2. About the ASEAN and East Asia Summit?

ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations)

• ASEAN is a regional intergovernmental organization consisting of ten countries in Southeast Asia.
• It was founded on August 8, 1967, to promote political and economic cooperation, regional stability, and social progress among its member states.
• The founding members of ASEAN are Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand, with Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and Cambodia joining later.
• ASEAN holds regular meetings and summits to discuss regional issues, economic integration, and diplomatic cooperation.

Image Source: The Research Gate

East Asia Summit (EAS)

• The East Asia Summit is a broader regional forum that includes ASEAN member states along with eight other countries, namely Australia, China, India, Japan, New Zealand, South Korea, Russia, and the United States.
• The EAS was established in 2005 to provide a platform for discussions on strategic, political, and economic issues affecting East Asia.
• It addresses a wide range of regional and global challenges, from security and trade to environmental issues.

Image Source: Twitter

3. The Rationality behind the ASEAN and East Asia Summit 

• Promote regional peace and stability. The EAS provides a forum for leaders to discuss and address common security challenges, such as terrorism, piracy, and natural disasters.
• Foster economic growth and development. The EAS can help to promote trade and investment, and to facilitate economic integration in the region.
• Address non-traditional security challenges. The EAS can also address non-traditional security challenges, such as climate change, pandemics, and human trafficking.

4. About ‘multilateralism’ 

Multilateralism is a principle of international relations that emphasizes cooperation between countries. This cooperation can take many forms, such as diplomacy, trade agreements, and international organizations. There are several benefits to multilateralism including

4.1. Concept of Multilateralism

• The concept of multilateralism emphasizes diplomacy, negotiation, and cooperation among nations to achieve collective objectives.
• It rests on equality, non-interference in internal affairs, and respect for international law.
• Multilateral institutions like the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, and regional organizations such as ASEAN play significant roles in facilitating multilateral cooperation.

4.2. Purpose of Multilateralism

• Foster international cooperation and dialogue.
• Promote peace and security by addressing conflicts through diplomacy and collective security mechanisms.
• Facilitate economic integration and trade through agreements like the World Trade Organization (WTO).
• Address global challenges such as climate change, public health crises, and terrorism through coordinated efforts.
• Uphold international law and human rights.
• Create a more stable and predictable international system.

4.3.  About post-Cold War multilateralism

• Post-Cold War multilateralism refers to the practice of cooperation between countries in the post-Cold War era.
• This cooperation is often seen as a way to address common challenges and promote peace and stability.
• There are several reasons why multilateralism has become more important in the post-Cold War era.

1. The end of the Cold War led to a decline in superpower rivalry, which created an opportunity for countries to cooperate more closely.
2. The rise of new challenges, such as terrorism and climate change, has made it clear that no country can address these challenges alone.
3. The increasing interconnectedness of the world economy has made it more important for countries to cooperate on trade and investment issues.

5. Unilateralism and Multilateralism in International Relations

Unilateralism

• Unilateralism is an approach in international relations where a nation acts independently and without seeking the approval or cooperation of other countries.
• This can include making decisions, taking military action, or implementing policies without regard for international consensus.
• Unilateralism can be seen as a more assertive or isolationist stance.

Multilateralism

• Multilateralism involves collaboration and cooperation among multiple nations to address global challenges.
• It values diplomacy, negotiation, and shared responsibilities. Multilateral approaches are often considered more inclusive and consensus-based.

6. Is multilateralism declining?

• There is some evidence to suggest that multilateralism is declining. For example, the number of new international organizations has declined in recent years, and there has been a rise in unilateralism, particularly in the United States.
• However, there are also many examples of countries cooperating multilaterally to address common challenges.
• Ultimately, the future of multilateralism will depend on the willingness of countries to work together to address the challenges of the 21st century.

 

 

SUPERMASSIVE BLACK HOLE

 

 

1.Context

 

Scientists have reported the discovery of gravitational waves from the merger of two black holes that are the biggest to have been observed in such an event. Black hole mergers are rare but some of the most spectacular events in the universe, releasing massive amounts of energy that are propagated to a very large distance through gravitational waves.

 

2.Black Hole

 

• A Black hole is a region of space-time exhibiting gravitational acceleration so strong that nothing no particles or even electromagnetic radiation such as light can escape from it.
• The theory of general relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass can deform space-time to form a Black hole. The boundary of the region from which no escape is possible is called the event horizon.
• The concept was theorized by Albert Einstein in 1915 and the term 'black hole' was coined in the mid-1960s by American physicist John Archibald Wheeler.

Usually, black holes belong to two categories:

• One category ranges between a few solar masses and tens of solar masses. These are thought to form when massive stars die.
• The other category is supermassive black holes. These range from hundreds of thousands to billions of times that of the sun from the solar system to which Earth belongs.

