• As per the Ministry of Labour, the Employment Linked Incentive (ELI) scheme aims to support the creation of over 3.5 crore new jobs within a span of two years.
• The Central Government anticipates that approximately 1.92 crore newly hired workers will benefit from the scheme, which will be active from August 1, 2025, to July 31, 2027. The Employees’ Provident Fund Organisation (EPFO) will oversee its implementation.
• Under this scheme, new employees earning up to ₹1 lakh per month will receive an EPF wage benefit of up to ₹15,000 in two parts. The first part will be transferred after six months of continuous employment and the second after completing one year, both paid directly into their bank accounts.
• Additionally, part of the incentive will be placed in a fixed-period deposit account that the employee can access later.
• For employers registered with EPFO, an incentive of up to ₹3,000 per month per new employee will be provided for maintaining employment for at least six months, and this will continue for two years. In the case of manufacturing units, the incentive period will be extended to the third and fourth years

Incentives for First-Time Employees:

• This component of the scheme focuses on individuals entering formal employment for the first time and registered under EPFO. Eligible employees—those earning up to ₹1 lakh per month—will receive an EPF wage benefit equivalent to one month’s salary, capped at ₹15,000, disbursed in two phases.
• The first installment will be given after completing six months of service, while the second will be granted after 12 months, along with successful completion of a financial literacy program. To promote saving habits, a part of the benefit will be placed in a fixed-term deposit account, which the employee can access at a later time.
• Approximately 1.92 crore first-time workers are expected to benefit from this segment of the scheme.

Part B – Employer Incentives:

• This segment provides financial support to employers across all sectors, with particular emphasis on the manufacturing industry.
• Employers hiring workers with salaries up to ₹1 lakh will receive government support of up to ₹3,000 per month for each new hire, provided the employee remains continuously employed for at least six months.
• In the manufacturing sector, this incentive will be extended to cover the third and fourth years as well.
• Eligible establishments must be registered with EPFO and are required to hire at least two additional workers if they employ fewer than 50 people, or five additional workers if their workforce is 50 or more, all on a sustained basis for a minimum of six months

The Employment Linked Incentive (ELI) Scheme holds significant value in India’s efforts to promote inclusive and sustainable job creation. It serves as a strategic intervention to boost formal employment, particularly in the post-pandemic recovery phase. By offering direct benefits to both employees and employers, the scheme addresses multiple socio-economic objectives:

• Job Creation at Scale:
  With a target of generating over 3.5 crore jobs in two years, the ELI Scheme aims to stimulate employment across sectors, especially in the labour-intensive manufacturing industry.

• Encouraging First-Time Employment:
  The scheme provides financial incentives to individuals joining the formal workforce for the first time, making it easier for young jobseekers to find sustainable employment.

• Boosting Formalization:
  By linking benefits to registration under the Employees’ Provident Fund Organisation (EPFO), the scheme encourages the transition from informal to formal employment, extending social security coverage to millions.

• Support for Employers:
  Incentives to employers—up to ₹3,000 per employee per month—reduce the cost of hiring and retaining workers, particularly beneficial for small and medium enterprises (SMEs).

• Focus on Manufacturing Growth:
  With extended incentives for manufacturing units up to four years, the scheme aligns with the government’s broader goals of strengthening the manufacturing sector and achieving self-reliance (Atmanirbhar Bharat).

• Encouraging Financial Literacy and Savings:
  By linking part of the benefits to financial literacy programs and placing a portion in deposit instruments, the scheme promotes responsible financial behaviour among young workers.

For Prelims: Employment Linked Incentive (ELI) Scheme, Aadhaar Bridge Payment System (ABPS)   For Mains: GS II - Governance

 

Source: The Hindu

 

 

CLIMATE CHANGE

1. Context

Flash floods, which began on July 4, have killed at least 81 people across Texas Hill Country, becoming one of the deadliest deluges in the United States in the past 100 years. Emergency services, volunteers and family members are looking for at least 41 people, including 10 girls, who are still missing

2. Climate change

The periodic modification of Earth's climate brought about due to the changes in the atmosphere as well as the interactions between the atmosphere and various other geological, chemical, biological, and geographical factors within the Earth's system is called Climate Change.

