• A river system consists of a river and all its tributaries. The Indus River system is made up of six rivers: Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej. Among these, the Indus and Sutlej are antecedent rivers, meaning they existed before the formation of the Himalayas and carved deep gorges as they flowed from the Tibet region. The remaining four rivers—Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, and Beas—originate in India.
• The Indus Basin stretches across four countries: China, India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. In India, it covers the Union Territories of Ladakh and Jammu and Kashmir, as well as Chandigarh, and the states of Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan. The total drainage area of the basin is about 3,21,289 square kilometers, representing roughly 9.8% of India’s total geographical area.

• The Indus River originates from the trans-Himalayan range near Mansarovar Lake in Tibet, known as Singi Khamban or the Lion’s Mouth. Flowing west, it enters India at Demchok in Ladakh.
• Within India, the river runs for about 1,114 kilometers, flowing between the Ladakh and Karakoram ranges. Its main right bank tributaries include the Shyok (originating from Rimo Glacier), Shigar, and Gilgit, while the Zaskar and Hanle rivers are its left bank tributaries. The Indus River travels a total of 2,880 kilometers, eventually emptying into the Arabian Sea near Karachi, Pakistan. The Indus River Dolphin, listed as endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), primarily inhabits the Indus.
• The Jhelum River (252 km) begins at Verinag near the Pir Panjal in India, flowing through Wular Lake in Srinagar before entering Pakistan, where it merges with the Chenab near Jhang. The Chenab River, the Indus’s largest tributary, is 1,180 km long within India and originates from the confluence of the Chandra and Bhaga rivers at Tandi in Keylong, Himachal Pradesh.

• The Ravi River (95 km) starts from the Kullu Hills near Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh and joins the Chenab at Sarai Sidhu in Pakistan. The Beas River (354 km) originates from Beas Kund, located at 4,000 meters above sea level near Rohtang Pass. It flows through the Kullu Valley and joins the Sutlej near Harike in Punjab, India. The Harike Barrage, built in 1952, diverts water for the Indira Gandhi Canal system.
• The Sutlej River (676 km) is another antecedent river, originating from Rakas Tal (4,555 meters above sea level) near Mansarovar in Tibet. It enters India near Ropar. India has built several important dams to harness the waters of the eastern rivers, including the Ranjit Sagar Dam on the Ravi, the Bhakra Dam on the Sutlej, and the Pong and Pandoh Dams on the Beas. These projects, including the Beas-Sutlej Link, the Madhopur-Beas Link, and the Indira Gandhi Canal Project, allow India to utilize nearly 95% of the waters of these eastern rivers.

8. Way Forward

However, India’s projects on the western rivers have been a source of dispute with Pakistan. Significant projects on the western rivers, such as the Salal Dam, the Baglihar Hydropower Project, the Pakal Dul Project, and the Kiru Project, are located on the Chenab River, while the Tulbul Project is situated on the Jhelum River in Jammu and Kashmir. These projects have been at the center of objections from Pakistan over the year

ARTICLE 356

1. Context

2. Article 356

• Article 356 of the Constitution of India gives the President of India power to suspend state government and impose President's rule of any state in the country "if he is satisfied that a situation has arisen in which the government of the state cannot be carried on by the provisions of the Constitution.
• It is also known as a "State Emergency" or "Constitutional Emergency".
• Upon the imposition of this rule, there would be no council of Ministers.
• The state will fall under the direct control of the Union government, and the Governor will continue to head the proceedings, representing the President of India.

3. Parliamentary approval and Duration

• A proclamation imposing President's Rule must be approved by both the House of Parliament within two months from the date of its issue.
• The approval takes place through a simple majority in either House, that is, a majority of the members of the House present and voting.
• Initially valid for six months, the President's Rule can be extended for a maximum period of three years with the approval of the Parliament, every six months.

4. Report of the Governor

• Under Article 356, President's Rule is imposed if the President, upon receipt of the report from the Governor of the state or otherwise, is satisfied that a situation has arisen in which the government of the state cannot be carried on by the provisions of the Constitution.
• A proclamation of the President's Rule may be revoked by the President at any time by a subsequent proclamation. Such a proclamation does not require parliamentary approval.

5. Origins of Article 356

• Article 356 was inspired by section 93 of the Government of India Act, of 1935. This provided that if a Governor of a province was satisfied that a situation had arisen in which the government of the province cannot be carried on by the provisions of the said Act, he could assume to himself all or any of the powers of the government and discharge those functions in his discretion.
• The Governor, could not encroach upon the powers of the high court. For the British, this provision allowed for a 'controlled democracy'-while providing some autonomy to provincial governments, section 93 allowed the British authorities to exercise ultimate power when they deemed necessary.

6. How was the provision used as a political weapon in independent India?

• During the decades of Congress's dominance at the Centre, Article 356 was used against governments of the Left and regional parties in the states.
• Until 1959, Jawaharlal Nehru's government had used the article six times, including to dislodge the first-ever elected communist government in the world, in Kerela in 1959.
• In the 1960s, it was used 11 times. After Indira came to power in 1966, Article 356 was used seven times between 1967 and 1969 alone.
• The 1970s were more politically turbulent. Between 1970 and 1974, President's Rule was imposed 19 times.
• Post Emergency, the Janata party government used it in 1977 to summarily dismiss nine congress-state governments. When Indira returned to power in 1980, her government too imposed president's Rule in nine states.
• In 1992-93, Prime Minister Narasimha Rao dismissed three BJP governments in the wake of the demolition of Babri Masjid, besides Kalyan Singh's government in UP.

7. Article 356 and its Safeguards

• The 1994 Supreme Court (S.R.Bommai case) majority decision, in essence, overturned a long tradition that the use of Article 356 was not subject to review by courts, a doctrine articulated in a landmark 1997 case, State of Rajasthan Vs Union of India.
• The Bommai case verdict laid down the conditions under which state governments may be dismissed, and the mechanisms for that process.
• In the S.R. Bommai case, a nine-member bench of the supreme court construed the scope of Article 356, which also allows the imposition of the President's Rule in the states, with stringent conditions.
• These included ascertaining whether objective conditions exist which render it impossible to carry out governance in the state where the proclamation has been made and the process has to be approved by both Houses of Parliament before consideration for Judicial review.

For Prelims & Mains