BASIC STRUCTURE OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION
1. Context
2. What is the Basic Structure Doctrine?
- The Doctrine of Basic Structure is a form of judicial review that is used to test the legality of any legislation by the courts.
- The doctrine was evolved by the Supreme Court in the 1973 landmark ruling in Kesavananda Bharati v State of Kerala. In a 7-6 verdict, a 13-judge Constitution Bench ruled that the ‘basic structure’ of the Constitution is inviolable, and could not be amended by Parliament.
- If a law is found to “damage or destroy” the “basic features of the Constitution”, the Court declares it unconstitutional.
- The test is applied to constitutional amendments to ensure the amendment does not dilute the fundamentals of the Constitutional itself.
3. Evolution of Basic Structure Doctrine
3.1 Shankari Prasad Case, 1951
- SC opined that the power of the parliament to amend the constitution under Article 368 also includes the power to amend Fundamental Rights.
- It based its judgment on the logic that the word ‘law’ mentioned in Article 13 includes only ordinary laws and not constitutional amendment acts.
3.2 Golaknath Case, 1967
- SC overruled its judgment. It ruled in this that- Fundamental Rights are given a transcendental and immutable position and hence the Parliament cannot abridge or take away any of these rights.
- It opined the constitutional amendment act is also a law under Art 13.
- Parliament reacted to this judgment by enacting 24th amendment act which included a provision in Art 368 which declared that Parliament has power to take away any of the fundamental rights.
3.3 Keshavananda Bharati Case, 1973
3.5 Minerva Mills Case, 1980
3.6 Waman Rao Case, 1981
- the supremacy of the Constitution,
- the rule of law,
- Independence of the judiciary,
- doctrine of separation of powers,
- sovereign democratic republic,
- the parliamentary system of government,
- the principle of free and fair elections,
- welfare state, etc.
5. Significance of Basic Structure
- The basic structure doctrine is a testimony to the theory of Constitutionalism to prevent the damage to essence of COI by brute majority of the ruling majority.
- The basic doctrine saved the Indian democracy as it acts as a limitation of constituent power or else unlimited power of parliament might have turned India into a totalitarian.
- It helps us to retain the basic tenets of our constitution so meticulously framed by the founding fathers of our Constitution.
- It strengthens our democracy by delineating a true separation of power where Judiciary is independent of other two organs. It has also given immense untold unbridled power to Supreme Court and made it the most powerful court in the world.
- By restraining the amending powers of legislative organ of State, it provided basic Rights to Citizens which no organ of State can overrule.
- Being dynamic in nature, it is more progressive and open to changes in time unlike the rigid nature of earlier judgements.
For Prelims: Doctrine of Basic Structure, Shankari Prasad Case, Golaknath Case,
Keshavananda Bharati Case, 42nd CAA 1976, Minerva Mills Case, Waman Rao Case, 1981, 9th Schedule, Article 368.
For Mains: 1. What is the Basic Structure Doctrine? Explain the evolution and significance of Basic Structure Doctrine?
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Previous Year Questions
1.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE GS1, 2020)
1. The Constitution of India defines its ‘basic structure’ in terms of federalism, secularism, fundamental rights and democracy. 2. The Constitution of India provides for ‘judicial review’ to safeguard the citizens’ liberties and to preserve the ideals on which the Constitution is based. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 1.“Parliament’s power to amend the constitution is limited power and it cannot be enlarged into absolute power”. In light of this statement, explain whether parliament under article 368 of the constitution can destroy the basic structure of the constitution by expanding its amending power? (UPSC GS2, 2019)
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SHANGHAI COOPERATION ORGANISATION
1. Context
2. About Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
- The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) is a Eurasian political, economic, international security and defence organisation.
- It is the world's largest regional organization in terms of geographic scope and population, covering approximately 60% of the area of Eurasia, and 40% of the world's population. Its combined GDP is around 20% of global GDP.
- The SCO was founded in 2001 by China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.
2.1. Structure
The SCO has several bodies that oversee its activities, including
- The Council of Heads of State, which is the supreme decision-making body of the SCO.
- The Council of Heads of Government, which is responsible for overseeing the implementation of the decisions of the Council of Heads of State.
- The Council of Foreign Ministers, which is responsible for coordinating the foreign policies of the SCO member states.
- The Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS), which is responsible for combating terrorism, separatism and extremism in the SCO region and
- The SCO Secretariat, which is responsible for the day-to-day running of the organization.