• Climate change is a global concern and requires a well-coordinated global approach to address it. In simple terms, what needs to be done is to assess and monitor the net stock of GHG (greenhouse gases) present in the atmosphere at any given time, and work out ways to reduce it. Unlike many pollutant gases that have a relatively shorter life span once emitted, GHG can remain in the atmosphere for a fairly long time. For instance, carbon dioxide, the major constituent of GHG, can remain in the atmosphere for as long as a thousand years. 
• Another aspect of this is the distance GHG can travel from the emitting source in the atmosphere. As compared to pollutant gases like sulfur dioxide, which can at best travel up to a few hundred kilometers, carbon dioxide can travel up to thousands of kilometers.
• So, while excessive sulfur dioxide emissions could cause acid rain (rainwater containing sulphuric acid) in areas near the emitting source, GHG could potentially impact climate in places far away from the source.

3. Discussions about Climate change

• The Industrial Revolution in the 19th century and industrialization in the world added to great volumes of GHG in the atmosphere over time. Unfortunately, the realization of their adverse impact o climate came quite late.
• International Climate change negotiations among different countries under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) framework started only in 1994.
• GHG targets discussed in the COP meeting under the UNFCCC framework largely focus on containing inflows of new emissions, which would add to the GHG stock already in the atmosphere.
• To address this, substantial financial resources and the latest technologies are required. Developed countries, which are responsible for creating this mess in the first place and have the better financial capacity and technological capability, have to bear the major burden for this. They need to provide funds for developing countries and facilitate technology transfers. This is the basic philosophy behind the "common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities" principle.
• In the COP meeting in Copenhagen in 2009, developed countries pledged to channel $ 100 billion a year to developing countries by 2020 to help them adapt to and mitigate climate change. Unfortunately, despite all the talk, this is not happening.

UNFCCC

UNFCCC stands for United Nations Framework on Climate Change. The UNFCCC secretariat (UN Climate change ) is the United Nations entity tasked with supporting the global response to the threat of climate change. The UNFCCC, signed in 1992 at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development also known as the Earth Summit, the Rio Summit, or the Rio Conference. The UNFCCC entered into force on March 21, 1994.

 

4. Effects of climate change 

• Excessive hot weather, untimely and excessive rains, flooding, and extreme climatic conditions this year have affected people across the world.
• The poor and developing countries in Africa, South Asia, and Latin America suffer the most due to a lack of resources to deal with the problem. Even if these countries were to follow the emissions discipline strictly individually, they might still suffer the climate change consequences.
• When it comes to survival, there is little option for anyone but to take required precautionary or adaptive measures to the best of their capabilities.

5. India's Agenda

• India with 17.7 percent of the world's population, 30 percent of the world's cattle population, 2.4 percent of the world's surface area, 4 percent of the water resources, 55 percent of energy needs met by coal, and only $2,200 per capita per annum income, has its back against the wall while participating in international forums on climate change negotiations.
• India has shown leadership in declaring voluntary, ambitious NDCs in Paris, followed by bold commitments in COPs thereafter. This is likely to motivate others, especially developing countries, to follow.
• India should use its global stature, lobbying power, and leadership to take the bull by its horns- make developed countries do what they should rightly be doing, be it during the COP meetings on climate change or in other forms like G-20. As India takes over the G-20 presidency, this should be our main agenda.

G-20

The G20 was formed in 1999 against the backdrop of the financial crisis of the late 1990s that hit East Asia and Southeast Asia in particular. It aims to secure global financial stability by involving middle-income countries. Together, the G-20 countries include 60% of the world's population, 80% of the global GDP, and 75% of global trade. Member countries Argentina, Australia, Brasil, Canada, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Turkey, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the EU.

