DAILY CURRENT AFFAIRS, 13 MAY 2025

SINGLE-USE PLASTIC

1. Context

Single-use food and beverage packaging forms more than 84% of the plastic waste in the eco-sensitive Himalayan region, an anti-waste collective of NGOs has found.

2. Background

Measuring India's plastic problem Ban on certain single-use plastics ( SUP ) kicked in on July 1 2022 across India.
An array of items, including ice cream sticks. thermocouple, plates, cups, glasses, forks, spoons, knives, straws, trays, wrapping or packaging films and cigarette packets, have been banned.
Data from Down to Earth's State of India's Environment 2022 report show that 35 % of India's plastic waste is in the form of multi-layered packaging, which is non - recyclable.
Moreover, 68 % of plastic waste ends up in dumpsites and landfills, with only 12 % recycled and 20 % burnt, the report estimates.
According to OurWorldinData, India generates 9.5 kg of mismanaged waste that are at a high risk of entering the ocean.

3. Plastic waste share in India

Type	Share	Description
PS	1%	Polysterene is an inexpensive resin found everywhere from beverage cups to egg cartons and disposable dinnerware Environmentally it's among the worst types of plastic
HDPE	7%	High Density Polyethelene is an incredibly used resin for grocery bags, milk jugs, and recycling bins, among others They are one of the easiest plastics to recycle
PET	12%	Polyethelene terephthalate is mostly used for food and drinking purposes as it prevents oxygen from spoiling the contents inside It is the most widely recycled plastic in the world
PP	14%	Polypropylene can withstand higher temperatures and is used in Tupperware, car parts, and thermal vests, among others
LDPE	31%	Low Density polyethene, has the simplest structure of all plastics, making it easy and cheap to produce It is used in plastic blags, and various containers, and is not often recycled
MLP	35%	Multi-layered Packaging is made of plastics and other composite layers such as aluminium foil and others These are used for packaging They are non-recyclable at a commercial scale

India recycled 12% and burnt 20% of the 3.5 million tonnes of plastic waste it generated in 2019-20

There is no information on the remaining 68% of plastic waste, which most likely ends up in dumpsites and landfills

4. The Need for plastic waste management

The need for plastic waste management

Plastic was first invented in 1907, and given that it was cheaper and more convenient than other materials, it soon found use in varied ways in our daily lives.
Today, plastic is present in almost everything, from our money to electronic appliances, and it is used across multiple sectors, including packaging, building, construction, transportation, industrial machinery and health among others.
However, the lack of sustainable plastic waste management (PWM) poses a serious threat to our environment and natural ecosystem globally.
Data indicates that while a large quantum of plastic waste is generated, low levels of it are sustainably managed and discarded worldwide.
From 1950 to 2015, around 8.3 billion metric tonnes (BMTs) of plastic had been produced globally, and of this, 80 per cent – 6.3 BMTs – was accounted as plastic waste.
Of these 6.3 BMTs of waste, only 9 per cent was recycled, 12 per cent incinerated and 79 per cent dumped into landfills, oceans or waterbodies.
Various manufacturing industries across the globe produce 400 million tonnes of plastic waste per year, with the packaging industry being the largest contributor. According to a report by FICCI, 40 per cent of the packaging needs in India are fulfilled using plastic.
Globally, plastic pollution has emerged as a serious menace in the absence of streamlined PWM focusing on the reuse, reduction, and recycling of plastic waste.
All developed and developing countries are individually taking actions to manage plastic waste, but the onus is mainly on developing countries.
The CPCB Report (2019-20) states that 3.4 million metric tonnes of plastic waste are generated in India annually.
There are two primary ways to manage plastic waste.
The first is recycling or re-processing different categories of plastic waste into secondary material. The second is the incineration of plastic waste. However, incineration is expensive and causes pollution if not done using the right equipment.