2.2. Members
- The SCO has eight full members China, India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.
- It also has six observer states Afghanistan, Belarus, Iran, Mongolia, Nepal and Sri Lanka.
- And six dialogue partners Armenia, Azerbaijan, Cambodia, Egypt, Qatar and Saudi Arabia.
2.3. Goals
- Political and security cooperation, including the fight against terrorism, separatism and extremism
- Economic cooperation, including trade, investment, energy and transportation
- Cultural and humanitarian cooperation and
- Coordination of positions on major international issues.
3. Criticism
- The SCO has been criticized by some for being a tool of Chinese and Russian imperialism.
- However, the organization has also been praised for its role in promoting stability and security in Central Asia.
4. The Way Forward
- The SCO has been expanding its membership in recent years, and it may continue to do so in the future.
- The organization is seen by some as a potential rival to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and its growing influence is being watched closely by the United States and its allies.
For Prelims: SCO, NATO, India, Central Asia, United States, China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, terrorism,
For Mains:
1. Examine the potential challenges and opportunities for India as a full member of the SCO, highlighting its implications for India's political, economic, and security interests. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) Heads of State Summit was held on 10th November, 2020 in the video conference format. The Summit was hosted by: (OPSC OAS 2021)
A. Russia B. India C. Kazakhstan D. Uzbekistan
Answer: A
2. The Summit of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) was hosted by which country from 15-16 September 2022? (Rajasthan CET 2023)
A. Kazakhstan B. Tajikistan C. Uzbekistan D. India
Answer: C
3. The area known as 'Golan Heights' sometimes appears in the news in the context of the events related to (UPSC 2015)
A. Central Asia B. Middle East C. South-East Asia D. Central Africa
Answer: B
4. Siachen Glacier is situated to the (UPSC 2020)
A. East of Aksai Chin B. East of Leh C. North of Gilgit D. North of Nubra Valley
Answer: D
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CONSUMER PRICE INDEX (CPI)
1. Context
2. Consumer Price Index
- The Consumer Price Index (CPI) is a measure of the change in prices of a basket of goods and services that are commonly purchased by consumers. It is the most commonly used measure of inflation.
- The CPI is calculated by comparing the prices of the goods and services in the basket in a particular period to those of the same in a base period.
- The base period is usually the previous year's corresponding period. The difference in prices is expressed as a percentage, and this is the CPI inflation rate.
- The CPI is calculated for eight different categories of goods and services Food and beverages, Housing, Clothing and footwear, Transport, Health, Education, Communication, Recreation and Miscellaneous goods and services.
- The weights of each category in the CPI are determined by the expenditure patterns of urban households. For example, food and beverages have the highest weight in the CPI, followed by housing and transport.
- The CPI inflation rate is an important indicator of the cost of living.
- It is used by the government to set monetary policy and by businesses to make pricing decisions.
3. Wholesale Price Index
- The Wholesale Price Index (WPI) is a measure of the change in prices of goods and services at the wholesale level.
- It is calculated by comparing the prices of a basket of goods and services in a particular period to those of the same in a base period.
- The base period is usually the previous year's corresponding period. The difference in prices is expressed as a percentage, and this is the WPI inflation rate.
- The WPI is calculated for 67 groups of commodities, which are further divided into 225 subgroups.
- The weights of each group and subgroup in the WPI are determined by the value of the goods and services produced in each group and subgroup.
- The WPI inflation rate is an important indicator of inflation at the wholesale level.
- It is used by businesses to make pricing decisions and by the government to set monetary policy.
4. Findings of the Report
4.1. Food inflation
- Food inflation in India remained high in August, at 9.94%. This was driven by rising prices of essential food items, such as cereals, pulses, vegetables, and oils.
- Eleven of the 12 items on the heavyweight food and beverages group of the CPI logged price increases, with oils and fats, the sole item logging a year-on-year decline in prices, posting its first sequential increase in nine months.
- Vegetables provided some relief, with tomatoes leading an appreciable month-on-month deflation of 5.88% in the 19-member basket.
- However, the cooking staples of potatoes and onions were among the seven items that continued to log sequential inflation (2.3% and 12.3%, respectively).
4.2. Monsoon deficit and rising crude oil prices
- The near-term inflation outlook is also made more uncertain by other factors, including a distinct deficit in monsoon rainfall.