 

3.Types of Black Holes

There are four different forms of black holes

1. Stellar
2. Intermediate
3. Supermassive
4. Miniature

• The first is the SMBH, or supermassive black hole. This is the largest variety, with an unquantifiable number of solar masses. This is typically found at the heart of the universe's biggest galaxies. The SMBH is located in Sagittarius A in our solar system.
• The second is the singularity, which is the black hole's eye (or core). This is the point at which the curve becomes infinite.
• The photon sphere, a spherical boundary (with no thickness) where photons move perpendicularly to the sphere and are imprisoned in an elliptical orbit about the black hole, is the third.
• A micro black hole, also known as a little black hole or a quantum mechanical black hole, is the last form. Stephen Hawking first mentioned them in 1971.

4.Formation of Black hole

• Astronomers believe that depending on a star's mass, only one of the three things can happen once it runs out of fuel. A star with a mass less than that of the sun falls into a 'white dwarf' with a radius of barely a few thousand kilometres.
• If the mass of the star is between one and four times that of the sun, it can form a 'neutron star with a radius of only a few kilometres, which is known as a 'pulsar'.
• Only a few stars with mass greater than four times that of the sun may avoid collapsing and creating black holes within their Schwarzschild radii. As a result, black holes could be the remains of enormous stars.
• Milky way, according to most astronomers, was born from a vast cloud of gas that collapsed and broke up into individual stars.
• The nucleus, or core, of the galaxy, presently contains the most densely packed stars. It's possible that there was too much substance at the very centre to form a regular star, or that the stars that did form were too close together to form a black hole.
• As a result, it's been proposed that black holes as huge as a hundred million Suns could exist in the centre of some galaxies.

5.Rare Supermassive blackhole

• A rare supermassive black hole has been spotted by a team of Indian researchers and The monster black hole is about one billion light years away from the Earth. The black hole in question was captured, spewing a jet of radiation and particles in one direction, unlike others that fire jets in opposite directions. But strangely for this galaxy, only one side of the jet is seen. The supermassive black holes create powerful jets and radiation and particles.
• The supermassive black hole occupies the centre of the RAD 12 galaxy, which is elliptical or egg-shaped. RAD 12 is in the process of merging with another galaxy, RAD 12b, in the next one billion years. RAD 12b, which is elliptical, is bigger and brighter than RAD 12. The jet is bigger than its host, RAD 12. It resembles a 440 thousand light-years-long mushroom.
• This discovery may help scientists study why star formation does not occur in elliptical galaxies. Star formation requires extremely cooled gas, usually forged in a cloud of interstellar gas and dust. The temperature in these regions ranges from -253.15°C-263.15°C, according to the University of Oregon. Theoretically, jets remove cold gas and suppress star formation. Researchers speculate that jets fired by supermassive black holes will likely suppress future star formation.

 

For prelims & Mains

 

For Prelims:  Black holes, RAD 12, RAD 12b, Supermassive black hole (SMBH), Sagittarius A For Mains: 1. What is a Black Hole? Explain the formation and types of Black Holes. (250 words) .

 

Source: Down To Earth

 

RIGHT TO VOTE

 

 

1. Context

 

On July 10, the Supreme Court directed the Election Commission (EC) to consider Aadhaar cards, voter ID cards, and ration cards as acceptable documents for the special intensive revision (SIR) of electoral rolls in Bihar. It has listed the batch of petitions challenging the EC’s decision for further hearing on July 28.

 

2. Background of the latest Controversy

 

• Electoral rolls in India are regularly updated by the Election Commission to ensure that all eligible citizens are included and ineligible names (such as those of deceased individuals or people who have moved away) are removed. Usually, this happens through Annual Summary Revisions.
• However, sometimes, a Special Intensive Revision (SIR) is conducted, particularly when there are reports of major discrepancies in the electoral rolls or if there have been significant demographic changes.
• In Bihar, the Election Commission of India (ECI) ordered a Special Intensive Revision of the voter list, which involved house-to-house verification by booth-level officers (BLOs). This revision began in June 2024 and was set to continue till August, with the final roll expected to be published later
• The revision has been ordered after the conclusion of the 2024 Lok Sabha elections and just months before the scheduled 2025 Bihar Assembly elections. Opposition parties, particularly the Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD), have raised concerns that the exercise might be used to manipulate voter lists in a way that could favor the ruling party at the state or central level.
• Opposition leaders and civil society groups have warned that the SIR could result in mass deletion of voters, especially among marginalised communities like Dalits, minorities, and migrant labourers who might not be present at home during the verification period.
• These groups are often the most vulnerable during such exercises due to lack of documentation or frequent change of residence.