For Prelims & Mains

For Prelims: G-20, United nations framework convention on climate change (UNFCCC), Green House Gases (GHG), COP, Earth Summit, Rio Summit. For Mains: 1. Discuss the challenges posed by climate change in recent times and explain why India is going to choose the G-20 platform to address climate change.

 

Source: The Indian Express

 

 

SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEMS

 

 

 

1. Context

 

India’s imports of solar photovoltaic (PV) cells from China jumped 141 per cent, seemingly driven by the increase in domestic solar PV module manufacturing capacity. 

 

2. Electricity generation

 

• Electricity can primarily be generated through two key methods. The first is electromagnetic induction, a principle discovered by Michael Faraday in 1821, which became commercially applicable around 1890. Even today, this method remains central to most of the world's electricity generation.
• The second approach involves photovoltaic (PV) technology, which relies on semiconductor materials like elemental silicon to convert sunlight directly into electricity. The photovoltaic effect was first observed by Alexander Becquerel in 1839.
• However, it wasn't until 1954 that a functional and efficient solar cell was developed at Bell Laboratories by Chapin, Fuller, and Pearson using doped silicon.
• This achievement was made possible thanks to two pivotal scientific contributions: Albert Einstein’s Nobel Prize-winning explanation of the photoelectric effect, and Jan Czochralski’s method for producing single-crystal silicon, which remains the foundation for most PV cells today.
• Unlike PV systems that feed regulated, taxable electricity into national power grids, technologies such as solar water heaters, solar air heaters, and solar-based cooling systems usually operate independently.
• For example, solar cooling uses an absorption refrigeration process that can cool interiors to as low as 19°C even when the ambient temperature hits 40°C. These standalone technologies are similar to PV panels used in off-grid regions, typically for purposes like charging batteries and powering basic lighting systems.
• Globally, solar insolation—the measure of solar energy received—varies significantly by region. Though solar energy is plentiful, it is scattered over wide areas, making it less concentrated.
• To harness it effectively, various focusing technologies such as parabolic troughs, Fresnel lenses, and other solar concentrators are employed for tasks ranging from cooking and water desalination to thermal heating and electricity production

 

3. How does sunlight generate power?

 

• Photovoltaic (PV) cells are typically composed of semiconducting materials like elemental silicon. Unlike metals such as copper, which are Ohmic conductors (their electrical resistance increases with temperature), silicon behaves as a non-Ohmic material. At room temperature, silicon is a poor conductor, but its conductivity improves as it gets warmer.
• From a quantum mechanical perspective, electrical conduction occurs when electrons occupy a higher energy level known as the conduction band, where they can move freely, similar to how water flows in the ocean. Electrons that remain in the valence band, a lower-energy state, are immobile and do not contribute to electrical current.
• To move an electron from the valence band to the conduction band, energy must be supplied. This energy can come from thermal excitation (increased atomic motion at higher temperatures) or from other energy sources such as light.
• Light, depending on the experiment, behaves either as a wave or as individual energy packets called photons. When photons strike electrons in the valence band, they can transfer energy to the electrons, allowing them to rise to the conduction band—if the photon’s energy matches or exceeds the required energy gap.
• This energy gap, known as the band gap and measured in electron volts (eV), must be matched precisely by the photon’s energy for the transition to occur. If a photon has more energy than necessary, the excess is converted to heat, which not only leads to energy loss but can also cause electrons to escape.
• Besides the energy requirement, there's also a symmetry condition for these transitions, though it plays a lesser role in this context. Due to these constraints, silicon-based PV cells cannot utilize the entire solar spectrum efficiently—around 50.4% of the sunlight is unusable. About 20.2% of photons lack sufficient energy to initiate the transition, while 30.2% carry excess energy that’s lost as heat.
• Other semiconducting materials like gallium arsenide, cadmium telluride, and copper indium selenide can absorb different parts of the solar spectrum more effectively. However, their widespread use is restricted by challenges such as limited availability, environmental hazards, and handling complexities

