GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND PROJECT
1. Context
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands administration made a false representation to the Centre claiming that rights of the tribal people under the Forest Rights Act, 2006, had been “identified and settled”, which eventually led to forest clearances being granted for the ₹72,000-crore mega infrastructure project on the Great Nicobar Islands, a council representing the Nicobarese has said in a complaint to Union Minister of Tribal Affairs Jual Oram.
2.What is the Great Nicobar Island Project?
- The Great Nicobar Island Project is a significant infrastructure development initiative undertaken by the Indian government on Great Nicobar Island, part of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Indian Ocean. The project aims to transform the island into a strategic and economic hub.
- A deep-draft international container transshipment terminal is planned to be developed at Galathea Bay. This port is expected to serve as a key shipping hub in the region, facilitating trade and reducing dependency on transshipment ports in other countries
- An international airport is proposed to improve connectivity to the island, both for tourism and strategic purposes. This airport will be capable of handling wide-bodied aircraft and will enhance the island's accessibility
- To support the infrastructure and population growth, a gas- and solar-based power plant will be developed. This plant aims to provide a reliable and sustainable energy source for the island's needs
- A modern township with residential, commercial, and recreational facilities is planned to accommodate the increased population and workforce that the project will attract. This township is expected to have state-of-the-art amenities and infrastructure
Strategic and Economic Importance
- Great Nicobar Island is situated near the Malacca Strait, one of the world's busiest shipping lanes. Developing this island will enhance India's strategic presence in the Indian Ocean Region, particularly in terms of maritime security and trade control
- The project aims to boost the local economy by creating job opportunities and attracting investments. Improved infrastructure and connectivity are expected to stimulate tourism and other economic activities on the island
- Enhancing connectivity through the transhipment port and international airport will integrate Great Nicobar Island more closely with the global and regional trade networks, potentially making it a key logistical and commercial hub
Environmental and Social Considerations
- The project has raised concerns about its potential impact on the island's rich biodiversity and ecosystems. Great Nicobar Island is home to unique flora and fauna, including endangered species. Ensuring sustainable development practices and environmental protection measures will be crucial
- There are concerns about the impact on local communities, particularly indigenous tribes such as the Nicobarese and Shompen. Ensuring that their rights and livelihoods are protected is a key consideration for the project
- The project's emphasis on using renewable energy sources like solar power and promoting eco-friendly practices is an effort to mitigate environmental concerns. However, balancing development with conservation will be an ongoing challenge
|
Great Nicobar
Great Nicobar is the largest of the Nicobar Islands, part of the Union Territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands in India. It is located in the Indian Ocean, near the western entrance of the Malacca Strait, which is a key maritime route for international trade.
Here are some key aspects of Great Nicobar:
|
3. Strategic Importance
- The Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean region are critically important for India's strategic and security interests, especially as the Chinese People’s Liberation Army Navy aims to increase its presence in these waters.
- India is concerned about the buildup of Chinese naval forces at key Indo-Pacific chokepoints, particularly Malacca, Sunda, and Lombok. China's efforts to extend its influence in the area include constructing a military facility on the Coco Islands in Myanmar, located just 55 km north of the Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
- Earlier this year, The Indian Express reported significant upgrades to the military infrastructure on the Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
- This includes modernizing airfields and jetties, creating new logistics and storage facilities, establishing a base for military personnel, and enhancing surveillance capabilities.
- The goal of these upgrades is to support the deployment of more military forces, larger warships, aircraft, missile batteries, and troops.
- Maintaining close surveillance over the area surrounding the archipelago and establishing a strong military presence on Great Nicobar is crucial for India's national security
4. Environmental Concerns
- The proposed infrastructure upgrade has faced opposition due to its potential ecological threat to the islands. Wildlife conservation researchers, anthropologists, scholars, civil society members, and the Congress party have raised concerns about the devastating impact on the Shompen, a particularly vulnerable tribal group (PVTG) of hunter-gatherers, who have an estimated population of a few hundred individuals residing in a tribal reserve on the island.
- Critics claim the project infringes on the rights of the tribal population and will harm the island’s ecology, including the felling of nearly a million trees. There are fears that the port project will damage coral reefs, affecting the local marine ecosystem, and pose a threat to terrestrial species like the Nicobar Megapode bird and leatherback turtles, which nest in the Galathea Bay area.
- A statement by senior Congress leader and former Environment Minister Jairam Ramesh highlighted that the proposed port is in a seismically active zone, which experienced permanent subsidence of about 15 feet during the 2004 tsunami.
- The statement also accused the local administration of insufficiently consulting the Tribal Council of Great and Little Nicobar Islands as required by law.
- In November 2022, the tribal council withdrew a no-objection certificate it had issued for the diversion of about 160 sq km of forest land, citing inadequate information provided to them.