Supreme Court response

• On July 10, the Supreme Court instructed the Election Commission (EC) to accept Aadhaar cards, voter ID cards, and ration cards as valid identity documents for the ongoing Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls in Bihar.
• The Court also scheduled the next hearing on the group of petitions challenging the EC’s move for July 28. In doing so, the Court emphasized that the 'right to vote' lies at the heart of India’s democratic structure, drawing national attention to the core mechanisms behind the country’s electoral system and the origin of its policy of universal adult suffrage (UAS).
• India’s approach to the right to vote, as enshrined in its Constitution, stands in marked contrast to the historical trajectory seen in many Western nations. Influenced by thinkers such as J.S. Mill, who argued that voting should be reserved for the “educated” and denied to the “uninformed,” several countries began with a highly exclusive franchise.
• For instance, in the United Kingdom, voting was initially limited to male property holders. It wasn't until 1918 that all men gained voting rights, and women had to wait until 1928 to be included.
• Similarly, in the United States, while constitutional amendments—the 15th in 1870 and the 19th in 1920—technically extended voting rights to African Americans and women respectively, practical obstacles like poll taxes and literacy tests kept many citizens disenfranchised for decades

3. Universal Adult Suffrage in India

 

• Unlike many other countries that took a gradual approach to granting voting rights—often limiting them to elite sections and undergoing long, sometimes violent struggles—India adopted a bold and inclusive strategy from the very beginning.
• Instead of restricting suffrage, India chose universal adult franchise at the time of independence, embracing the principle of democratic equality from the outset. Article 326 of the Indian Constitution guaranteed every adult citizen the right to vote, regardless of their gender, caste, religion, education, or economic status.
• This was a progressive move, especially when compared to other nations that were still cautiously expanding voting rights. Initially, the voting age was set at 21, but it was later lowered to 18 by the 61st Constitutional Amendment in 1989.
• The nation’s strong commitment to inclusive democracy was further underlined by several landmark Supreme Court rulings, starting with the Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala case in 1973, which declared democracy a core feature of the Constitution’s ‘basic structure’.
• For democracy to thrive, it is essential that citizens retain the unchallenged right to choose their government freely—an essential pillar that must remain inviolable.
• This vision of inclusivity was implemented through two foundational laws: the Representation of the People Act of 1950, which oversees the creation and updating of electoral rolls, and the 1951 Act, which deals with the conduct of elections, eligibility of candidates, and electoral offences.
• The Election Commission of India (ECI) has consistently worked to fulfil this constitutional promise by introducing several administrative reforms. A notable example is the innovation introduced by Sukumar Sen, India’s first Chief Election Commissioner.
• Faced with the enormous task of registering 173 million mostly illiterate voters, he introduced the use of visual symbols for political parties—transforming a logistical challenge into a democratic milestone.
• In India, the ECI bears the crucial responsibility of ensuring that every eligible citizen, no matter how remote their location, can exercise their right to vote. As Winston Churchill aptly put it, “At the bottom of all tributes paid to democracy is the little man, walking into a little booth, with a little pencil, making a little cross on a little bit of paper…” His words serve as a powerful reminder that the legitimacy of any democracy ultimately hinges on protecting and upholding the sanctity of the vote

 

4. Is Voting a Fundamental right in India?

 

 

• The nature of the ‘right to vote’ in India has been a topic of legal and constitutional debate for decades. During the framing of the Constitution, both Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and K.T. Shah had advocated for its inclusion as a fundamental right.
• However, the Constituent Assembly’s Advisory Committee ultimately decided against this proposal. This position was later affirmed by the Supreme Court in the Kuldip Nayar v. Union of India case (2006), where a Constitution Bench ruled that the ‘right to elect’ is not a fundamental or constitutional right, but rather a statutory one derived from Section 62 of the Representation of the People Act (RPA), 1951.
• Although a two-judge bench in Rajbala v. State of Haryana (2016) referred to voting as a constitutional right, the earlier and more authoritative decision in Kuldip Nayar remains the guiding precedent.
• Again, in the 2023 Anoop Baranwal v. Union of India case, the Supreme Court refrained from revisiting this issue, reaffirming that it had already been conclusively addressed in the Kuldip Nayar ruling.
• Justice Ajay Rastogi, however, in a dissenting opinion, argued that the right to vote stems from Article 19(1)(a) of the Constitution (freedom of expression) and embodies the spirit of Article 21 (right to life and personal liberty).
• Despite his reasoning, this remains a minority viewpoint, and under current jurisprudence, voting continues to be classified as a statutory entitlement.
• Still, courts have consistently emphasised that, even if not fundamental in a legal sense, the right to vote is deeply embedded in the democratic framework of the country.
• It serves as a vital mechanism through which citizens participate in governance and decision-making, making it essential to the functioning and legitimacy of the Indian Republic.
• As philosopher John Dewey aptly observed, democracy extends beyond a governmental system—it represents a broader social and ethical ideal

 

 

5. Significance of accuracy of electoral roll

 

 