- Besides the overall 10% shortfall, sharp regional and temporal anomalies in rain distribution have impacted either the sowing or the quality of produce of several farm items.
- Kharif's sowing of pulses had, as of September 8, recorded an 8.6% shortfall compared with the year-earlier period.
- Another inflation driver, crude oil, has also seen a steady rise in prices as the output cuts by major oil producers of the OPEC+ grouping start to bite.
- The price of India's crude basket had, as of September 12, climbed 7.2% from the average in August to $92.65/barrel, according to official data.
4.3. RBI measures to control inflation
- For the RBI, the latest inflation data further roils its interest rate calculus.
- Unless CPI inflation decelerates by an incredible 250 basis points in September to a 4.33% pace, price gains are certain to substantially overshoot the monetary authority's 6.2% forecast for the July-September quarter, leaving it with few real options to achieve its medium-term price stability goal of 4% inflation.
- As the RBI has been at pains to stress, failure to anchor inflation expectations risks hurting growth.
5. About the sticky Consumer Price Index (CPI)
- The sticky Consumer Price Index (CPI) is a subset of the CPI that includes goods and services that change prices relatively infrequently.
- These goods and services are thought to incorporate expectations about future inflation to a greater degree than prices that change more frequently.
- Some of the items included in the sticky CPI are Rent, Housing costs, Utilities, Education, Healthcare, Transportation, Household furnishings and appliances, Personal insurance, Recreation, and Miscellaneous goods and services.
- The sticky CPI is often used by economists to measure inflation expectations.
- This is because prices of sticky goods and services are less likely to be affected by short-term changes in supply and demand, and are therefore more likely to reflect changes in inflation expectations.
- The sticky CPI is also used by central banks to set monetary policy.
- This is because the central bank wants to make sure that inflation expectations are anchored at a low level.
- If inflation expectations start to rise, the central bank may raise interest rates to bring them back down.
6. How India’s retail inflation is measured?
- India's retail inflation is measured by the Consumer Price Index (CPI), a basket of goods and services commonly purchased by urban households.
- The CPI is calculated by the National Statistical Office (NSO) every month.
- The CPI is calculated by comparing the prices of the goods and services in the basket in a particular month to those of the same in a base month.
- The base month is usually the previous year's corresponding month. The difference in prices is expressed as a percentage, and this is the CPI inflation rate.
- The CPI is calculated for eight different categories of goods and services, Food and beverages, Housing, Clothing and footwear, Transport, Health, Education, Communication, Recreation and Miscellaneous goods and services.
- The weights of each category in the CPI are determined by the expenditure patterns of urban households. For example, food and beverages have the highest weight in the CPI, followed by housing and transport.
- The CPI inflation rate is an important indicator of the cost of living in India.
- It is used by the government to set monetary policy and by businesses to make pricing decisions.
7. Calculation of Inflation
- Inflation is the rate at which the prices of goods and services increase over time.
- It is calculated by comparing the prices of a basket of goods and services in a particular period to the prices of the same basket of goods and services in a base period.
- The base period is usually the previous year's corresponding period. The difference in prices is expressed as a percentage, and this is the inflation rate.
There are two main ways to calculate inflation
The CPI is calculated by the following formula:
CPI = (Cost of a basket of goods and services in current period / Cost of a basket of goods and services in base period) * 100
The PPI is calculated by the following formula:
PPI = (Cost of a basket of goods and services at the wholesale level in the current period / Cost of a basket of goods and services at the wholesale level in the base period) * 100
For Prelims: Consumer Price Index, Wholesale Price Index, Inflation, retail inflation, Producer Pirce Index, National Statistical Office, OPEC+, Crude oil, Kharif season, Monsoon,
For Mains:
1. Analyse the factors contributing to high food inflation in India in recent months. Discuss the impact of high food inflation on the Indian economy and suggest measures to mitigate it. (250 words)
2. Explain the concept of sticky inflation. What are the various factors that contribute to sticky inflation? Discuss the implications of sticky inflation for the Indian economy. (250 words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. With reference to inflation in India, which of the following statements is correct? (UPSC 2015)
A. Controlling the inflation in India is the responsibility of the Government of India only
B. The Reserve Bank of India has no role in controlling the inflation
C. Decreased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation
D. Increased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation
Answer: C
2. With reference to India, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2010)
1. The Wholesale Price Index (WPI) in India is available on a monthly basis only.
2. As compared to Consumer Price Index for Industrial Workers (CPI(IW)), the WPI gives less weight to food articles.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: C
3. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2020)
1. The weightage of food in Consumer Price Index (CPI) is higher than that in Wholesale Price Index (WPI).
2. The WPI does not capture changes in the prices of services, which CPI does.
3. Reserve Bank of India has now adopted WPI as its key measure of inflation and to decide on changing the key policy rates.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 only C. 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
4. India has experienced persistent and high food inflation in the recent past. What could be the reasons? (UPSC 2011)
1. Due to a gradual switchover to the cultivation of commercial crops, the area under the cultivation of food grains has steadily decreased in the last five years by about 30.