- In April 2023, the Kolkata Bench of the National Green Tribunal (NGT) chose not to interfere with the environmental and forest clearances granted to the project. However, the Tribunal ordered the formation of a high-power committee to review the clearances. There is still no clarity on whether the committee, mainly composed of government representatives, has submitted its report
|
For Prelims: National Green Tribunal (NGT), Great Nicobar Island, Coastal Regulation Zones, Turtles, Dolphins, Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs), Mangroves, Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve
For Mains: Significance and Issues Related to Great Nicobar Island Project
|
|
Previous Year Questions
1. Which one of the following pairs of islands is separated from each other by the ‘Ten Degree Channel’? (2014) (a) Andaman and Nicobar Answer (a) 2. Which of the following have coral reefs? (2014)
Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only Answer (a) 3. In which one of the following places is the Shompen tribe found? (2009) (a) Nilgiri Hills Answer (b) |
Source: indianexpress
CIRCULAR MIGRATION
1. Context
Migration is essential to globalisation and it has been a major source of advancement across times, Nobel Laureate Amartya Sen said during an interaction with students in Kolkata on Friday.
2. About Circular Migration
- Circular migration is a repetitive form of migration wherein people move to another place (the destination country) and back (country of origin) according to the availability of employment.
- This effectively means that instead of migrating permanently or temporarily (moving for some time to complete any contract-based labour) to another location, people move to different locations for a brief period when work is available.
- It is a phenomenon mostly among low-income groups who migrate to avail of seasonally available jobs in another country, city, place etc.
3. Public Policy
- With the increasingly fluid movement of people, policy around migration is one of the biggest debates in the world.
- The movement of citizens from the Global South to the West in search of more employment opportunities or a better standard of living creates a brain drain for their origin countries and competition for the citizens of the destination countries.
- Similarly, the flow of people moving from rural areas to more urban areas of the same country, results in the breakdown of infrastructure and agrarian stagnation. Therefore, migration of any kind has become a policy hazard.
4. Benefits of Circular Migration
- Circular migration is now seen as the best way forward, as the needs of development and individual economic advancement can be balanced out.
- It is seen as a balanced migration method which looks at migration not only from the point of view of the receiving country but also of the sending nation.
- For the country of origin, migration, especially international migration, is beneficial due to the flow of remittances which will boost and aid the domestic economy.
- The flow of foreign capital will enhance the economy ensuring more infrastructure, more jobs and by association, a better standard of living.
- However, large-scale transnational migration will also lead to brain drain, wherein the most talented people of the country will use their intellect and innovation for the advancement of another country.
- From the perspective of the host countries, especially those of the West, a lesser population and higher access to education has resulted in a large dearth of low-income low-skill jobs which migrants have been able to fill.
- However, the influx of migrants has caused a wide range of anxieties and cultural conflicts in the host populations with most of them now calling for restrictions and outright bans on migration.
- Circular migration aims to quell all these fears. The negative effects of brain drain will be reduced and a sort of brain circulation will be encouraged, wherein the individual can use his talents in both countries and still contribute to remittances.
Image Source: Research Gate5. Circular Migration in India
- In India, internal migration, which is migration within a particular country or State, has almost always been circular.
- With the advent of jobs in the manufacturing, construction and services sectors, there has been a huge flow of migrants from rural areas to urban cities.
- Between 2004–2005 and 2011–2012, the construction sector witnessed one of the largest net increases in employment for all workers, specifically for rural males.
- This has led to rural populations and their economy dwindling and urban spaces, while booming, witnessing infrastructural collapse as they are unable to properly house incoming populations.
- In India, the uneven development post-liberalisation has led to a lot of inter-state migration, with States like West Bengal, Odisha and Bihar having some of the highest rates of out-migration.
- Initially, while most of the migration was to Delhi, nowadays it has increased to southern States as well.
6. Challenges of Circular Migration
- In such migration, especially to southern States where the language barrier is a big obstacle, rural circular migrants are often at the mercy of middlemen or brokers.
- They are made to work in unhygienic and unsafe conditions with little to no protective equipment.
- They are routinely exploited and suffer significant ‘unfreedoms’ in host States.
- Additionally, indigenous wage groups and unions resent these migrants as they are seen as taking away their jobs by agreeing to work for lower wages.
- The study also says that this kind of migration is merely subsistence migration it’s the bare minimum.
- The migrants can barely provide for themselves and their families, with no scope for further asset creation or savings.
- There is also a certain precarity associated with these jobs as they are seasonal and often irregular.
- A lack of jobs in the host States means that they will either have to go back home or look for work in other.
7. Conclusion
- Circular migration is a dynamic phenomenon with significant implications for individuals, communities, and countries.
- It offers a potential solution to balance development needs and economic advancement.