• The foundation of free and fair elections lies in the accuracy of electoral rolls, as mandated by the Representation of the People Act, 1950. When these rolls contain significant flaws—such as widespread omissions, inclusion of ineligible individuals, duplicate entries, or factual errors—it threatens the principle of “one person, one vote.”
• Such discrepancies open the door to impersonation, voter exclusion, or vote dilution, ultimately skewing the democratic verdict.
• To maintain the credibility of the electoral process, Section 21 of the 1950 Act grants the Election Commission (EC) the authority to compile and update electoral rolls as necessary.
• Although errors in voter lists are sometimes inevitable, the judiciary has consistently maintained that only major, systematic flaws that have a tangible impact on election results can call the validity of an election into question.
• Minor irregularities or isolated cases of disenfranchisement are not sufficient grounds for overturning results. Allegations of errors, such as those recently reported in Bihar, merit investigation.
• At the same time, it's important to recognise that cleansing voter rolls is essential—excluding a rightful voter weakens democracy, but so does allowing someone who is ineligible to remain on the list.
• Therefore, rather than obstructing the process, attention should be directed toward strengthening and refining it. The Supreme Court’s recommendation to accept a broader range of identity documents helps ensure that all legitimate voters retain their right to participate in elections.
• While the legal right to challenge or seek inclusion in the electoral rolls rests with individual citizens rather than political parties, the Supreme Court in Lakshmi Charan Sen v. A.K.M. Hassan Uzzaman (1985) emphasised that in a society with widespread illiteracy and limited political awareness, political parties have a responsibility to assist in ensuring that eligible voters are registered and ineligible names are removed.
• In a party-driven parliamentary system like India’s, such proactive engagement is essential for maintaining the credibility and integrity of elections

 

Qualification for an Ordinary resident   Under Article 324 of the Constitution, the Election Commission (EC) acts as the constitutional authority responsible for overseeing and managing the electoral process. One of its fundamental responsibilities is the preparation of reliable electoral rolls. This task is carried out in accordance with Section 19 of the Representation of the People Act, 1950, which stipulates that every Indian citizen who is at least 18 years old, ordinarily resides in a particular constituency, and is not otherwise disqualified, is eligible for registration as a voter. The term “ordinarily resident” refers to someone who has a genuine and continuous presence in a location, rather than a brief or temporary stay. For instance, a student residing in a hostel may not meet the criteria if their permanent residence is elsewhere and they intend to return there. However, simply being away from one’s usual place of residence temporarily does not disqualify someone from being considered an ordinary resident of that place. This standard helps prevent fake or misleading entries in the voter list and ensures that electors have a meaningful connection to the constituency they vote in, thereby reinforcing the principle of accountable and representative democracy

 

 

6. Way forward

 

The controversy surrounding the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) in Bihar and the wider discussions on electoral reforms underscore a fundamental principle of democracy: the strength of India’s democratic system relies on electoral rolls that are precise, inclusive, and easy to access. As the Supreme Court prepares to continue hearings on July 28, it is essential for the Election Commission to carry out the revision exercise with both diligence and inclusivity, ensuring the process remains fair and credible.

At the same time, it is crucial for citizens to be made aware of their role in the process—by checking and correcting their voter information, they become active participants in safeguarding electoral accuracy. Protecting the right to vote goes beyond fulfilling a legal mandate; it is a collective democratic duty that demands alert institutions, engaged and informed citizens, and progressive legal frameworks

For Prelims: Election Commission of India (ECI), Representation of the People Act (RPA), 1951   For Mains: GS II - Polity and Governance

 

Previous Year Questions   1. The Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) system was used for the first time by the Election Commission of India in (UPSC CAPF 2019)   North Paravur Assembly Constituency, Kerala B.Noksen Assembly Constituency, Nagaland C.Mapusa Assembly Constituency, Goa D.Nambol Assembly Constituency, Manipur Answer (B)

 

Source: The Hindu

 

FINANCING FOR DEVELOPMENT (FfD)

 

 

 

1. Context

 

Recently, the 4th International Conference on Financing for Development (FfD4) was held from 30 June – 3 July in Seville, Spain. A Sevilla Commitment was adopted ahead of the start of the Conference, which laid down a path to close the $4 trillion annual SDG financing gap in developing countries.

 

2. Financing for development (FfD)

 

• Financing for Development (FfD) is an evolving initiative aimed at aligning global financial systems and policies with broader economic, social, and environmental objectives. The idea gained momentum in 1997 when the UN General Assembly adopted the Agenda for Development, which advocated for the possibility of convening a global conference on FfD.

• As noted by the Earth Negotiations Bulletin of the International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD), the first International Conference on Financing for Development took place in 2002 in Monterrey, Mexico. This led to the creation of the Monterrey Consensus, which committed participating nations to tackle financial challenges affecting development, with a focus on poverty reduction, sustained economic growth, and environmental sustainability.

• The process continued with a follow-up meeting in Doha, Qatar, in 2008, and further evolved in 2015 with the third FfD conference in Addis Ababa. This gathering produced the Addis Ababa Action Agenda, which laid out a comprehensive financial policy framework to support the implementation of the 2030 Agenda and the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). A decade later, a subsequent FfD conference was hosted in Spain.

• Today, numerous nations are grappling with rising debt levels, reduced foreign investments, diminishing development aid, and growing trade restrictions. The latest FfD Conference aims to address a massive $4 trillion annual financing shortfall, which is critical for accelerating development, reducing poverty, and making progress toward the SDGs, which are currently behind schedule.