 

4. Silicon Solar Cells

 

 

• In silicon-based photovoltaic (PV) cells, trace amounts of phosphorus and boron are intentionally introduced to create regions that either have an excess of electrons or a shortage of them (known as "holes").
• This results in the formation of a p-n junction, where the difference in electrical charge establishes an electric field. When sunlight hits the surface, this setup acts like a battery, generating an electric potential that drives current.
• When an external circuit is connected, electrons travel from the negatively charged side through the load toward the positively charged side, completing the circuit. This process can continue as long as the cell is exposed to light.
• However, even within the 49.6% of the solar spectrum that is usable, several energy losses still occur. For example, PV cells often heat up to 30–40°C above the surrounding temperature, and this radiative heat loss accounts for around 7% of energy loss.
• An additional 10% loss is caused by differences in the mobility of positive and negative charges, a phenomenon known as the saturation effect, which reduces the generated voltage over time.
• These factors contribute to a theoretical efficiency ceiling of 33.7% for single-junction silicon PV cells, a value known as the Shockley-Queisser limit. Moreover, practical inefficiencies such as non-uniform sunlight exposure and manufacturing inconsistencies between cells (which cause differences in open-circuit voltage) also reduce performance.
• When real-world losses like converting DC to AC and managing peak power output are considered, the actual efficiency of silicon-based crystalline PV cells averages about 25% in laboratory settings, while the best commercial models achieve roughly 20% efficiency. By comparison, natural photosynthesis captures only 3–6% of the sunlight it receives

 

5. What can solar energy and cannot do?

 

• Because natural silicon reflects a significant amount of light, photovoltaic (PV) cells are coated with a transparent anti-reflective layer, typically made from tin oxide or silicon nitride, which also gives them their distinctive blue hue.
• Unlike biological photosystems, which assemble proteins using minimal energy at ambient temperatures, PV technology demands high energy inputs during manufacturing.
• The production of PV cells starts with the Czochralski process, which purifies elemental silicon to about 99% purity by melting and slowly forming it into single-crystal ingots. When these ingots are sliced into thin wafers, roughly 20% of the material is lost as silicon dust.
• Due to the high costs associated with single-crystal silicon, alternative techniques have been developed — for instance, ribbon technology avoids sawing losses, while amorphous silicon cells are more economical. Their natural structural imperfections can be corrected by adding hydrogen, improving performance.
• To capture a wider range of the solar spectrum, multijunction amorphous silicon cells have been engineered. These can theoretically reach efficiencies as high as 42%, though real-world performance typically peaks around 24%. PV technologies are broadly grouped into three generations:

1. First-generation uses thick crystalline wafers (~200 µm),

2. Second-generation relies on thin-film wafers (1–10 µm), and

3. Third-generation includes advanced designs like multijunction tandem cells and quantum dots, which can generate more charge carriers per photon, potentially surpassing the Shockley–Queisser efficiency limit.

 

• The cost of PV-generated electricity has declined sharply—from $4–5 per watt in 2010 to about $2.8 per watt in 2023 (and as low as $1.27 per watt for utility-scale systems), nearly achieving the U.S. SunShot Initiative’s goal of $1 per watt. Breaking down system costs:

• Modules account for 38%,

• Inverters and other electronics for 8%,

• Wiring and mounting contribute 22%, and

• The remaining 33% is spent on balance-of-system (BoS) costs, including labour, permits, administrative expenses, and profit margins.