2. As a consequence of increasing incomes, the consumption patterns of the people have undergone a significant change.
3. The food supply chain has structural constraints.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
5. The Public Distribution System, which evolved as a system of management of food and distribution of food grains, was relaunched as _______ Public Distribution System in 1997. (SSC JE EE 2021)
A. Evolved B. Transformed C. Tested D. Targeted
Answer: D
6. Under the Antyodaya Anna Yojana, up to what quantity of rice and wheat can be purchased at a subsidised cost? (FCI AG III 2023)
A. 35 kg B. 40 kg C. 30 kg D. 25 kg E. 50 kg
Answer: A
7. As per the the National Statistical Office (NSO) report released on 7 January 2022, India's Gross domestic product (GDP) is expected to grow at ___________ per cent (in first advance estimates) in the fiscal year 2021-22? (ESIC UDC 2022)
A. 17.6 per cent B. 9.5 per cent C. 11 per cent D. 9.2 per cent E. None of the above
Answer: D
8. The main emphasis of OPEC (Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) is on which of the following? (UKPSC 2016)
A. The production of petroleum
B. Control over prices of petroleum
C. Both (a) and (b)
D. None of the above
Answer: C
9. In the context of global oil prices, "Brent crude oil" is frequently referred to in the news. What does this term imply? (UPSC 2011)
1. It is a major classification of crude oil.
2. It is sourced from the North Sea.
3. It does not contain sulfur.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 2 only B. 1 and 2 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
10. The term 'West Texas Intermediate', sometimes found in news, refers to a grade of (UPSC 2020)
A. Crude oil B. Bullion C. Rare earth elements D. Uranium
Answer: C
11. With reference to the cultivation of Kharif crops in India in the last five years, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2019)
1. Area under rice cultivation is the highest.
2. Area under the cultivation of jowar is more than that of oilseeds.
3. Area of cotton cultivation is more than that of sugarcane.
4. Area under sugarcane cultivation has steadily decreased.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
A. 1 and 3 only B. 2, 3 and 4 only C. 2 and 4 only D. 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: A
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WILDFIRES
1. Context
2. About Wildfires
- Wildfires, also referred to as bushfires, vegetation fires, or forest fires, epitomize the uncontrolled and non-prescribed combustion of plants within natural environments like forests, grasslands, brushlands, or tundras.
- These fires, ignited by various factors, consume natural fuels and propagate based on prevailing environmental conditions such as wind patterns and terrain features.
- Three pivotal elements must converge for a wildfire to thrive: Fuel, Oxygen, and a Heat source.
2.1. Origins and Causes
Natural Causes: Many wildfires stem from natural triggers, with lightning strikes being a prominent initiator. These lightning-induced fires often ignite trees, yet the subsequent rainfall tends to douse the flames, minimizing damage. Elevated atmospheric temperatures and aridity, characterized by low humidity levels, create propitious conditions for fire ignition and spread.
Man-made Causes: Human activities constitute a significant driver of forest fires. Fires ignite when a fire source be it an exposed flame, a discarded cigarette or bidi, an electric spark, or any ignition source interacts with inflammable materials. Such anthropogenic incidents can swiftly transform into destructive conflagrations.
2.2. Classification
Surface Fires: wildfires can primarily manifest as surface fires, advancing across the forest floor's surface layer, encompassing senescent leaves, twigs, and parched grass. The propagating flames embrace the surface litter, leading to a rapid spread.
Underground Fires: Underground fires, are characterized by low intensity, smoulder within the organic matter beneath the surface and the forest floor's litter. Often concealed, these fires extend several meters below the ground, challenging detection and control efforts. These covert fires, lingering for months, inflict substantial harm to vegetative cover.