• Alarmingly, 3.3 billion people were living in countries last year where debt interest payments exceeded public spending on healthcare or education. This figure is expected to rise to 3.4 billion this year, as per Rebeca Grynspan. Additionally, developing nations are projected to pay a staggering $947 billion in debt servicing this year, a steep increase from $847 billion the previous year

 

3. Key outcomes of FfD

 

 

• Expanding upon the principles of the 2015 Addis Ababa Action Agenda, the Sevilla Commitment reinforces a strong dedication to sustainable development. It emphasizes the full implementation of the 2030 Agenda and its 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), while also reaffirming the foundational values and principles they represent.

• As the world nears the 2030 deadline for achieving the SDGs, the Sevilla Commitment lays out a comprehensive roadmap focusing on three major areas: generating large-scale investment for sustainable development, confronting the challenges of global debt and development, and initiating reforms in the current international financial systems.

• According to a UN press release, the Sevilla Platform for Action introduced innovative financial tools aimed at addressing unsustainable debt levels. It also unveiled measures to improve crisis response, strengthen climate resilience, broaden access to social safety nets, and promote both local and digital economic initiatives.

• One of the key outcomes was the launch of the Debt Swaps for Development Hub, an initiative spearheaded by Spain and the World Bank. This platform is intended to build technical capacity and enhance cooperation among nations, thereby expanding the use of debt swaps to ease debt repayment pressures.

• In addition, Italy introduced a Debt-for-Development Swap Programme, through which €230 million worth of debt owed by African nations will be redirected into development-oriented projects. The Sevilla Forum on Debt was also established to enable knowledge sharing and coordination among countries in managing and restructuring public debt.

• Another notable announcement came from Brazil and Spain, who launched an initiative focused on ensuring effective taxation of high-net-worth individuals, aiming to promote fairer taxation systems and reduce inequality by holding the wealthiest accountable for their financial contributions

 

4. World Bank report on Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)

 

 

• Just days before the Fourth International Conference on Financing for Development (FfD4) commenced, the World Bank released a report titled ‘Foreign Direct Investment in Retreat’. The report highlighted a significant drop in Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) to developing nations, which stood at $435 billion in 2023—the lowest figure recorded in nearly two decades. The report cautioned that increasing restrictions on trade and investment could seriously undermine global initiatives aimed at financing development.

• M. Ayhan Kose, Deputy Chief Economist of the World Bank Group, emphasized that this sharp fall in FDI should act as a major warning signal. Reversing this decline, he stressed, is not only crucial from an economic standpoint but is also vital for generating employment, ensuring consistent economic growth, and fulfilling broader development targets.

• The report further noted that this prolonged weakness in investment across emerging markets and developing economies (EMDEs) has led to an accumulation of unmet infrastructure demands.

• The slow pace of investment is proving to be a major obstacle to achieving key global development targets. This includes efforts to address climate change, facilitate a smooth transition to clean energy, and combat poverty and inequality. Estimates suggest that EMDEs must increase their investment by at least 1.4% of GDP annually through 2030 to meet the challenges posed by climate change and the energy transition.

• Among all EMDEs, China emerged as the leading recipient of FDI between 2012 and 2023, attracting nearly one-third of total inflows. It was followed by Brazil with 10%, and India, which received about 6%, according to the World Bank data.

• Although global FDI data is currently available only up to the year 2023, figures from the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) show that FDI inflows into India rose to $81.04 billion in 2024–25, compared to $71.28 billion in 2023–24. However, when adjusted for repatriation of funds by foreign investors and outbound investments made by Indian companies, net FDI sharply declined to $353 million in the most recent fiscal year from $10.13 billion the previous year

 

 

For Prelims: Financing for Development (FfD4), UN General Assembly (UNGA), Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)    For Mains: GS II & III - International organisations & Environment and ecology

 

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

WORLD WAR I

 

 

 

1. Context

 

One of the most immediate and obvious changes that WWI brought about was the collapse of longstanding empires. But what long-term impact did the “balkanisation” of empires have on regional and global stability?

 

2. Preface about World War I

• World War I is often regarded as the first truly global conflict, leaving a profound impact on nations across the globe. It officially came to an end on November 11, 1918, when an armistice was signed at 11 a.m., symbolically marking the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month.
• The war significantly altered the global balance of power, triggering the downfall of several major empires, including the Ottoman Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the Romanov dynasty in Russia.
• The onset of World War I also marked the conclusion of what is often referred to as the ‘Hundred Years’ Peace,’ a period of relative stability in Europe that began after the Congress of Vienna in 1815.
• While conflicts like the Crimean War (1853–1856) did take place during this era, they were relatively localized and did not compare in magnitude or global reach to the devastation brought by World War I

 

3. Beginning of World War I

 