5. What is single-use plastic all about

The Plastic Waste Management Rules, amended in 2021, define single-use plastic as a plastic item intended to be used once for the same purpose before being disposed of or recycled. The United Nations defines single-use plastics, often referred to as disposable plastics, as commonly used for plastic packaging, including items intended to be used only once before being thrown away or recycled.
These include grocery bags, food packaging, bottles, straws, containers, cups and cutlery.
Single-use plastic is the most popular kind of plastic due to its easy access and high use. While it is cheap, strong and hygienic for transporting goods, it is the most difficult to recycle.
Plastic carry bags are produced using less energy and water and generate less solid waste than paper bags as they take up less space in landfills. These salient features of single-use plastics make them a preferred material for commercial use.
The adverse impacts of single-use plastic have created an alarming situation across the globe with a call for countries to make commitments against plastic.

6. Rules and guidelines for plastic waste management

To address the challenge of the mounting waste crisis in the country, India started setting up its regulatory framework on waste management almost two decades ago.
In 2000, the ministry of environment, forest and climate change notified the first-ever law on waste management in the form of the Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules.
Since then, the country’s waste management regulations have developed in several aspects and undergone a massive transformation.
In India, the Plastic Waste Management Rules of 2016 and 2018 and the recently announced amendment of 2021 focus on single-use plastics.
The rules detail various categories of plastics and recommend recycling methods based on the type of plastic polymer used.

7. Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016

Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016 were notified on March 18, 2016. These rules apply to the manufacture, import stocking, distribution, sale and use of carrying bags, plastic sheets or multilayered packaging, etc.
For the first time, the responsibility of waste generators has been prescribed. Individual and bulk generators like offices, commercial establishments, and industries are to segregate the plastic waste at the source, hand over segregated waste, and pay user fees as per the bye-laws of the local bodies.
Extended Producers Responsibility (Under Plastic Waste Management Rules 2016) puts the onus on the manufacturers for the treatment, recycling, reuse or disposal of products after a consumer has used and disposed of them.

8. Four major components of plastic waste management

Component 1: Technical model for plastic waste recycling and management

Component 2: Material Recovery Facility (MRF) for improved plastic waste management implementation

Component 3: Institutionalization of MRFs in governance bodies

Component 4: Information, education & communication (IEC) and Digitalisation

9. Priorities to minimize Single-use plastic

Mismanaged Waste

Mismanaged waste is material which is at high risk of entering the oceans via wind or tidal transport or carried to coastlines via inland waters

In 2019 India produced around 9.5 kgs of mismanaged waste per person

For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance, General issues on the Environment

For Mains: GS-II, GS-III, Environment, environmental pollution and degradation, Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s interests

Previous Year Questions

1.In India, ‘extend producer responsibility’ was introduced as an important feature in which of the following? (UPSC CSE 2019)

(a) The Bio-medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998

(b) The Recycled Plastic (Manufacturing and Usage) Rules, 1999

(d) The Food Safety and Standard Regulations, 2011

Answer (c)

The concept of "extended producer responsibility" (EPR) was introduced as an important feature in the (c) The e-Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011 in India. These rules were established to address the growing concern of electronic waste (e-waste) management and handling in the country

Source: The Hindu

NET ZERO

1. Context

After a decade of deliberations towards decarbonising the maritime industry, at its 83rd session, the Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC-83) of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) was faced with the challenge of coming to a consensus on a proposed emissions levy on global shipping. The session’s objective was to adopt a Market-Based Measure (MBM) that balanced environmental effectiveness with economic fairness.

2. What is Net Zero?

Net zero refers to achieving a balance between the amount of greenhouse gases produced and the amount removed from the atmosphere. It's a state where the net emissions of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, are reduced to as close to zero as possible. This balance can be achieved by either eliminating greenhouse gas emissions entirely or by offsetting emissions through various means, such as carbon capture and storage or investing in projects that remove greenhouse gases from the atmosphere, like afforestation or reforestation initiatives. The goal of reaching net zero is crucial in combating climate change and stabilizing global temperatures

3. Why is net zero important?

Net zero is critical in the fight against climate change for several reasons:

Limiting global warming:

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) states that reaching net zero by mid-century is crucial to limiting global warming to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. This goal is essential to avoid the worst impacts of climate change, such as extreme weather events, rising sea levels, and mass extinctions.
By balancing emissions and removals, we prevent the further accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, stabilizing the climate system and preventing further damage.

Environmental benefits:

Reducing greenhouse gas emissions also leads to cleaner air, benefiting public health and reducing respiratory illnesses.
Limiting warming protects ecosystems and the biodiversity they support, preserving vital natural resources and services.
By lowering carbon dioxide levels, net zero helps mitigate ocean acidification, which is harmful to marine life and ecosystems.