- To address the challenges faced by circular migrants, policymakers must formulate comprehensive strategies that protect their rights and integrate them effectively into destination areas.
|
For Prelims: Circular Migration, Remittances, migration, GDP,
For Mains:
1. Discuss the potential solutions and policy initiatives that can address the challenges associated with circular migration in India. How can circular migration contribute to sustainable development in the country? (250 Words)
|
|
Previous Year Questions
Prelims
1. In the context of India, which of the following factors is/are contributor/contributors to reducing the risk of a currency crisis? (UPSC CSE 2019)
1. The foreign currency earnings of India's IT sector.
2. Increasing government expenditure.
3. Remittances from Indians abroad.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
A. 1 only B. 1 and 3 only C. 2 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
2. Read the following passage and answer the item that follows. Your answers to this item should be based on the passage only.
Climate change is likely to expose a large number of people to increasing environmental risks forcing them to migrate. The international community is yet to recognize this new category of migrants. There is no consensus on the definition and status of climate refugees owing to the distinct meaning the term refugees carry under international laws. There are still gaps in understanding how climate change will work as the root cause of migration. Even if there is recognition of climate refugees, who is going to provide protection? More emphasis has been given to international migration due to climate change. But there is a need to recognize the migration of such people within the countries also so that their problems can be addressed properly.
Which of the following is the most rational inference from the above passage? (UPSC CSE 2017)
A. The world will not be able to cope with large-scale migration of climate refugees.
B. We must find the ways and means to stop further climate change.
C. Climate change will be the most important reason for the migration of people in the future. D. Relation between climate change and migration is not yet properly understood.
Answer: D
3. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of a country is (SSC CGL 2022)
A. Total value of tradable goods produced in a year.
B. Total value of monetary and non-monetary goods and services within a year.
C. Total value of economic transactions done within a country within a year.
D. None of the above
Answer: D
4. With reference to India economy, consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2015)
1. The rate of growth of Real Gross Domestic Product has steadily increased in the last decade. 2. The Gross Domestic Product at market prices (in rupees) has steadily increased in the last decade.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: B
Mains
1. What are the main socio-economic implications arising out of the development of IT industries in major cities of India? (UPSC 2021)
2. Discuss the changes in the trends of labour migration within and outside India in the last four decades. (UPSC 2015)
|
Source: The Hindu
SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEMS
1. Context
Uttar Pradesh’s Varanasi has become the country’s first city to have portable solar panels between railway tracks
2. Electricity generation
- Electricity can primarily be generated through two key methods. The first is electromagnetic induction, a principle discovered by Michael Faraday in 1821, which became commercially applicable around 1890. Even today, this method remains central to most of the world's electricity generation.
- The second approach involves photovoltaic (PV) technology, which relies on semiconductor materials like elemental silicon to convert sunlight directly into electricity. The photovoltaic effect was first observed by Alexander Becquerel in 1839.
- However, it wasn't until 1954 that a functional and efficient solar cell was developed at Bell Laboratories by Chapin, Fuller, and Pearson using doped silicon.
- This achievement was made possible thanks to two pivotal scientific contributions: Albert Einstein’s Nobel Prize-winning explanation of the photoelectric effect, and Jan Czochralski’s method for producing single-crystal silicon, which remains the foundation for most PV cells today.
- Unlike PV systems that feed regulated, taxable electricity into national power grids, technologies such as solar water heaters, solar air heaters, and solar-based cooling systems usually operate independently.
- For example, solar cooling uses an absorption refrigeration process that can cool interiors to as low as 19°C even when the ambient temperature hits 40°C. These standalone technologies are similar to PV panels used in off-grid regions, typically for purposes like charging batteries and powering basic lighting systems.
- Globally, solar insolation—the measure of solar energy received—varies significantly by region. Though solar energy is plentiful, it is scattered over wide areas, making it less concentrated.
- To harness it effectively, various focusing technologies such as parabolic troughs, Fresnel lenses, and other solar concentrators are employed for tasks ranging from cooking and water desalination to thermal heating and electricity production
3. How does sunlight generate power?
 (1).png)
- Photovoltaic (PV) cells are typically composed of semiconducting materials like elemental silicon. Unlike metals such as copper, which are Ohmic conductors (their electrical resistance increases with temperature), silicon behaves as a non-Ohmic material. At room temperature, silicon is a poor conductor, but its conductivity improves as it gets warmer.
- From a quantum mechanical perspective, electrical conduction occurs when electrons occupy a higher energy level known as the conduction band, where they can move freely, similar to how water flows in the ocean. Electrons that remain in the valence band, a lower-energy state, are immobile and do not contribute to electrical current.
- To move an electron from the valence band to the conduction band, energy must be supplied. This energy can come from thermal excitation (increased atomic motion at higher temperatures) or from other energy sources such as light.