• The First World War was triggered on June 28, 1914, when Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary was assassinated in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist.
• This event occurred against the backdrop of rising tensions in the Balkans, where Serbia had expanded its territory through the Balkan Wars of 1912–13, alarming Austria-Hungary. One month after the assassination, Austria-Hungary, with Germany's support, declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914. Russia, in turn, came to Serbia's defense.
• Historically, the Balkans had been under Ottoman control, stretching from Anatolia into predominantly Christian areas near Austria-Hungary. This region eventually gave birth to the term “balkanisation,” referring to the fragmentation of larger political entities into smaller, often hostile, parts.
• The conclusion of World War I exemplified this idea, as empires like the Ottoman Empire disintegrated, paving the way for the rise of smaller nation-states from their remnants.
• Although called a world war, the conflict was largely centered in Europe and fueled by rivalries among major powers such as Britain—then a dominant global empire—France with its colonial reach, Austria-Hungary, Germany's growing influence, and Russia. The war marked a turning point: despite being a conflict among European powers, it signaled the start of Europe's diminishing dominance.
• Following the war, two non-European powers began to rise. The United States gained prominence in the West, while the Soviet Union emerged in the East, having replaced the Russian Romanov Empire. These two nations would later become adversaries in the Cold War, which began shortly after the Second World War—just three decades after World War I ended

 

4. Deadly warfare

 

• The primary battlegrounds of the First World War were located in Europe. Some of the most well-known clashes—such as those at Ypres, the Somme, and Verdun—occurred along the Western Front, which extended from the Belgian coastline, through northern France, and down to the Swiss border.
• This front marked the farthest western point of Germany’s military campaign and involved the Central Powers, namely Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire. Their advance was resisted by the Allied forces, particularly Britain and France, while Russia applied pressure from the east.
• The Western Front became infamous for its defining characteristic: trench warfare. Soldiers on both sides dug extensive trench networks, and these fortifications made forward movement extremely difficult. As a result, battles often turned into prolonged stalemates with little territorial gain.
• From a technological standpoint, World War I did not witness significant breakthroughs in warfare tactics. Aircraft played only a minor role and had not yet become a central force on the battlefield.
• Tanks, introduced by the British in 1916 to break through entrenched positions, were still in their infancy and had limited impact. This is evident in the static nature of the Western Front, which remained largely unchanged throughout the war, underscoring how much the conflict was dominated by the harsh realities of trench warfare

 

5. Human lives loss

 

• Although the Allied Powers—mainly Britain and France—eventually emerged victorious in World War I against the Central Powers, which included Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire, not all their campaigns were successful.
• One notable setback was the Gallipoli campaign, waged between February 1915 and January 1916, where the Allies failed in their attempt to seize control of the Dardanelles Strait from the Ottomans.
• Due to the limited advancements in medical science at the time, many young soldiers perished on the battlefield from infections caused by untreated injuries. It’s important to note that penicillin, a life-saving antibiotic, was only discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928—years after the war had ended.
• The horrors and heavy loss of life deeply affected a generation of young men and inspired the poignant works of war poets such as Wilfred Owen, Siegfried Sassoon, and Rupert Brooke. Their writings express the deep emotional and psychological trauma now recognized as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
• India played a significant role in the war by sending over a million troops to fight in various regions, including Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. The India Gate in New Delhi stands as a memorial honoring the Indian soldiers who laid down their lives in these largely European conflicts

 

6. War came to an end

 

 

• In November 1917, a year before the conclusion of World War I, two pivotal developments occurred just days apart that would significantly shape the post-war global landscape. On November 7, the Bolshevik Revolution led to the downfall of the Romanov dynasty, ending centuries of imperial rule in Russia and laying the foundation for the formation of the Soviet Union.
• A few days earlier, on November 2, the Balfour Declaration was issued by Britain, expressing support for the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. This declaration eventually led to the founding of the state of Israel in May 1948, following World War II. Interestingly, the Soviet Union was among the earliest nations to recognize the newly created Israeli state.
• The Bolsheviks’ rise to power had immediate consequences, one of which was Russia's withdrawal from World War I. This was formalized through the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. Meanwhile, the United States, which had entered the war later in 1917, played a decisive role in shaping the war’s conclusion and the peace process that followed.
• Notably, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson left a strong mark on the 1919 Treaty of Versailles with his vision for a peaceful world order, encapsulated in his famous “Fourteen Points.”

 

7. World War I to World War II

 

• Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles, often referred to as the "War Guilt" clause, placed full responsibility for the outbreak of World War I on the Central Powers. Among the harshest outcomes of the treaty was the imposition of heavy war reparations on Germany.
• Not only was Germany defeated, but it was also made to shoulder the financial burden of the conflict, which deeply wounded national pride.
• This humiliation and economic strain contributed significantly to the instability of the Weimar Republic, established in Germany after the war.
• The Weimar regime eventually collapsed, paving the way for Adolf Hitler’s rise to power in 1933 and the eventual outbreak of World War II in 1939.
• The shortcomings of the Versailles Treaty, which was intended to secure lasting peace, were sharply criticized by British economist John Maynard Keynes, who had attended the peace negotiations. In his influential book The Economic Consequences of the Peace, Keynes warned that the punitive terms of the treaty would lead to future conflict.