Economic and social benefits:

The transition to net zero creates opportunities for new technologies, industries, and jobs, driving economic growth and innovation.
Reducing reliance on fossil fuels enhances energy security and independence from volatile global markets.
Climate change poses a serious threat to human health. Achieving net zero reduces these risks and promotes healthier communities.

Global cooperation:

Net zero is a global challenge requiring international collaboration and cooperation. Achieving this goal requires all nations to contribute and share best practices.
We have a moral obligation to future generations to protect the planet and ensure a sustainable future. Net zero is an essential step in this direction

4. How can net zero be achieved?

Achieving net zero involves a multifaceted approach across various sectors. Here are some key strategies:

Transitioning from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources like solar, wind, hydroelectric, and geothermal power is crucial. This involves increasing renewable energy capacity and enhancing energy efficiency
Encouraging the use of electric vehicles, heat pumps, and other clean technologies can reduce emissions in transportation, heating, and cooling sectors
Improving energy efficiency in buildings, industries, and appliances can significantly reduce energy consumption and emissions
Implementing technologies that capture carbon dioxide emissions from industrial processes and power generation, followed by storing or utilizing it, can help offset emissions
Protecting and restoring forests, wetlands, and other ecosystems can capture and store carbon dioxide naturally, contributing to offsetting emissions
Encouraging industries to adopt cleaner production methods, such as low-carbon cement production or sustainable agricultural practices, can reduce emissions
Implementing policies like carbon pricing, emissions regulations, and incentives for renewable energy can drive the transition to net zero
Investing in research and development of new technologies, materials, and processes that produce fewer emissions is crucial for long-term sustainability
Encouraging individuals and communities to adopt sustainable practices like reducing meat consumption, using public transportation, and embracing energy-efficient habits contributes to emissions reduction

5. Net Zero vs Carbon Nuetral

Subject	Net Zero	Carbon Neutral
Definition	Achieving a balance between emissions produced and removed from the atmosphere, ideally resulting in no net emissions.	Offsetting or balancing the emissions released with an equivalent amount of emissions removed or avoided elsewhere.
Focus	Focuses on achieving a balance of overall greenhouse gas emissions, not necessarily zero emissions for all activities.	Primarily focuses on balancing carbon dioxide emissions, often through offsets or carbon credits.
Scope	Includes all greenhouse gases, not just carbon dioxide, aiming to balance the overall emissions footprint.	Primarily centered on carbon dioxide emissions, sometimes excluding other greenhouse gases.
Time frame	Doesn't necessarily imply immediate zero emissions but aims to balance emissions over time, potentially allowing some emissions with equivalent removal.	Allows for ongoing emissions if they are compensated by an equivalent amount of carbon removal or offsetting.
Strategies	Involves reducing emissions as much as possible and offsetting remaining emissions through various methods like carbon capture, afforestation, etc.	Focuses on offsetting carbon emissions through projects that remove or prevent an equivalent amount of carbon dioxide from entering the atmosphere.
Target	Generally considered a more ambitious goal as it aims to ultimately eliminate or balance all greenhouse gas emissions.	May be perceived as a less ambitious goal since it primarily targets carbon emissions and allows for offsetting rather than complete elimination.

6. Way forward

At the COP28 event, the IAEA director general also announced that a first of its kind Nuclear Energy Summit would be held in Brussels in March next year to discuss the role of nuclear energy in reducing the use of fossil fuels, enhancing energy security and boosting economic development

FREEBIES TO WELFARE

1. Context

In recent times, a lot of scholarship has emerged espousing a call to end the politics of patronage and clientelism, advocating a move away from the politics of distribution of ‘freebies’ and calling an end to the use of populist schemes

2. About Freebies

Freebies in politics are goods or services that are given away for free by political parties or candidates to win votes.
They can be anything from free food and drinks to free laptops and smartphones.
Freebies have become increasingly common in political campaigns in recent years.