- Light, depending on the experiment, behaves either as a wave or as individual energy packets called photons. When photons strike electrons in the valence band, they can transfer energy to the electrons, allowing them to rise to the conduction band—if the photon’s energy matches or exceeds the required energy gap.
- This energy gap, known as the band gap and measured in electron volts (eV), must be matched precisely by the photon’s energy for the transition to occur. If a photon has more energy than necessary, the excess is converted to heat, which not only leads to energy loss but can also cause electrons to escape.
- Besides the energy requirement, there's also a symmetry condition for these transitions, though it plays a lesser role in this context. Due to these constraints, silicon-based PV cells cannot utilize the entire solar spectrum efficiently—around 50.4% of the sunlight is unusable. About 20.2% of photons lack sufficient energy to initiate the transition, while 30.2% carry excess energy that’s lost as heat.
- Other semiconducting materials like gallium arsenide, cadmium telluride, and copper indium selenide can absorb different parts of the solar spectrum more effectively. However, their widespread use is restricted by challenges such as limited availability, environmental hazards, and handling complexities
4. Silicon Solar Cells
- In silicon-based photovoltaic (PV) cells, trace amounts of phosphorus and boron are intentionally introduced to create regions that either have an excess of electrons or a shortage of them (known as "holes").
- This results in the formation of a p-n junction, where the difference in electrical charge establishes an electric field. When sunlight hits the surface, this setup acts like a battery, generating an electric potential that drives current.
- When an external circuit is connected, electrons travel from the negatively charged side through the load toward the positively charged side, completing the circuit. This process can continue as long as the cell is exposed to light.
- However, even within the 49.6% of the solar spectrum that is usable, several energy losses still occur. For example, PV cells often heat up to 30–40°C above the surrounding temperature, and this radiative heat loss accounts for around 7% of energy loss.
- An additional 10% loss is caused by differences in the mobility of positive and negative charges, a phenomenon known as the saturation effect, which reduces the generated voltage over time.
- These factors contribute to a theoretical efficiency ceiling of 33.7% for single-junction silicon PV cells, a value known as the Shockley-Queisser limit. Moreover, practical inefficiencies such as non-uniform sunlight exposure and manufacturing inconsistencies between cells (which cause differences in open-circuit voltage) also reduce performance.
- When real-world losses like converting DC to AC and managing peak power output are considered, the actual efficiency of silicon-based crystalline PV cells averages about 25% in laboratory settings, while the best commercial models achieve roughly 20% efficiency. By comparison, natural photosynthesis captures only 3–6% of the sunlight it receives
5. What can solar energy and cannot do?
- Because natural silicon reflects a significant amount of light, photovoltaic (PV) cells are coated with a transparent anti-reflective layer, typically made from tin oxide or silicon nitride, which also gives them their distinctive blue hue.
- Unlike biological photosystems, which assemble proteins using minimal energy at ambient temperatures, PV technology demands high energy inputs during manufacturing.
- The production of PV cells starts with the Czochralski process, which purifies elemental silicon to about 99% purity by melting and slowly forming it into single-crystal ingots. When these ingots are sliced into thin wafers, roughly 20% of the material is lost as silicon dust.
- Due to the high costs associated with single-crystal silicon, alternative techniques have been developed — for instance, ribbon technology avoids sawing losses, while amorphous silicon cells are more economical. Their natural structural imperfections can be corrected by adding hydrogen, improving performance.
- To capture a wider range of the solar spectrum, multijunction amorphous silicon cells have been engineered. These can theoretically reach efficiencies as high as 42%, though real-world performance typically peaks around 24%. PV technologies are broadly grouped into three generations:
-
First-generation uses thick crystalline wafers (~200 µm),
-
Second-generation relies on thin-film wafers (1–10 µm), and
-
Third-generation includes advanced designs like multijunction tandem cells and quantum dots, which can generate more charge carriers per photon, potentially surpassing the Shockley–Queisser efficiency limit.
- The cost of PV-generated electricity has declined sharply—from $4–5 per watt in 2010 to about $2.8 per watt in 2023 (and as low as $1.27 per watt for utility-scale systems), nearly achieving the U.S. SunShot Initiative’s goal of $1 per watt. Breaking down system costs:
-
Modules account for 38%,
-
Inverters and other electronics for 8%,
-
Wiring and mounting contribute 22%, and
-
The remaining 33% is spent on balance-of-system (BoS) costs, including labour, permits, administrative expenses, and profit margins.
- Since single-crystal silicon cells are close to their theoretical peak, future cost reductions are most likely in the BoS components. In terms of durability, PV systems lose efficiency at a rate of about 0.5% per year, with most modules lasting 20 to 25 years.