 

8. Way forward

 Following the end of the First World War, the League of Nations was formed and implemented a system of mandates to govern former German and Ottoman territories. In the Middle East, this system placed Syria and Lebanon under French control, while Iraq and Palestine came under British administration. These arrangements, designed to manage the remnants of the collapsed Ottoman Empire, were fragile and often unstable. The failure of these political solutions is one of the reasons why another global war erupted just over twenty years later

 

For Prelims: Treaty of Versailles, League of Nations, Balfour Declaration, Bolshevik Revolution   For Mains: GS I - World History

 Source: The Hindu

 

SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEMS

 

 

 

1. Context

 

India’s imports of solar photovoltaic (PV) cells from China jumped 141 per cent, seemingly driven by the increase in domestic solar PV module manufacturing capacity. 

 

2. Electricity generation

 

• Electricity can primarily be generated through two key methods. The first is electromagnetic induction, a principle discovered by Michael Faraday in 1821, which became commercially applicable around 1890. Even today, this method remains central to most of the world's electricity generation.
• The second approach involves photovoltaic (PV) technology, which relies on semiconductor materials like elemental silicon to convert sunlight directly into electricity. The photovoltaic effect was first observed by Alexander Becquerel in 1839.
• However, it wasn't until 1954 that a functional and efficient solar cell was developed at Bell Laboratories by Chapin, Fuller, and Pearson using doped silicon.
• This achievement was made possible thanks to two pivotal scientific contributions: Albert Einstein’s Nobel Prize-winning explanation of the photoelectric effect, and Jan Czochralski’s method for producing single-crystal silicon, which remains the foundation for most PV cells today.
• Unlike PV systems that feed regulated, taxable electricity into national power grids, technologies such as solar water heaters, solar air heaters, and solar-based cooling systems usually operate independently.
• For example, solar cooling uses an absorption refrigeration process that can cool interiors to as low as 19°C even when the ambient temperature hits 40°C. These standalone technologies are similar to PV panels used in off-grid regions, typically for purposes like charging batteries and powering basic lighting systems.
• Globally, solar insolation—the measure of solar energy received—varies significantly by region. Though solar energy is plentiful, it is scattered over wide areas, making it less concentrated.
• To harness it effectively, various focusing technologies such as parabolic troughs, Fresnel lenses, and other solar concentrators are employed for tasks ranging from cooking and water desalination to thermal heating and electricity production

 

3. How does sunlight generate power?

 

• Photovoltaic (PV) cells are typically composed of semiconducting materials like elemental silicon. Unlike metals such as copper, which are Ohmic conductors (their electrical resistance increases with temperature), silicon behaves as a non-Ohmic material. At room temperature, silicon is a poor conductor, but its conductivity improves as it gets warmer.
• From a quantum mechanical perspective, electrical conduction occurs when electrons occupy a higher energy level known as the conduction band, where they can move freely, similar to how water flows in the ocean. Electrons that remain in the valence band, a lower-energy state, are immobile and do not contribute to electrical current.
• To move an electron from the valence band to the conduction band, energy must be supplied. This energy can come from thermal excitation (increased atomic motion at higher temperatures) or from other energy sources such as light.
• Light, depending on the experiment, behaves either as a wave or as individual energy packets called photons. When photons strike electrons in the valence band, they can transfer energy to the electrons, allowing them to rise to the conduction band—if the photon’s energy matches or exceeds the required energy gap.
• This energy gap, known as the band gap and measured in electron volts (eV), must be matched precisely by the photon’s energy for the transition to occur. If a photon has more energy than necessary, the excess is converted to heat, which not only leads to energy loss but can also cause electrons to escape.
• Besides the energy requirement, there's also a symmetry condition for these transitions, though it plays a lesser role in this context. Due to these constraints, silicon-based PV cells cannot utilize the entire solar spectrum efficiently—around 50.4% of the sunlight is unusable. About 20.2% of photons lack sufficient energy to initiate the transition, while 30.2% carry excess energy that’s lost as heat.
• Other semiconducting materials like gallium arsenide, cadmium telluride, and copper indium selenide can absorb different parts of the solar spectrum more effectively. However, their widespread use is restricted by challenges such as limited availability, environmental hazards, and handling complexities

 

4. Silicon Solar Cells

 

 