The freebie culture is not new to India. It has been around for many years, but it has become more prevalent in recent years.
There are several different reasons why the freebie culture has become so popular. Some people believe that freebies are a way to help the poor, while others believe that they are a way to buy votes.
The freebie culture has several negative consequences. It can lead to unsustainable debt levels, it can distort the economy, and it can harm the poor.
The prime minister is not the only one who has spoken out against the freebie culture. Several economists and policymakers have also expressed concerns about the dangers of this culture.
There are several different ways to address the freebie culture. The government could focus on providing essential services, it could use technology to target welfare programs more effectively, or it could simply raise taxes.

3. The Perils of the Freebie Culture

They can lead to unsustainable debt levels. When governments give away free stuff, they have to find a way to pay for it. This often means increasing taxes or borrowing money. In the long run, this can lead to a debt crisis.
Freebies can distort the economy. When people get free stuff, they have less incentive to work and save. This can lead to lower economic growth.
Freebies can harm the poor. Often, freebies are not targeted at the people who need them the most. Instead, they are given to everyone, regardless of their income level. This means that the poor may not benefit from freebies at all, while the rich may benefit disproportionately.

4. Types of Freebies and Welfare Schemes

Political parties in India often promise a range of freebies and welfare schemes, such as free healthcare services, subsidized or free education, subsidized housing, free electricity or water, and distribution of essential commodities.
These schemes are designed to directly benefit certain sections of society, such as farmers, women, students, or low-income households.

5. Impact on Election Outcomes

Freebies and welfare schemes can have a significant impact on election outcomes, as they appeal to voters who may see immediate benefits from such promises.
Parties strategically target specific voter groups based on their needs and interests, aiming to secure their support and votes.

6. Criticism and Concerns

Critics argue that the distribution of freebies and welfare schemes can create a culture of dependency on the government, hinder economic growth, and lead to unsustainable fiscal policies.
There are concerns about the long-term impact on the economy, such as increased fiscal deficits, inflationary pressures, and a potential burden on future generations.

7. Effectiveness and Implementation

The effectiveness of freebies and welfare schemes varies. While some schemes have successfully reached their intended beneficiaries and improved their well-being, others have faced challenges in implementation, including corruption, mismanagement, and targeting issues.
Evaluating the implementation and impact of these schemes is crucial to assess their effectiveness.

8. Role of the Election Commission

The Election Commission of India plays a crucial role in monitoring election campaigns and enforcing the Model Code of Conduct.
It aims to ensure a level playing field for all political parties, including monitoring the distribution of freebies during elections and taking action against any violations.

9. Conclusion

For freebies and welfare in Indian elections, it is essential to analyze the potential benefits and drawbacks of such initiatives, their impact on the economy and society, and the role of responsible governance in ensuring their effective implementation while maintaining long-term sustainability.

For Prelims: freebies, Election Commission of India, Political Parties

For Mains:

1. Discuss the impact of the freebies culture and welfare schemes on Indian elections. How do these promises influence voter behaviour and election outcomes? (250 Words)

Source: The Indian Express

HYDROGEN AS A FUEL

1. Context

As India accelerates its transition to sustainable transportation, major players across sectors are embracing green hydrogen mobility. Last week, India’s first hydrogen-powered truck was deployed for mining logistics in Chhattisgarh.

2. How Does a Hydrogen Fuel Cell Work?

Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) rely on a critical component known as the hydrogen fuel cell.
This device harnesses the potential of hydrogen as a fuel source and an oxidant to produce electricity through an electrochemical process.
Essentially, the fuel cell combines hydrogen and oxygen, resulting in the generation of an electric current, with water being the sole byproduct.
Much like conventional batteries found in automobiles, hydrogen fuel cells convert chemical energy into electrical energy.
From a long-term sustainability perspective, FCEVs are positioned as the vehicles of the future, primarily due to hydrogen's status as the most abundant resource in the universe.

3. Is a Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV) a Conventional Vehicle or an Electric Vehicle (EV)?

While fuel cells generate electricity through an electrochemical process, they do not store energy like a battery-electric vehicle. Instead, they rely on a continuous supply of fuel and oxygen, similar to how an internal combustion engine depends on a constant supply of petrol or diesel and oxygen. This similarity to conventional vehicles is further emphasized by the absence of moving parts in the fuel cell, making them more efficient and reliable. Additionally, there is no combustion on board in the traditional sense.