Ground Fires: Ground fires, infiltrating the sub-surface organic fuels, transcend boundaries, involving duff layers beneath forest stands, Arctic tundra, taiga, and organic soils of swamps or bogs. The distinction between underground and ground fires isn't clear-cut, as smouldering underground fires can metamorphose into ground fires. These fires ravage the herbaceous growth on the forest floor alongside decaying organic layers, potentially annihilating vegetation. Ground fires simmer below the surface via smouldering combustion, frequently sparked by surface fires.
Image Source: CNN
2.3. Impact
Wildfires can have a significant impact on ecosystems. They can destroy vegetation, kill wildlife, and pollute the air and water. However, they can also have some positive effects, such as clearing out deadwood and creating new growth opportunities.
2.3.1. Negative impacts of wildfires
2.3.2. Positive Impacts of Wildfires
3. The Historical Significance of Maui and Lahaina
- Maui is a popular tourist destination known for its beautiful beaches and lush rainforests.
- Lahaina was the capital of the Hawaiian kingdom from 1820 to 1845.
- The town is home to many historical landmarks, including the Waiola Church, which was built in 1832.
- The fires have caused extensive damage to Lahaina, including the destruction of many historic buildings.
4. Reasons for the Fires in Hawaii Been So Devastating
5. Measures that can be taken to prevent wildfires
For Prelims: Wildfires, Hawaii, USA, climate change, soil degradation, vegetation,
For Mains:
1. Explain the causes and factors that contribute to the severity of wildfires. Discuss the positive and negative impacts of wildfires on ecosystems. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Comprehension (SSC CHSL 2020)
Direction: In the following passage some words have been deleted. Fill in the blanks with the help of the alternatives given. Select the most appropriate option for each blank. Forest fire always (1) ______ by one of two reasons-naturally caused or human-caused. Natural fire is generally (2) ______ by lightning, with a very small percentage (3) ______ by spontaneous combustion of dry fuel such as sawdust and leaves. (4) ______, human-caused fire can happen (5) ______ any number of reasons.
Select the most appropriate option for blank No. 1.
A. takes up B. happens C. causes D. creates
Answer: B
2. Match List - I with List - II and select the correct answer from the codes given below the lists: (UPSC CAPF 2015)
List - I (Volcano type) List – II (Location)
A. Shield Volcano 1. Indonesia
B. Composite Volcano 2. India
C. Caldera 3. Hawaii
D. Flood Basalt Provinces 4. Phillippines
1. A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3
2. A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3
3. A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2
4. A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2
Answer: 4
3. Recently, the USA decided to support India's membership in multilateral export control regimes called the "Australia Group" and the "Wassenaar Arrangement". What is the difference between them? (UPSC 2011)
1. The Australia Group is an informal arrangement which aims to allow exporting countries to minimize the risk of assisting chemical and biological weapons proliferation, whereas the Wassenaar Arrangement is a formal group under the OECD holding identical objectives.
2. The Australia Group comprises predominantly of Asian, African and North American countries, whereas the member countries of Wassenaar Arrangement are predominantly from the European Union and American continents.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: D
4. In India, the problem of soil erosion is associated with which of the following? (UPSC 2014)
1. Terrace cultivation
2. Deforestation
3. Tropical climate
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
5. The vegetation of savannah consists of grassland with scattered small trees, but extensive areas have no trees. The forest development in such areas is generally kept in check by one or more or a combination of some conditions. Which of the following are such conditions? (UPSC 2021)
1. Burrowing animals and termites
2. Fire
3. Grazing herbivores
4. Seasonal rainfall
5. Soil properties
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
A. 1 and 2 B. 4 and 5 C, 2, 3 and 4 D. 1, 3 and 5
Answer: C
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AMERICAN DECLARATION INDEPENDENCE
- More than 150 years after the British began establishing permanent colonies in North America, the colonists became increasingly dissatisfied with British rule.
- The 13 British colonies were expected to function with self-governing legislatures, allowing them to pass their own laws, levy taxes, and raise troops independently. However, the colonists had no representation in the British Parliament in London.
- Until 1763, the British followed a policy of 'salutary neglect,' granting the American colonies considerable freedom in their trade practices.
- This changed after the French and Indian War ended. The British issued a proclamation prohibiting colonists from expanding into indigenous territories, which the settlers viewed as an infringement on their freedom.
- This directive was largely ignored, leading to strained relations with London. Subsequently, a decade of stringent sanctions followed. Legislation such as the Sugar Act (1764), the Stamp Act (1765), the Tea Act (1773), and the Intolerable Acts (1774) increased British control over American life.