- Interestingly, although tropical and desert climates receive higher solar irradiance, PV modules perform more efficiently in cool, clear conditions due to reduced thermal losses. This makes it challenging for low- and middle-income countries — many of which lie in tropical zones — to fully leverage PV systems, especially given infrastructural limitations and climatic constraints.
- Additionally, air pollution can block 2–11% of solar radiation, and dust accumulation (soiling) can cause an extra 3–4% loss annually.
- Cleaning solar panels is both risky and water-intensive, since the panels become electrically active under sunlight. In densely populated urban areas, PV systems may also intensify the urban heat island effect by trapping heat.
- While other solar technologies can offer some complementary benefits, the extent to which PV systems alone can support a fully carbon-neutral energy future remains a topic of active scientific debate
6. Government supported schemes
Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM) – 2010
-
Launched under the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC).
-
Aimed to establish India as a global leader in solar energy.
-
Target revised to 100 GW of solar capacity by 2022 (out of 175 GW total renewable energy target).
-
Focus on both grid-connected and off-grid solar power systems.
PM-KUSUM (Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan) – 2019
-
Promotes the use of solar energy in the agriculture sector.
-
Three components:
-
Component A: Solar power plants (up to 2 MW) on barren land.
-
Component B: Standalone solar-powered agricultural pumps.
-
Component C: Solarisation of existing grid-connected pumps
-
|
For Prelims: General issues on Environmental ecology, Bio-diversity & climate change For Mains: GS-III: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment. |
|
Previous Year Questions
1.Consider the following statements: (2016)
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only Answer (a)
|
Source: Indianexpress
GREENHOUSE GASES(GHGs)
1. Context
India plans to attain net zero status by 2070, which will require drastic cuts in GHG emissions from all sectors, including transport. Indian Railways aims to become a ‘Net Zero Carbon Emission Railway’ by 2030
2.What are greenhouse gases?
Greenhouse gases are gases that trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, leading to the greenhouse effect and contributing to global warming. These gases include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), ozone (O3), and fluorinated gases (such as hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, and nitrogen trifluoride).
These gases allow sunlight to enter the Earth's atmosphere freely. Once absorbed, the Earth's surface emits infrared radiation, but instead of allowing this radiation to escape back into space, greenhouse gases trap and re-radiate some of it back towards the Earth's surface. This process warms the Earth's surface and lower atmosphere, leading to the greenhouse effect.
Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes, have significantly increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, amplifying the greenhouse effect and contributing to global climate change
Here are the major greenhouse gases:
- Carbon dioxide (CO2): The most abundant greenhouse gas emitted through human activities. It is released when fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas are burned
- Methane (CH4): Methane is emitted from agriculture, waste decomposition, and fossil fuel production. It is a more potent greenhouse gas than CO2, but it breaks down in the atmosphere more quickly
- Nitrous oxide (N2O): Nitrous oxide is emitted from agriculture, industrial processes, and burning fossil fuels. It is a long-lived greenhouse gas that can stay in the atmosphere for centuries
- Fluorinated gases These are man-made chemicals used in refrigerants, air conditioners, and fire extinguishers. They are very potent greenhouse gases, but they are emitted in much smaller quantities than other greenhouse gases
- Water vapor (H2O): The most abundant greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. Water vapor plays an important role in the natural greenhouse effect, but human activities do not significantly affect the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere
3. What is the Greenhouse gas effect?
The greenhouse effect is a natural process that occurs when certain gases in the Earth's atmosphere trap heat from the sun. This process is essential for maintaining the Earth's temperature within a range suitable for life. Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth would be much colder, and life as we know it would not exist.
Here's how the greenhouse effect works:
-
Solar radiation: Sunlight reaches the Earth's atmosphere and passes through it, warming the Earth's surface.
-
Absorption and re-radiation: The Earth's surface absorbs some of this solar energy and then emits it as infrared radiation (heat). Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), water vapor (H2O), and others, absorb some of this infrared radiation.
-
Re-emission: The absorbed energy is re-radiated in all directions, including back toward the Earth's surface. This trapped heat warms the lower atmosphere and the Earth's surface, similar to how a greenhouse traps heat.
-
Balance: The greenhouse effect helps maintain the Earth's temperature in a range suitable for life. However, human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation, have significantly increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to enhanced greenhouse effect or global warming
4. What are hydrofluorocarbons?
- Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are a class of synthetic greenhouse gases commonly used in refrigeration, air conditioning, foam blowing agents, aerosol propellants, and other industrial applications. They are composed of hydrogen, fluorine, and carbon atoms.
- HFCs were developed as alternatives to chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), which were phased out due to their significant ozone-depleting potential. Unlike CFCs and HCFCs, HFCs do not contain chlorine atoms, so they do not contribute to ozone depletion.