Globally, electric vehicles (EVs) are categorized into three main types:

Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs): These vehicles, like the Nissan Leaf or Tesla Model S, do not have an internal combustion engine or fuel tank. They operate solely on a fully electric drivetrain powered by rechargeable batteries.
Conventional Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs): Examples include the Toyota Camry. These vehicles combine a conventional internal combustion engine with an electric propulsion system, resulting in a hybrid drivetrain that significantly reduces fuel use. The onboard battery in a conventional hybrid is charged when the internal combustion engine is powering the drivetrain.
Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs): Examples include the Chevrolet Volt. These vehicles also have a hybrid drivetrain that uses both an internal combustion engine and electric power for motive power. They are backed by rechargeable batteries that can be plugged into a power source.
Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs), such as Toyota's Mirai and Honda's Clarity, use hydrogen to power an onboard electric motor. While they are powered entirely by electricity, FCEVs are considered EVs. However, unlike BEVs, their range and refuelling processes are comparable to those of conventional cars and trucks.

4. Applications of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Technology

The market for hydrogen fuel cell vehicles is primarily led by Japan's Toyota and Honda, alongside South Korea's Hyundai.
The successful development of hydrogen fuel cells presents opportunities for energy in transportation and electric power, with a key advantage being the widespread availability of resources for producing hydrogen.
Japan's Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry (METI) published a 'Strategic Roadmap for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells' in 2014, with a revised update in March 2016, aiming to achieve a hydrogen society.
Stationary fuel cells, which are the largest and most powerful fuel cells, are being designed to provide a cleaner and more reliable source of on-site power to hospitals, banks, airports, and homes.
A fuel cell can continue to produce energy as long as fuel and oxidant are supplied. Portable fuel cells could also find applications beyond vehicles.
Fuel cell electric vehicles are the most user-friendly zero-emission solution in Norway. The necessary infrastructure, securing several zero-emission alternatives to choose from, and meeting the demand for H2 fuel conveniently at the lowest possible cost for the consumer.

5. Advantages and Disadvantages of Fuel Cells

Advantages

Reduced Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Fuel cells produce significantly fewer greenhouse gases compared to conventional combustion-based technologies used in power plants and cars.
Zero Air Pollutants: They do not emit air pollutants that cause health problems.
Clean Byproducts: When pure hydrogen is used, fuel cells emit only heat and water as byproducts.
High Energy Efficiency: Fuel cells are more energy efficient than traditional combustion technologies.
No Need for Charging: Unlike battery-powered electric vehicles, fuel cell vehicles do not need to be plugged in. Most models exceed 300 km of range on a full tank and can be refuelled with a nozzle, similar to petrol or diesel stations.

Disadvantages

Energy Intensive Production: The process of making hydrogen often requires energy from fossil fuel sources, raising questions about hydrogen's green credentials.
Safety Concerns: Hydrogen is more explosive than petrol, although modern fuel cell vehicles use highly durable carbon fibre tanks that undergo rigorous safety testing.
Cost: Fuel cell vehicles are currently expensive, and fuel dispensing pumps are scarce. However, this is expected to improve with scale and distribution.
Infrastructure Challenges: The availability of hydrogen fueling stations is limited, which can be a barrier to widespread adoption.
Cost of Hydrogen Production: Reducing the cost of hydrogen production to make it cheaper than natural gas is a significant challenge that needs to be addressed.

Japan is investing heavily in fuel cell technology, aiming to reduce costs and improve infrastructure to make hydrogen fuel cells a viable and environmentally friendly alternative to traditional combustion engines.

6. Progress in India with Hydrogen Fuel Cell Technology

In India, the current definition of electric vehicles (EVs) only includes battery electric vehicles (BEVs). The government has reduced taxes on EVs to 12%. However, hybrid electric vehicles and hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) are taxed at 43%, the same rate as internal combustion (IC) vehicles.
Under the Research, Development, and Demonstration (RD&D) program of the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, various projects related to hydrogen and fuel cells are being supported. Currently, 14 RD&D projects are under implementation, with eight projects sanctioned and 18 completed between 2016-17 and 2018-19.
The Ministry of Science and Technology has also supported two networked centres focused on hydrogen storage. These centres are led by IIT Bombay and the Nonferrous Materials Technology Development Centre in Hyderabad, involving 10 institutions, including IITs and IISc Bangalore.