- Combined with Enlightenment ideas about freedom and equality, the conditions were set for a revolution against the monarch
- On December 16, 1773, a group called the Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea sent to Boston by the British East India Company.
- This event, known as the Boston Tea Party, sparked a resistance movement across the colonies against the oppressive tea tax and the British Empire as a whole.
- The colonists argued that Britain had no right to tax them without providing representation in the British Parliament.
- In response, the colonies formed the Continental Congress to decide on further actions against the British. Initially, they attempted to enforce a boycott of British goods and sought to negotiate better terms with King George III, but these efforts were unsuccessful.
- By April 1775, the 13 colonies were engaged in a war for independence from the British Empire.
- While the conflict continued, on July 2, 1776, 12 of the 13 member states of the Congress unanimously declared that the colonies "are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states," effectively voting for independence.
- John Adams, who later became the second President of the United States, remarked that "the second day of July 1776, will be the most memorable epoch in the history of America. I am apt to believe that it will be celebrated by succeeding generations as the great anniversary festival." He was slightly mistaken—the formal document declaring the colonies' independence was signed on July 4
- In June 1776, a committee consisting of Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston was formed to draft a statement justifying the colonies' assertion of independence if it became necessary.
- The document was primarily written by Jefferson, who had earlier authored ‘A Summary View of the Rights of British America’ in 1775.
- In this work, he stated, “Single acts of tyranny may be ascribed to the accidental opinion of a day; but a series of oppressions, begun at a distinguished period, and pursued unalterably through every change of ministers, too plainly prove a deliberate and systematical plan of reducing us to slavery.” It is noteworthy that Jefferson owned more than 600 slaves, highlighting an irony.
- The Declaration of Independence drew heavily from this earlier treatise. It was signed by 56 delegates, including the committee members who drafted it, and these signatories would forever be recognized as the founding fathers of the United States.
Following the Declaration of Independence in 1776, several significant events unfolded that shaped the course of American history:
-
American Revolutionary War (1775-1783): The Declaration marked the formal beginning of the American Revolutionary War, which had already been ongoing since April 1775. The war intensified after the Declaration, as the colonies fought against British forces to secure their independence.
-
Formation of a New Nation: The Declaration laid the philosophical foundation for the formation of a new nation based on principles of liberty, equality, and self-governance. It articulated the grievances against British rule and asserted the natural rights of all people.
-
Foreign Diplomacy: The Declaration helped garner support from other nations, particularly France, which provided crucial military and financial assistance to the American cause. This foreign support was instrumental in the eventual victory of the American colonies over the British.
-
Articles of Confederation (1781): After declaring independence, the colonies operated under the Articles of Confederation, which established a loose alliance of states with a weak central government. This early form of government faced challenges, leading to the eventual drafting and adoption of the U.S. Constitution in 1787.
-
Legacy of the Founding Fathers: The signatories of the Declaration, often referred to as the Founding Fathers, continued to play pivotal roles in shaping the new nation. Their ideals and principles, as articulated in the Declaration, influenced the formation of American laws, institutions, and democratic values.
-
Impact on Global History: The Declaration of Independence had a profound impact beyond the American colonies, inspiring movements for liberty and independence worldwide. It became a symbol of resistance against tyranny and an affirmation of human rights.
For Prelims: understand the sequence of events leading to the American Declaration of Independence
For Mains: GS I - World History
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APHELION
- Aphelion is the point in the orbit of a planet, comet, or other celestial body where it is farthest from the Sun. For Earth, this occurs once a year, typically in early July. During aphelion, Earth is about 152.1 million kilometers (94.5 million miles) from the Sun. This distance is greater than the average Earth-Sun distance, known as an astronomical unit (AU), which is about 149.6 million kilometers (93 million miles).
- Aphelion is part of the concept of an elliptical orbit, described by Kepler's laws of planetary motion, where planets orbit the Sun in ellipses rather than perfect circles.
- The opposite of aphelion is perihelion, the point in the orbit where the celestial body is closest to the Sun. For Earth, perihelion occurs in early January.
- Despite being farther from the Sun during aphelion, the difference in solar energy received by Earth is relatively small and does not significantly affect the seasons, which are more influenced by the tilt of Earth's axis
- Elliptical orbits are governed by gravity. Planets exert gravitational forces on each other, causing deviations from perfect circular paths, explained Runyon. This interaction creates a chaotic gravitational tug-of-war among the planets.