• In silicon-based photovoltaic (PV) cells, trace amounts of phosphorus and boron are intentionally introduced to create regions that either have an excess of electrons or a shortage of them (known as "holes").
• This results in the formation of a p-n junction, where the difference in electrical charge establishes an electric field. When sunlight hits the surface, this setup acts like a battery, generating an electric potential that drives current.
• When an external circuit is connected, electrons travel from the negatively charged side through the load toward the positively charged side, completing the circuit. This process can continue as long as the cell is exposed to light.
• However, even within the 49.6% of the solar spectrum that is usable, several energy losses still occur. For example, PV cells often heat up to 30–40°C above the surrounding temperature, and this radiative heat loss accounts for around 7% of energy loss.
• An additional 10% loss is caused by differences in the mobility of positive and negative charges, a phenomenon known as the saturation effect, which reduces the generated voltage over time.
• These factors contribute to a theoretical efficiency ceiling of 33.7% for single-junction silicon PV cells, a value known as the Shockley-Queisser limit. Moreover, practical inefficiencies such as non-uniform sunlight exposure and manufacturing inconsistencies between cells (which cause differences in open-circuit voltage) also reduce performance.
• When real-world losses like converting DC to AC and managing peak power output are considered, the actual efficiency of silicon-based crystalline PV cells averages about 25% in laboratory settings, while the best commercial models achieve roughly 20% efficiency. By comparison, natural photosynthesis captures only 3–6% of the sunlight it receives

 

5. What can solar energy and cannot do?

 

• Because natural silicon reflects a significant amount of light, photovoltaic (PV) cells are coated with a transparent anti-reflective layer, typically made from tin oxide or silicon nitride, which also gives them their distinctive blue hue.
• Unlike biological photosystems, which assemble proteins using minimal energy at ambient temperatures, PV technology demands high energy inputs during manufacturing.
• The production of PV cells starts with the Czochralski process, which purifies elemental silicon to about 99% purity by melting and slowly forming it into single-crystal ingots. When these ingots are sliced into thin wafers, roughly 20% of the material is lost as silicon dust.
• Due to the high costs associated with single-crystal silicon, alternative techniques have been developed — for instance, ribbon technology avoids sawing losses, while amorphous silicon cells are more economical. Their natural structural imperfections can be corrected by adding hydrogen, improving performance.
• To capture a wider range of the solar spectrum, multijunction amorphous silicon cells have been engineered. These can theoretically reach efficiencies as high as 42%, though real-world performance typically peaks around 24%. PV technologies are broadly grouped into three generations:

1. First-generation uses thick crystalline wafers (~200 µm),

2. Second-generation relies on thin-film wafers (1–10 µm), and

3. Third-generation includes advanced designs like multijunction tandem cells and quantum dots, which can generate more charge carriers per photon, potentially surpassing the Shockley–Queisser efficiency limit.

 

• The cost of PV-generated electricity has declined sharply—from $4–5 per watt in 2010 to about $2.8 per watt in 2023 (and as low as $1.27 per watt for utility-scale systems), nearly achieving the U.S. SunShot Initiative’s goal of $1 per watt. Breaking down system costs:

• Modules account for 38%,

• Inverters and other electronics for 8%,

• Wiring and mounting contribute 22%, and

• The remaining 33% is spent on balance-of-system (BoS) costs, including labour, permits, administrative expenses, and profit margins.

• Since single-crystal silicon cells are close to their theoretical peak, future cost reductions are most likely in the BoS components. In terms of durability, PV systems lose efficiency at a rate of about 0.5% per year, with most modules lasting 20 to 25 years.
• Interestingly, although tropical and desert climates receive higher solar irradiance, PV modules perform more efficiently in cool, clear conditions due to reduced thermal losses. This makes it challenging for low- and middle-income countries — many of which lie in tropical zones — to fully leverage PV systems, especially given infrastructural limitations and climatic constraints.
• Additionally, air pollution can block 2–11% of solar radiation, and dust accumulation (soiling) can cause an extra 3–4% loss annually.
• Cleaning solar panels is both risky and water-intensive, since the panels become electrically active under sunlight. In densely populated urban areas, PV systems may also intensify the urban heat island effect by trapping heat.
• While other solar technologies can offer some complementary benefits, the extent to which PV systems alone can support a fully carbon-neutral energy future remains a topic of active scientific debate

 

6. Government supported schemes

 

Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM) – 2010

• Launched under the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC).

• Aimed to establish India as a global leader in solar energy.

• Target revised to 100 GW of solar capacity by 2022 (out of 175 GW total renewable energy target).

• Focus on both grid-connected and off-grid solar power systems.

PM-KUSUM (Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan) – 2019

• Promotes the use of solar energy in the agriculture sector.

• Three components:

  • Component A: Solar power plants (up to 2 MW) on barren land.

  • Component B: Standalone solar-powered agricultural pumps.

  • Component C: Solarisation of existing grid-connected pumps

 

 

 

For Prelims: General issues on Environmental ecology, Bio-diversity & climate change For Mains: GS-III: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment.

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Consider the following statements: (2016) The International Solar Alliance was launched at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in 2015. The Alliance includes all the member countries of the United Nations. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer (a)   Statement 1 is correct. The International Solar Alliance (ISA) was launched at the United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP21) in 2015 in Paris. Statement 2 is incorrect. Initially, the ISA was intended for solar-rich countries lying fully or partially between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. However, in subsequent years, the membership was expanded to include all UN member countries

 

Source: Indianexpress