7. The Way Forward

By addressing the challenges and proactively implementing the proposed solutions, India can pave the way for a future powered by clean and sustainable hydrogen fuel cells. The success of India's first hydrogen fuel cell ferry serves as a stepping stone, but significant efforts are needed to transform this technology into a mainstream solution for a cleaner tomorrow.

For Prelims: hydrogen fuel cell, Inland Waterways Authority of India, Fuel cell electric vehicles

For Mains:

1. Explain the operation of hydrogen fuel cells and their role in fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs), comparing them to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles and battery electric vehicles (BEVs). (250 Words)

2. Discuss the potential impact of hydrogen fuel cell technology on India's energy security, environmental sustainability, and economic development, considering its role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and promoting clean energy solutions. (250 Words)

Previous Year Questions

1. With reference to 'fuel cells' in which hydrogen-rich fuel and oxygen are used to generate electricity, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2015)

1. If pure hydrogen is used as a fuel, the fuel cell emits heat and water as by-products.

2. Fuel cells can be used for powering buildings and not for small devices like laptop computers.

3. Fuel cells produce electricity in the form of Alternating Current (AC)

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3

2. With reference to green hydrogen, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2023)

1. It can be used directly as a fuel for internal combustion.

2. It can be blended with natural gas and used as fuel for heat or power generation.

3. It can be used in the hydrogen fuel cell to run vehicles.

How many of the above statements are correct?

A. Only one B. Only two C. All three D. None

3. As per Inland Waterways Authority of India, what is the approximate total length of navigable Inland waterways of India? (NTPC 2021)

A. 12400 km B. 15600 km C. 13600 km D. 14500 km

Answers: 1-A, 2-C, 3-D

Source: The Indian Express

AIR POLLUTION

1. Context

The Centre’s Make in India initiative has boosted the morale of the country’s youth. From space technologies and the Moon Mission to Covid-19 vaccines and Vande Bharat trains, the country has proved its mettle. However, when it comes to improving air quality and mitigating the health impacts of pollution, we lag behind

2. Air Pollution and its severity

According to the International Energy Associates, road transport accounts for 12% of India’s CO2 emissions, with heavy vehicles being the primary source of Particulate Matter (PM) 2.5 emissions. PM2.5 consists of tiny particles that can penetrate deeply into the lungs and enter the bloodstream, leading to various respiratory and cardiovascular issues. Heavy vehicles also play a major role in emitting Nitrogen Oxide (NOx), which has similar health effects. NOx contributes to the formation of ground-level ozone, which degrades air quality and increases heat, exacerbating air pollution in urban areas. Research shows that heavy vehicles are responsible for approximately 60-70% of vehicular PM emissions and about 40-50% of NOx emissions in cities

3. Measures to Control Air Pollution

With the transport sector expanding at a rate of 9.1% annually, the Bureau of Energy Efficiency’s (BEE) effort to develop draft Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards for cars in India is both timely and commendable.
The planned implementation timelines for CAFE III (2027-2032) and CAFE IV (2032-2037) are practical. Transitioning from the Modified India Driving Cycle (MIDC) to the World Light Duty Vehicle Testing Procedure (WLTP) starting March 31, 2027, is a positive move, as the WLTP provides a more accurate and globally standardized assessment of a vehicle's fuel consumption and CO2 emissions.
The proposed emissions targets under CAFE III at 91.7g CO2/km and CAFE IV at 70g CO2/km are achievable. These stringent CO2 targets are crucial for fostering innovation and promoting the adoption of cleaner technologies.
For the benefit of both the environment and public health, these targets should remain firm.
However, it is important to note that the CAFE norms do not cover emissions from heavy vehicles such as trucks and lorries