- Jupiter has the strongest influence due to its massive size
- Eccentricity measures how much an orbit deviates from being circular. Higher eccentricity indicates a more elliptical orbit. Some solar system bodies have significant eccentricity: Mars has an eccentricity of 0.094, while Pluto's is 0.244. In contrast, Earth's eccentricity is relatively low at 0.017

How far are we from the sun at aphelion?
At aphelion, Earth’s distance from the sun is about 94.5 million miles. Six months later, at the start of January in the winter, Earth is at its closest point to the sun at 91.5 million miles. This location is known as perihelion
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- It is part of the elliptical orbit of celestial bodies, as described by Kepler's laws of planetary motion.
- The variation in distance between perihelion and aphelion (the farthest point from the Sun) is due to the gravitational forces exerted by the Sun and other celestial bodies
- During perihelion, Earth receives slightly more solar energy than at aphelion, but this difference does not significantly affect the seasons, which are primarily influenced by the axial tilt of Earth
- The point where Earth is farthest from the Sun, occurring in early July
For Prelims: Aphelion, Perihelion
For Mains: GS III -Elliptical Orbits, Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion
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FREE TRADE AGREEMENT
1. Context
2. About the Free Trade Agreement
- A Free Trade Agreement (FTA) is an agreement between two or more countries to reduce or eliminate barriers to trade, such as tariffs, quotas, and subsidies.
- FTAs can also include provisions on other issues, such as investment, intellectual property, and labour standards.
- The goal of an FTA is to promote trade and economic growth between the signatory countries.
- By reducing or eliminating trade barriers, FTAs can make it easier for businesses to export their goods and services to other countries, which can lead to increased production, employment, and innovation.
3. Types of Free Trade Agreement
- Bilateral Free Trade Agreement (BFTA) involves two countries, aiming to promote trade and eliminate tariffs on goods and services between them. It establishes a direct trade relationship, allowing for a more focused and tailored agreement between the two nations.
- Multilateral Free Trade Agreement (MFTA) Involving three or more countries, an MFTA seeks to create a comprehensive trade bloc, promoting economic integration on a larger scale. It requires coordination among multiple parties, addressing diverse economic interests and fostering a broader regional economic landscape.
- Regional Free Trade Agreement (RFTA) involves countries within a specific geographic region, aiming to enhance economic cooperation and integration within that particular area. It focuses on addressing regional economic challenges and fostering collaboration among neighbouring nations.
- Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA) involves a reciprocal reduction of tariffs and trade barriers between participating countries, granting preferential treatment to each other's goods and services. It allows countries to enjoy trading advantages with specific partners while maintaining autonomy in their trade policies with non-participating nations.
- Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) is a broad and advanced form of FTA that goes beyond traditional trade barriers, encompassing various economic aspects such as investment, intellectual property, and services. It aims for a more comprehensive economic partnership, encouraging deeper integration and collaboration between participating countries.
- Customs Union While not strictly an FTA, a Customs Union involves the elimination of tariffs among member countries and the establishment of a common external tariff against non-member nations. It goes beyond standard FTAs by harmonizing external trade policies, creating a unified approach to trade with the rest of the world.
- Free Trade Area (FTA) with Trade in Goods (TIG) and Trade in Services (TIS): Some FTAs specifically emphasize either trade in goods or trade in services, tailoring the agreement to the specific economic strengths and priorities of the participating countries. This approach allows nations to focus on areas where they have a comparative advantage, fostering specialization and efficiency.
4. India's Free Trade Agreements
India is a member of several free trade agreements (FTAs) and is currently negotiating others. India's FTAs have helped to reduce trade barriers and promote trade and economic growth. They have also helped to attract foreign investment and create jobs.
- The South Asian Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA) was signed in 1995 by the seven countries of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). SAFTA aims to reduce or eliminate tariffs on trade between the member countries.
- The India-Bangladesh FTA was signed in 2010 and came into force in 2011. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
- The India-Sri Lanka FTA was signed in 1999 and came into force in 2000. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
- The India-ASEAN Free Trade Agreement was signed in 2002 and came into force in 2010. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
- The India-Korea Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) was signed in 2010 and came into force in 2011. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
- The India-Japan Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement(CEPA) was signed in 2022 and came into effect in 2023. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
- The India-UAE Comprehensive Partnership Agreement (CEPA) was signed in 2022 and came into effect in 2022. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
- The India-Australia Economic Cooperation and Trade Agreement (ECTA) was signed in 2022 and came into effect in 2022. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
- The India-Malaysia Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA) was signed in 2010 and aims to enhance economic ties by addressing trade in goods and services, as well as investment and other areas of economic cooperation.
