being obstructed by urban development, human settlements, and industrial infrastructure, leaving the mangroves with no space to adapt.
- This "coastal squeeze" could eventually lead to their irreversible decline, hampering both conservation and restoration efforts.
- According to research based on the IUCN Red List of Ecosystems, nearly one-third (33%) of the world’s mangrove habitats are currently at risk due to the impacts of climate change.
- The study highlights that preserving healthy mangrove ecosystems is vital to climate resilience, as they can better adapt to rising seas and provide natural protection to inland areas from storm surges, hurricanes, and cyclones
- Mangrove ecosystems are under significant stress due to rapid urban expansion, conversion of coastal areas for agriculture and shrimp farming, and the detrimental effects of rising sea surface temperatures. Additionally, unsustainable tourism activities have further exacerbated the degradation of these fragile habitats.
- On a positive note, the role of mangroves in climate change mitigation and adaptation is increasingly being acknowledged worldwide. Among notable international efforts are the Mangroves for the Future (MFF) initiative and the Mangrove Alliance for Climate, both of which focus on conservation and resilience-building.
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Government Initiatives In India, several government-led programmes have emerged to promote mangrove protection. These include:
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Despite these efforts, there is a pressing need to go beyond schemes and adopt a multi-pronged conservation strategy. This includes:
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6. Way forward
Identifying local and regional challenges is essential to developing targeted solutions. Ultimately, there is a need for a unified global action plan with clearly defined objectives to ensure the long-term survival of mangrove ecosystems and promote a sustainable and climate-resilient future
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For Prelims: IUCN Red List of Ecosystems, Mangroves for the Future (MFF), Mangrove Ecosystems and Their Distribution in India
For Mains: GS III - Environment and ecology
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Previous Year Questions
1.Which one of the following regions of India has a combination of mangrove forest, evergreen forest and deciduous forest? (UPSC CSE 2015) (a) North Coastal Andhra Pradesh (b) South-West Bengal (c) Southern Saurashtra (d) Andaman and Nicobar Islands
2.With reference to the mangroves, consider the following statements: 1. They act as a buffer between the ocean and the land. 2. They prevent erosion by absorbing wave action. 3. Mangroves require carbon dioxide for their roots to survive. 4. Pichavaram Mangrove Forest is located in West Bengal. How many of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) All four 3.With reference to the Sundarbans mangrove forest, consider the following statements: 1. It lies on the delta of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers on the Bay of Bengal. 2. It is a World Heritage site which was inscribed in 1987. 3. It lies on the India-Myanmar border. 4. It is the world’s second-largest contiguous mangrove forest. How many of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) All four Answers: 1-d 2-b 3-b Mains Discuss the causes of depletion of mangroves and explain their importance in maintaining coastal ecology. (UPSC CSE 2019) |
MAHARASHTRA SPECIAL PUBLIC SECURITY BILL
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- The Maharashtra government introduced the Special Public Security Bill to address what it terms as the growing threat of ‘urban Naxalism’. According to the Bill, Naxal influence is no longer confined to rural or remote parts of traditionally affected states but is increasingly spreading into urban centers through front organisations.
- These urban fronts reportedly provide critical logistical support and shelter to armed Naxal operatives.
- Documents recovered from Naxal groups allegedly reveal the existence of “safe houses” and “urban hideouts” across various cities in Maharashtra.
- The state administration argues that Maharashtra has become a hub for such urban Naxal networks, claiming the presence of over 60 affiliated groups and asserting that existing legal frameworks are inadequate to tackle them.
- On the other hand, civil rights advocates criticize the government for withholding the names of these organisations despite repeated appeals.
- They contend that the Bill is a tool to suppress left-leaning groups and human rights defenders, particularly those who opposed the BJP during the 2024 general elections
- Maharashtra has become the fifth state—after Chhattisgarh, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Odisha—to introduce a Public Security Act aimed at strengthening efforts to prevent the activities of unlawful organisations.
- The state government has noted that similar laws in these states have led to the banning of 48 front organisations.
- However, civil liberties groups argue that the Public Security Acts in the other states were enacted before more robust laws, such as the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA), came into force.
- They also highlight that the Maharashtra government itself has previously stated that armed left-wing extremism has been restricted to just two districts through the use of existing laws, raising concerns about whether such a harsh new law is truly necessary at this point
- The initial version of the Bill was introduced by the previous Mahayuti government during the final phase of the Maharashtra Assembly’s monsoon session in 2024. State elections followed soon after, resulting in a decisive victory for the BJP and its coalition partners.
- The newly formed government brought the Bill back and reintroduced it in the Assembly during the winter session on December 20, 2024. The following day, a joint committee comprising members from both legislative Houses was established to review the Bill.
- Although the committee received over 12,500 submissions, including objections and suggestions, it incorporated only three amendments, which activists have described as merely superficial.
- Once approved by the committee, the Bill was presented in the Assembly on July 10. While the Communist Party of India (Marxist) formally opposed it, other opposition parties expressed reservations but did not vote against it.
- The Bill was ultimately passed through a voice vote. Since then, two delegations have urged the Governor to withhold assent and return the Bill to the Legislature for reconsideration
- The opposition has raised serious concerns about the Bill, arguing that it grants the government sweeping powers to label organisations as ‘unlawful’ without adhering to due legal procedures.
- It also permits withholding of information under the pretext of ‘public interest’, enables indefinite extension of bans on groups, and may turn legitimate dissent into a criminal offence due to a vague definition of what constitutes ‘illegal activity’.
- The Bill also removes the jurisdiction of lower courts, thereby limiting accessible legal recourse, and offers complete legal immunity to state officials acting in what is termed as ‘good faith’.