4. Government Initiatives to Control air pollution

In 2022, the government launched a vehicle scrappage policy aimed at retiring old and polluting vehicles, including heavy-duty ones. The policy requires passenger vehicles older than 20 years and commercial vehicles older than 15 years to pass a “fitness and emissions test.”
Vehicles that fail these tests are deemed end-of-life, lose their registration certificates, and are recommended for scrapping.
However, the policy has not yet been effectively implemented in Karnataka due to the limited number of scrapyards (only two in the entire state) and its voluntary nature.
In Bangalore, many older vehicles are not four-wheelers but include older BMTC buses, private vans, and heavy vehicles.
Maharashtra, among 21 states, has introduced incentives like road tax discounts or new vehicle purchase reductions to promote scrapping, but these measures have yet to significantly impact air pollution. It is crucial for policymakers to ensure that these guidelines are not just theoretically sound but practically enforced.
Current government measures to address air pollution—such as regular vehicle emissions testing, banning open garbage burning, and monitoring industrial emissions—must be strictly enforced.
While the government's efforts to reduce air pollution are commendable, it is important to emphasize that expanding mass transit is essential for a sustainable approach to tackling air pollution in India

For Prelims: National Clean Air Programme, Air Pollution, Particulate Matter, Clean Air Action Plans

For Mains:

1. What are the challenges and opportunities presented by the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) for improving air quality in Indian cities? Discuss the measures required to overcome implementation hurdles and ensure the effective management of air pollution. (250 Words)

Previous Year Questions

1. In the cities of our country, which among the following atmospheric gases are normally considered in calculating the value of Air Quality Index? (UPSC 2016)

Carbon dioxide
Carbon monoxide
Nitrogen dioxide
Sulfur dioxide
Methane

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

A. 1, 2 and 3 only B. 2, 3 and 4 only C. 1, 4 and 5 only D. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

2. Which of the following are the reasons/factors for exposure to benzene pollution? (UPSC 2020)

Automobile exhaust
Tobacco smoke
Wood burning
Using varnished wooden furniture
Using products made of polyurethane

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

A. 1, 2 and 3 only B. 2 and 4 only C. 1, 3 and 4 only D. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

3. What is the ‘Greenhouse Gas Protocol’? (UPSC 2016)

(a) It is an international accounting tool for government and business leaders to understand, quantify and manage greenhouse gas emissions

(b) It is an initiative of the United Nations to offer financial incentives to developing countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to adopt eco-friendly technologies.

(c) It is an inter-governmental agreement ratified by all the member countries of the United Nations to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to specified levels by the year 2022

(d) It is one of the multilateral REDD+ initiatives hosted by the World Bank

4. Photochemical smog is a resultant of the reaction among (UPSC 2013)

(a) NO2, O3 and peroxyacetyl nitrate in the presence of sunlight

(b) CO, O2 and peroxyacetyl nitrate in the presence of sunlight

(d) high concentration of NO2 O3 and CO in the evening

5. Acid rain is caused by the pollution of the environment (UPSC 2013, 2022)

(a) Carbon Dioxide and Nitrogen

(b) Carbon Monoxide and Carbon Dioxide

(d) Nitrous Oxide and Sulphur Dioxide

6. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a standard criterion for (UPSC 2017)

(a) Measuring oxygen level in blood

(b) Computing oxygen levels in forest ecosystems

(d) Assessing oxygen levels in high-altitude regions

7. The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change recently published the draft Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification, in 2020. Which of the following statements is correct about EIA? (Punjab Civil Service 2020)

1. It predicts the effect of a proposed industrial/infrastructural project on the environment.

2. It prevents the proposed activity/project from being approved without proper oversight or taking adverse consequences into account.

3. It compares various alternatives for a project and seeks to identify the one which represents the best combination of economic and environmental costs and benefits.

4. As per the new notification, Coal and non-Coal mineral prospecting and solar photovoltaic projects do not need prior environmental clearance.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

A. Only 1 and 2

B. Only 2, 3 and 4

C. Only 1, 2 and 3

D. Only 1, 2 and 4

8. Headquarters of the World Meteorological Organization is located in (NDA 2017)

A. Washington B. Geneva C. Moscow D. London

9. With reference to the 'Global Climate Change Alliance', which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2017)

1. It is an initiative of the European Union.

2. It provides technical and financial support to targeted developing countries to integrate climate change into their development policies and budgets.