- However, they are potent greenhouse gases, with high global warming potentials (GWPs), meaning they trap heat in the atmosphere at a much higher rate than carbon dioxide (CO2).
- Due to their role in contributing to climate change, efforts have been made internationally to regulate and phase out the use of HFCs. The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol, adopted in 2016, aims to gradually reduce the production and consumption of HFCs globally.
- Many countries are transitioning to alternative refrigerants with lower global warming potentials, such as hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs) and natural refrigerants like ammonia and carbon dioxide. These efforts are essential for mitigating climate change by reducing the emissions of potent greenhouse gases like HFC
5. What are the adverse effects?
The greenhouse gas effect, when intensified beyond natural levels due to human activities, leads to a range of adverse effects on the environment, ecosystems, and human societies.
Some of these effects include:
- The primary consequence of intensified greenhouse gas effect is global warming. Increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere trap more heat, leading to a rise in average global temperatures
- Global warming alters weather patterns and climatic conditions worldwide, leading to changes such as more frequent and intense heatwaves, storms, droughts, and floods. These changes can disrupt ecosystems, agriculture, and water supplies, leading to ecological imbalances and economic losses
- Warmer temperatures cause polar ice caps and glaciers to melt, contributing to rising sea levels. This phenomenon threatens coastal communities, low-lying islands, and habitats, increasing the risk of flooding and erosion
- Increased atmospheric CO2 levels lead to higher levels of carbon dioxide dissolving into oceans, resulting in ocean acidification. This harms marine life, particularly organisms with calcium carbonate shells or skeletons, such as corals, mollusks, and certain plankton species
- Climate change disrupts ecosystems and habitats, forcing species to migrate, adapt, or face extinction. The rapid pace of climate change often outpaces the ability of many species to adapt, leading to biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation
- Climate change exacerbates health risks, including heat-related illnesses, respiratory problems from poor air quality, increased prevalence of infectious diseases, and food and water insecurity due to changing agricultural conditions
- Climate change can lead to displacement of populations due to extreme weather events, loss of livelihoods in sectors such as agriculture and fishing, and increased conflicts over resources like water and arable land. These disruptions can strain social systems and economies, particularly in vulnerable regions
6.What is Montreal Protocol?
The Montreal Protocol is an international environmental agreement aimed at protecting the Earth's ozone layer by phasing out the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS). It was negotiated in 1987 and entered into force in 1989. The protocol is regarded as one of the most successful international environmental treaties.
Key points about the Montreal Protocol include:
-
Objective: The primary goal of the Montreal Protocol is to phase out the production and consumption of ODS, which are substances that contain chlorine and bromine atoms and are responsible for ozone depletion in the stratosphere.
-
Ozone Layer: The ozone layer is a region of the Earth's stratosphere that contains a high concentration of ozone molecules (O3). This layer plays a crucial role in absorbing and filtering out harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun, protecting life on Earth from its harmful effects.
-
Ozone-Depleting Substances: The Montreal Protocol targets several categories of ODS, including chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform, among others. These substances were commonly used in refrigeration, air conditioning, foam blowing agents, fire extinguishers, and other industrial applications.
-
Phasing Out: The protocol established a timetable for phasing out the production and consumption of ODS, with developed countries committing to earlier phase-out schedules and developing countries given more time to comply. Amendments to the protocol tightened regulations and accelerated the phase-out schedules over time.
-
Success: The Montreal Protocol is widely regarded as successful in achieving its objectives. By reducing the production and consumption of ODS, the protocol has led to a gradual recovery of the ozone layer. Scientific assessments have confirmed a decrease in the atmospheric concentrations of ODS and a healing of the ozone layer.
-
International Cooperation: The Montreal Protocol exemplifies successful international cooperation in addressing global environmental challenges. It has been ratified by almost every country in the world, demonstrating a shared commitment to protecting the ozone layer and mitigating climate change (as many ODS are also potent greenhouse gases)
7.Way Forward
Since 2020, the US has banned the import of HCFC 22 for any purpose other than in a process which results in its transformation or destruction. The American Innovation and Manufacturing (AIM) Act, passed by Congress in December 2020, authorised the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to phase down the production and consumption of numerous forms of HFCs
|
For Prelims: General issues on Environmental ecology, Bio-diversity and Climate Change – that do not require subject specialization
For Mains: General Studies III: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment
|
|
Previous Year Questions
1.Global warming is attributed to the presence of the following gases in the atmosphere : (UGC NET 2022)
(A) Methane
(B) Sulphur dioxide
(C) Surface Ozone
(D) Nitrogen dioxide
(E) Carbon dioxide
Choose the correct answer from the options given below :
1.(A), (B), (C), (E) only
2.(A), (C), (E) only
3.(A), (C), (D), (E) only
4.(A), (B), (D), (E) only
Answer (2)
|
Source: Indianexpress
FLASH FLOODS
1. Context
Heavy rain followed by flash floods killed a 21-year-old woman in Tharali, a town on the banks of the Pindar river in Uttarakhand, in the early hours of Saturday. The debris-filled rush of water engulfed homes, vehicles, and roads, leaving at least one missing, and caused heavy damage to private and public property
2. What is a Flood
- Flood is an overflow of a large amount of water beyond its normal limits, especially over what is normally dry land.