- The India-Thailand Free Trade Agreement was signed in 2003 and focuses on reducing tariffs and promoting trade in goods and services between India and Thailand.
- The India-Singapore Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA) has been operational since 2005, this agreement covers trade in goods and services, as well as investment and intellectual property.
- The India-Nepal Trade Treaty While not a comprehensive FTA, India and Nepal have a trade treaty that facilitates the exchange of goods between the two countries.
- The India-Chile Preferential Trade Agreement was signed in 2006 and aims to enhance economic cooperation and reduce tariffs on certain products traded between India and Chile.
5. India - UK Free Trade Agreement
5.1. Background
- Both countries have agreed to avoid sensitive issues in the negotiations.
- The interim (early harvest agreement) aims to achieve up to 65 per cent coverage for goods and up to 40 per cent coverage for services.
- By the time the final agreement is inked, the coverage for goods is expected to go up to "90 plus a percentage" of goods.
- India is also negotiating a similar early harvest agreement with Australia, which is supposed to set the stage for a long-pending Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement that both countries have been pursuing for nearly a decade.
- While the commencement of negotiations does mark a step forward in the otherwise rigid stance adopted and when it comes to trade liberalisation, experts point to impediments and the potential for legal challenges going ahead.
5.2. GATT (General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs)
- The exception to the rule is full-scale FTAs, subject to some conditions.
- One rider, incorporated in Article XXIV.8 (b) of GATT, stipulates that a deal should aim to eliminate customs duties and other trade barriers on "Substantially all the trade" between the WTO member countries that are signatories to an FTA.
- For this Agreement, a free-trade area shall be understood to mean a group of two or more customs territories in which the duties and other restrictive regulations of commerce are eliminated on substantially all the trade between the constituent territories in products originating in such territories.
- It is often beneficial to negotiate the entire deal together, as an early harvest deal may reduce the incentive for one side to work towards a full FTA.
- These agreements are not just about goods and services but also issues like investment.
- If you are trying to weigh the costs and benefits, it is always better to have the larger picture in front of you.
- In the case of the early harvest agreement inked with Thailand, automobile industry associations had complained that relaxations extended to Bangkok in the early harvest had reduced the incentive for Thailand to work towards a full FTA.
- Early harvest agreements may serve the function of keeping trading partners interested as they promise some benefits without long delays, as India becomes known for long-drawn negotiations for FTAs.
- Government emphasis on interim agreements may be tactical so that a deal may be achieved with minimum commitments and would allow for contentious issues to be resolved later.
For Prelims: Free Trade Agreement, India-U.K, Bilateral Free Trade Agreement, G-20 Summit, Agenda 2030, Covid-19 Pandemic, SAARC, General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs, Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement, Multilateral Free Trade Agreement, Regional Free Trade Agreement, Preferential Trade Agreement, Customs Union,
For Mains:
1. Evaluate the potential impact of the India-UK FTA on the Indian economy, considering both positive and negative aspects (250 Words)
2. Critically evaluate the significance of Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) in promoting trade and economic growth, considering their potential benefits and drawbacks. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Consider the following countries:
1. Australia
2. Canada
3. China
4. India
5. Japan
6. USA
Which of the above are among the free-trade partners' of ASEAN? (UPSC 2018)
A. 1, 2, 4 and 5 B. 3, 4, 5 and 6 C. 1, 3, 4 and 5 D. 2, 3, 4 and 6
Answer: C
2. Increase in absolute and per capita real GNP do not connote a higher level of economic development, if (UPSC 2018) (a) Industrial output fails to keep pace with agricultural output. Answer: C 3. The SEZ Act, 2005 which came into effect in February 2006 has certain objectives. In this context, consider the following: (2010)
Which of the above are the objectives of this Act? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: A 4. A “closed economy” is an economy in which (UPSC 2011) (a) the money supply is fully controlled Answer: D 5. With reference to the “G20 Common Framework”, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022)
1. It is an initiative endorsed by the G20 together with the Paris Club. 2. It is an initiative to support Low Income Countries with unsustainable debt. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: C
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