• Since single-crystal silicon cells are close to their theoretical peak, future cost reductions are most likely in the BoS components. In terms of durability, PV systems lose efficiency at a rate of about 0.5% per year, with most modules lasting 20 to 25 years.
• Interestingly, although tropical and desert climates receive higher solar irradiance, PV modules perform more efficiently in cool, clear conditions due to reduced thermal losses. This makes it challenging for low- and middle-income countries — many of which lie in tropical zones — to fully leverage PV systems, especially given infrastructural limitations and climatic constraints.
• Additionally, air pollution can block 2–11% of solar radiation, and dust accumulation (soiling) can cause an extra 3–4% loss annually.
• Cleaning solar panels is both risky and water-intensive, since the panels become electrically active under sunlight. In densely populated urban areas, PV systems may also intensify the urban heat island effect by trapping heat.
• While other solar technologies can offer some complementary benefits, the extent to which PV systems alone can support a fully carbon-neutral energy future remains a topic of active scientific debate

 

6. Government supported schemes

 

Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM) – 2010

• Launched under the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC).

• Aimed to establish India as a global leader in solar energy.

• Target revised to 100 GW of solar capacity by 2022 (out of 175 GW total renewable energy target).

• Focus on both grid-connected and off-grid solar power systems.

PM-KUSUM (Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan) – 2019

• Promotes the use of solar energy in the agriculture sector.

• Three components:

  • Component A: Solar power plants (up to 2 MW) on barren land.

  • Component B: Standalone solar-powered agricultural pumps.

  • Component C: Solarisation of existing grid-connected pumps

 

 

 

For Prelims: General issues on Environmental ecology, Bio-diversity & climate change For Mains: GS-III: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment.

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Consider the following statements: (2016) The International Solar Alliance was launched at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in 2015. The Alliance includes all the member countries of the United Nations. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer (a)   Statement 1 is correct. The International Solar Alliance (ISA) was launched at the United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP21) in 2015 in Paris. Statement 2 is incorrect. Initially, the ISA was intended for solar-rich countries lying fully or partially between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. However, in subsequent years, the membership was expanded to include all UN member countries

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

SUSTAINABLE REPORT 2025

 

 

 

1. Context

 

India, for the first time, breaks into the top 100 of the Sustainable Development Index with the rank of 99 and score of 67, according to the Sustainable Development Report (SDR) 2025 released by the UN Sustainable Development Solutions Network. SDR reviews progress made each year on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) since their adoption by the 193 UN member states. This year’s SDG index covers 167 of the 193 UN member states.

 

2. Sustainable Development Report (SDR) 2025

 

• The 2025 Sustainable Development Report (SDR) highlights that none of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are currently on course to be fully realized by 2030. Only 17% of the specific targets are advancing as intended. Factors such as conflicts, structural weaknesses, and limited fiscal capacity are hindering progress in many regions globally.

• For the first time, the report introduced a simplified SDG Index (SDGi), employing one primary indicator per goal — a total of 17 — to monitor overall progress. This streamlined approach aims to reduce statistical distortions caused by missing data across countries.

• A new metric — "Minimum dietary diversity among children aged 6 to 23 months" — has been added under SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), as noted in the SDR dataset.

• The report identifies SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities), SDG 14 (Life Below Water), SDG 15 (Life on Land), and SDG 16 (Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions) as especially lagging. These goals are marked in red on dashboards, reflecting minimal or no progress since 2015.

• The SDG Index is measured on a 0–100 scale, representing a country's proximity to achieving the SDGs. The gap between a nation’s score and 100 reflects the remaining distance to reach optimal performance.

• Finland ranks first on the 2025 Index with a score of 87. European countries dominate the top 20 positions, occupying 19 of them. India has entered the top 100 for the first time, securing the 99th position with a score of 67. The country's rank has shown consistent improvement over recent years — from 109 in 2024, 112 in 2023, 121 in 2022, and 120 in 2021.