- Flooding is an overflowing of water onto land that is normally dry.
- Floods can happen during heavy rains, when ocean waves come on shore, when the snow melts quickly, or when dams or levees break.
- Damaging flooding may happen with only a few inches of water, or it may cover a house to the rooftop.
- Floods can occur within minutes or over a long period, and may last days, weeks, or longer.
- Floods are the most widespread of all weather-related natural disasters.
3. Common causes of floods can be divided into the factors triggering them.
These factors include -
- Meteorological factors
- Physical factors
- Human factors
3.1 Meteorological Factors
The natural causes of floods are discussed below -
- Heavy Rainfall: The season of monsoon
- Cloud Burst: Cloud Burst occurs due to intense precipitation in a short duration which can sometimes be accompanied by hail and storms and can cause a flood.
- Climate Change: According to the International Panel for Climate Change, the rainfall intensity, duration and frequency are going to increase in the future.
- Skewed Rainfall Pattern: 80% of the precipitation takes place in the monsoon months
- Trans-National Rivers: The fact that some of the rivers (like the Brahmaputra, many tributaries of Ganga) causing damage in India to originate in neighbouring countries, adds another complex dimension to the problem
- Cyclone & Heavy rainfall
3.2. Physical Factors.
- Insufficient Drainage Management: Improper planning of the drainage system of an area can cause excess water due to heavy rainfall to get stuck and lead to a flood.
- Catchment Area: Catchment area is an area from where the rainfall water flows into a river. This can be a lake or reservoir. During monsoon, when excess water exceeds the limited holding capacity of the catchment area, it leads to floods.
3.3. Human Factor
- Siltation: Siltation refers to the flow of silt and sediments in the riverbed. As particles remain suspended in the river and accumulated in the riverbed, it disrupts the flow of the river, causing a flood.
- Improper Agricultural Practices: If farmers are not cautious of the effects of farming practices meaning if they leave the waste material in the river or cannot handle water management properly, it can lead to a flood.
- Deforestation: Deforestation is one of the major human causes of floods. Trees act like a sponge that helps to hold soil and water and prevent flooding. As trees are being cut down at a fast pace to make way for urbanisation to grow, more water runs towards a river during heavy rainfall. As a result, a flood occurs.
- Collapse of Dams: Dams are built to store water and provide water to people. As dams are human-made, these can be worn out and subsequently collapse causing floods. Also, if heavy rainfall sustains for a long time, State Governments often declare to open dam gates which can lead to a dangerous flood.- Temples of Modern India to Water Bombs
- Unplanned Development
- Neglect of Pre-Disaster Planning
4.Types of Flood
- Coastal Floods: Coastal floods occur when strong winds or storms move towards the coast during high tide.
- Flash Floods: Flash floods usually occur in hilly areas in limited space. Here the sudden heavy rainfall or snow thaws are the causes of flooding. The fast-moving torrent of Flash floods can sweep large objects such as cars, rocks and everything that comes in their path.
- River Floods: River floods occur due to the inflow of water from heavy rainfall, snowmelt or powerful storms.
- Pluvial Floods: Pluvial floods occur in areas that cannot hold rainwater and end up forming puddles and ponds. eg- rural areas.
- Urban Floods: When the drainage system of urban areas fails to absorb rainwater.
5. Damages Caused by Floods in India
The impacts of floods affect both individuals and communities and have social-environmental consequences.
- Human Loss and Property Loss: Every year, millions of people become homeless and washed away due to floods.
- Spread of Communicable Diseases: Waterborne diseases like cholera, typhoid fever, hepatitis, and leptospirosis spread in flood-affected areas. Floods also lead to vector-borne diseases, transmitted through parasites and pathogens such as a mosquito. As a result, the health of flood victims deteriorates.
- Destruction of Crops: Every year, floods destroy a large number of crops.
- Loss of Livestock: Like humans, livestock also get displaced during floods and dies due to the loss of their habitats.
- Disruption of Communication Link and Transportation: Flood causes damage to transportation links such as bridges, rail, power plants etc., thus causing communication disruption in those areas.
- Economic and Social Disruption: The economy comes to a standstill as people are forced to move to another place, and revival of this situation takes time.
6. Flood Management
Approaches to dealing with floods may be any one or a combination of the following available options:
- Attempts to modify the flood
- Attempts to modify the susceptibility to flooding damage
- Attempts to modify the loss burden
- Bearing the loss.