- Critics fear that these provisions could be misused for ideologically driven crackdowns on opposition parties, activists, and civil society movements.
- Although the government insists that peaceful protests and journalistic activities are excluded from the Bill’s scope, the lack of clarity in its language has raised apprehensions that it might be used against farmers’ unions, student groups, and human rights organisations under the guise of maintaining public order.
- For instance, Section 2(f) of the Bill penalises verbal or written communication, gestures, signs, or visual displays that could ‘interfere’ with public order or ‘create concern’.
- The opposition contends that such vague phrasing could be exploited to penalise freedom of expression, public assembly, satire, or criticism simply based on perceived threat—without needing to prove actual violence, immediate danger, or even malicious intent
FINANCIAL INCLUSION INDEX (FI-INDEX)
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The Financial Inclusion Index (FI-Index) has been designed as a broad-based measure that includes information from diverse sectors such as banking, investments, insurance, pensions, and postal services. Its development involved collaboration with the government and relevant regulatory authorities from each sector.
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One of the distinguishing aspects of the FI-Index is the inclusion of a 'quality' component. This element evaluates the effectiveness of financial inclusion by considering factors like financial literacy, consumer protection standards, and disparities or shortcomings in service delivery.
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The index provides a single, composite score that summarizes multiple dimensions of financial inclusion. This score ranges from 0 to 100, where 0 implies total exclusion from the financial system, and 100 denotes complete inclusion.
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The FI-Index is structured around three main components: Access (accounting for 35% of the index), Usage (45%), and Quality (20%). Each of these components is further broken down into several dimensions, which are assessed using a range of specific indicators.
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Notably, the FI-Index does not use a fixed base year. Instead, it serves as a cumulative measure of progress made by all stakeholders in enhancing financial inclusion over time. The index is released annually every July
- Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY): Launched on August 28, 2014, by Prime Minister Narendra Modi, this flagship scheme was introduced with the goal of promoting financial inclusion by providing affordable access to essential financial services such as savings and deposit accounts, remittances, credit, insurance, and pensions.
- The scheme allows individuals to open bank accounts without any charges or requirements for maintaining a minimum balance. It also offers a free RuPay debit card that includes accident insurance coverage of ₹2 lakh, along with the option of an overdraft facility up to ₹10,000.
- PMJDY account holders are eligible for various schemes such as Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT), the Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana (PMJJBY), the Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana (PMSBY), the Atal Pension Yojana (APY), and support through the MUDRA scheme.
- Digital India: Initiated on July 1, 2015, by the central government, this programme envisions creating a digitally empowered society and knowledge-based economy. It brings together multiple digital initiatives under one umbrella, each aimed at enhancing digital infrastructure, improving governance, and preparing India for a tech-driven future.
- Prominent initiatives under the Digital India programme include the Bharat Interface for Money (BHIM) app, the Goods and Services Tax Network (GSTN), Pradhan Mantri Gramin Digital Saksharta Abhiyan (PMGDISHA), Aarogya Setu, Digital India BHASHINI, and the Open Network for Digital Commerce (ONDC).
- Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana (PMJJBY): This is a renewable, one-year life insurance plan that offers coverage of ₹2 lakh for death from any cause. It is available to individuals aged 18 to 50 years who have a bank account
- Aadhaar and Financial Inclusion: The JAM trinity—Jan Dhan, Aadhaar, and Mobile—forms the backbone of India’s financial inclusion strategy. This framework has significantly broadened the scope of direct benefit transfers (DBT). The government’s introduction of Aadhaar, a biometric identification system, has simplified procedures for opening bank accounts, thereby fostering greater inclusion within the financial ecosystem.
- Atal Pension Yojana (APY): Introduced in 2015, this scheme is aimed at workers in the unorganised sector, who generally lack access to formal retirement plans. APY promotes voluntary savings to help these individuals build a stable and secure income for their retirement years.
- The scheme guarantees fixed pension amounts ranging from ₹1,000 to ₹5,000 per month, depending on the subscriber’s age at enrollment and the monthly contributions made. Individuals aged between 18 and 40 are eligible to join the scheme, and the pension begins once they reach 60 years of age.
- Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana (PMSBY): This is an annually renewable personal accident insurance plan designed to provide financial protection against death or disability due to accidents. It is open to individuals aged 18 to 70 who hold a bank account and consent to auto-debit of the premium.
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In May 2025, the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation released the Comprehensive Modular Survey: Telecom, 2025. The findings highlighted a significant rise in the use of online banking among rural Indians, with a particularly notable increase among young women.
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The percentage of women in rural regions capable of using online banking services climbed substantially to 30.0% in the first quarter of 2025, a significant jump from 17.1% recorded in the 2022–23 period.
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Among rural females aged 15 to 24, 51.4% reported being able to carry out online banking transactions—more than double the 19.6% reported in the previous Comprehensive Annual Modular Survey for 2022–23 (July–June), which was released in October 2024.
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Urban areas, where digital banking was already more prevalent, saw a relatively moderate increase. In these regions, 62.4% of individuals aged 15 and above reported using online banking services, compared to 50.6% in 2022–23.
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The survey was conducted during the first quarter of 2025 as part of the 80th round of the National Sample Survey (NSS), covering the entire country except a few villages in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands
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For Prelims: Direct benefit transfers (DBT), Atal Pension Yojana (APY), Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana (PMSBY)
For Mains: GS III - Economy, GS II - Governance
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Previous Year Questions
1.With reference to India, consider the following: (UPSC CSE 2010) 1. Nationalization of Banks 2. Formation of Regional Rural Banks 3. Adoption of village by Bank Branches Which of the above can be considered as steps taken to achieve the “financial inclusion” in India? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer (d) |