• Regionally, India still lags behind some of its South Asian peers. Bhutan stands at 74th (70.5), Nepal at 85th (68.6), and the Maldives at 53rd. Sri Lanka is ranked 93rd, whereas Bangladesh and Pakistan are further behind at 114th and 140th respectively

Rank 2025	Country	Score 2025
1	Finland	87.0
2	Sweden	85.7
3	Denmark	85.3
4	Germany	83.7
5	France	83.1

98	Belize	67
99	India	67
100	Mongolia	66.7

159	Niger	50.3
158	Madagascar	51.0

 

 

 

3. Sustainable development goals

 

 

• Sustainable development, as defined by the United Nations, refers to progress that addresses current needs without jeopardizing the ability of future generations to fulfill their own. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are an extension of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which were introduced in 2000 with a target year of 2015.
• In India, the SDG Index assesses the performance of states and Union Territories (UTs) across a range of indicators such as health, education, gender equality, economic development, institutional strength, environmental sustainability, and climate action. Since its initial release in December 2018, the SDG India Index has become the primary tool for tracking the country’s advancement toward these global goals.
• Scores on the SDG India Index fall within a 0–100 scale, with higher scores indicating greater progress toward meeting the targets. States and UTs are grouped into four categories based on their scores: aspirants (0–49), performers (50–64), front-runners (65–99), and achievers (100). As per the NITI Aayog’s 2023–24 SDG Index, India achieved a score of 71.
• The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, commonly referred to as Agenda 2030, is a global framework adopted by the United Nations. It comprises 17 SDGs that the international community aims to fulfill by the year 2030

 

4. UN Summit for the future

 

• At the United Nations Summit of the Future held in September 2024, member nations reaffirmed their dedication to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and to strengthening multilateral cooperation. The Summit concluded with the unanimous adoption of three major agreements: the Pact for the Future, the Global Digital Compact, and the Declaration on Future Generations.

• The Summit of the Future (SoTF) was held on September 22–23, just prior to the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) in New York. Its central theme was “multilateral solutions for a better tomorrow.”

• UN Secretary-General António Guterres described the event as a “once-in-a-generation UN Summit,” emphasizing its historical significance as the UN marked its 80th anniversary in 2024.

• In the 2025 edition of the Index of Countries’ Support to UN-Based Multilateralism (UN-Mi), Barbados secured the top position with a score of 92, followed closely by Jamaica. India was placed 113th with a score of 63.8. This index specifically evaluates nations’ commitment to multilateralism rooted in the UN system and does not account for contributions through other international forums such as BRICS, G20, G7, or OECD.

• As noted in the Sustainable Development Report (SDR), the Pact for the Future outlines 56 action points focused on SDG implementation, global peace, and collective security. It also advocates for major reforms in the multilateral framework and the global financial system (United Nations, 2024).

 

5. Way forward

 

The United Nations Summit of the Future in 2024 marked a significant reaffirmation of global commitment to multilateralism and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Through the adoption of the Pact for the Future, the Global Digital Compact, and the Declaration on Future Generations, UN member states demonstrated a collective resolve to address pressing global challenges through cooperative frameworks. As the UN enters its 80th year, this summit stands as a historic moment for revitalizing the international system, calling for bold reforms in global governance and financial institutions. However, the varying levels of support for UN-based multilateralism, as reflected in the 2025 UN-Mi Index, highlight the need for greater alignment among nations. Moving forward, successful implementation of the summit’s outcomes will be crucial to reinvigorating trust in multilateralism and accelerating progress on the SDGs in an increasingly fragmented world

 

 

For Prelims: Agenda 2030, Sustainable Development Report (SDR) 2025, Millenium development goals   For Mains: GS II - International reports

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2016) 1. The Sustainable Development Goals were first proposed in 1972 by a global think tank called the ‘Club of Rome’. 2. The Sustainable Development Goals have to be achieved by 2030. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer (b) 2.Sustainable development is described as the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. In this perspective, inherently the concept of sustainable development is intertwined with which of the following concepts? (UPSC CSE 2010) (a) Social justice and empowerment (b) Inclusive Growth (c) Globalization (d) Carrying capacity Answer (d)

 

 

Source: Indianexpress