- The main thrust of the flood protection programme undertaken in India so far has been an attempt to modify the flood in the form of physical (structural) measures to prevent the floodwaters from reaching potential damage centres and modify susceptibility to flooding damage through early warning systems.
6.1 Structural measures
The following structural measures are generally adopted for flood protection:
- Embankments, flood walls, sea walls
- Dams and reservoirs
- Natural detention basins
- Channel improvement
- Drainage improvement
- Diversion of flood waters.
6.2 Non-structural measures
Non-structural measures include:
- Flood forecasting and warning
- Floodplain zoning
- Flood fighting
- Floodproofing
- Flood insurance.
7.What are Flash Floods
- Flash floods are the most dangerous kind of floods because they combine the destructive power of a flood with incredible speed.
- Flash floods occur when heavy rainfall exceeds the ability of the ground to absorb it. They also occur when water fills normally dry creeks or streams or enough water accumulates for streams to overtop their banks, causing rapid rises of water in a short amount of time.
- They can happen within minutes of the causative rainfall, limiting the time available to warn and protect the public.
8. Status of Floods in India
8.1 NDRF Report
- 40 million hectares (10% of the land mass) in India are prone to floods.
- On average every year, 5 million hectares of land are affected, 1600 lives are lost and more than Rs. 1,800 crores is incurred.
8.2 Statistics
- Between 1970 and 2004, 3 floods occurred per year on average. However, between 2005 and 2019, the yearly average rose to 11. 19 districts were affected annually on an average until 2005. After 2005, the number jumped to 55.
- 2017 analysis suggests that 4.48 million Indians are exposed to riverine floods, the highest in the world.
9. What areas are at risk from flash floods?
- Densely populated areas are at high risk for flash floods. The construction of buildings, highways, driveways, and parking lots increases runoff by reducing the amount of rain absorbed by the ground. This runoff increases the flash flood potential.
- Areas near rivers are at risk from floods. Embankments, known as levees, are often built along rivers and are used to prevent high water from flooding bordering land.
- Dam failures can send a sudden destructive surge of water downstream.
- Mountains and steep hills produce rapid runoff, which causes streams to rise quickly.
- Saturated soils can also lead to rapid flash flooding.
- Sometimes the thunderstorms that produce heavy rainfall may happen well upstream from the impacted area, making it harder to recognize a dangerous situation.
- Very intense rainfall can produce flooding even on dry soil.
- Additional high-risk locations include recent burn areas in mountains and urban areas from pavement and roofs which enhance runoff.
- Ice jams and snowmelt can help cause flash floods. A deep snowpack increases runoff produced by melting snow. Heavy spring rains falling on melting snowpacks can produce flash flooding.
10. The impact of floods in India
11. Impact of flood on wildlife
12. Government actions regarding flood management
12.1.The National Flood Management Commission
- Launched in 1954
- Different structural and non-structural methods have been applied by various states under it.
12.2.Rashtriya Barh Aayog, 1976
- To evolve a scientific, integrated and coordinated approach to flood control
- It recommended Flood plain zoning and management to regulate human activities.
12.3.Regional task forces, 1996
- It was set up to review the impact of the recommendations of Rashtriya Barh Aayog.
- It recommended large flood moderation projects, following up the enactment of flood plain zoning.
12.4.National Water Policy, 2002
- It recommended
- Basin-wise plan for flood control and management.
- Flood control to be given overriding consideration in reservoir regulation policy.
- More emphasis on non-structural measures.
- Strict regulation of settlements and economic activities in flood plains.
12.5. K. Mittal Committee, 2003
Its main recommendations were
- Afforestation and treatment of catchment area, right land-use practices and others.
- In the river itself a construction of suitable hydraulic structures that may trap silt.
- Embankment along the aggrading river should be constructed, only after proper studies are made on its behaviour especially due to sedimentation load and resultant morphological changes.
|
For Prelims: Cloudbursts, flash floods, landslides, Cumulonimbus Clouds, Water Vapour, Floodplain Zoning, Green Infrastructure.
For Mains: 1. What is a cloudburst, and how does it differ from regular rainfall? Explain the causes and meteorological factors that contribute to the occurrence of a cloudburst.
|
Previous year Questions1. Which of the following statements with regard to Cloudburst is/are correct? (UPSC CDS 2017)
1. It is defined as sudden localized very heavy downpour with cloud thunder and lightning.
2. It mostly occurs in the hilly areas.
3. It results in a very high intensity of rainfall, i.e., 250 mm-300 mm in a couple of hours.
4. It occurs only during the daytime.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
A. 1, 2 and 3
B. 1, 3 and 4
C. 2 and 3 only
D. 2 only
Answer: A
|
Source: The Indian Express