3. It is coordinated by World Resources Institute (WRI) and World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD)

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

A. 1 and 2 only B. 3 only C. 2 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3

10. The IPCC is the United Nations body for assessing the science related to climate change. IPCC stands for: (RRB NTPC CBT 2 2022)

A. Intergovernmental Provision on Climate Change

B. International Panel on Climate Change

C. International Provision on Climate Change

D. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

11. Comprehension (SSC CHSL 2020)

Direction: In the following passage some words have been deleted. Fill in the blanks with the help of the alternatives given. Select the most appropriate option for each blank.

Forest fire always (1) ______ by one of two reasons-naturally caused or human-caused. Natural fire is generally (2) ______ by lightning, with a very small percentage (3) ______ by spontaneous combustion of dry fuel such as sawdust and leaves. (4) ______, human-caused fire can happen (5) ______ any number of reasons.

Select the most appropriate option for blank No. 1.

A. takes up B. happens C. causes D. creates

12. Which of the following statements best describes the term 'Social Cost of Carbon'? It is a measure, in monetary value, of the (UPSC 2020)

A. long-term damage done by a tonne of CO2 emission in a given year.

B. requirement of fossil fuels for a country to provide goods and services to its citizens, based on the burning of those fuels.

C. efforts put in by a climate refugee to adapt to live in a new place.

D. contribution of an individual person to the carbon footprint on the planet Earth.

13. The increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the air is slowly raising the temperature of the atmosphere, because it absorbs (UPSC 2012)

A. the water vapour of the air and retains its heat

B. the ultraviolet part of the solar radiation

C. all the solar radiations

D. the infrared part of the solar radiation

14. As per the World Health Organisation (WHO) recommendation of a balanced diet, to avoid unhealthy weight gain, total fat should NOT exceed _______ of total energy intake. (UPSSSC Mandi Inspector 2019)

A. 20% B. 30% C. 10% D. 40%

15. What is the role of ultraviolet (UV) radiation in the water purification systems? (UPSC 2012)

1. It inactivates/kills the harmful microorganisms in water.

2. It removes all the undesirable odours from the water.

3. It quickens the sedimentation of solid particles, removes turbidity and improves the clarity of water.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3

16. Which of the following ultraviolet rays is more dangerous? (UPTET 2017)

A. UV-A B. UV-B C. UV-C D. None of the above

17. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2019)

1. Agricultural soils release nitrogen oxides into environment.

2. Cattle release ammonia into environment.

3. Poultry industry releases reactive nitrogen compounds into environment.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

A. 1 and 3 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 2 only D. 1, 2 and 3

18. Which of the following is a VOC? (MP Vyapam 2022)

A. Toulene B. Water C. Carbon dioxide D. Carbon monoxide

19. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are of great concern because (UGC NET Environmental Science 2020)

A. Once such compounds are in the vapour state, they are difficult to control in the environment.

B. Most of them are ozone-depleting substances

C. They contribute to a general increase in reactive hydrocarbons in the atmosphere.

D. They are less soluble in water.

Answers: 1-B, 2-A, 3-A, 4-A, 5-D, 6-C, 7-D, 8-B, 9-A, 10-D, 11-B, 12-A, 13-D, 14-B, 15-A, 16-C, 17-D, 18-A, 19-C

Source: The Hindu

CASTE CENSUS

1. Context

When the colonial administration completed the 1931 Census, it left behind more than just a ledger of heads. The Raj used enumeration to crystallise hierarchies and transmute prejudice into “empirical” fact. It was conducted at a time when the capacity of the census to deal with a complex social system like caste was questionable, especially in princely states, which accounted for more than one-third of India

2. What is the Caste Census?

A caste census is a comprehensive survey or data collection effort that aims to gather detailed information about the caste composition of a population. This typically involves:

Counting individuals belonging to different caste groups
Collecting socio-economic data related to caste categories
Assessing the representation of various castes in different sectors

The caste system is particularly relevant in India, where it has historically played a significant role in social stratification. A caste census can provide insights into:

Population distribution across caste groups
Economic status of different castes
Educational levels and employment patterns
Representation in government jobs and political positions

In India, the last comprehensive caste census was conducted in 1931 during British rule. Since then, calls for a new caste census have been made periodically, with proponents arguing it would help in formulating more targeted welfare policies and ensuring equitable representation.

3. Why the Caste Census?

Historically, British India’s censuses from 1881 to 1931 recorded all castes. Post-Independence, the 1951 census excluded caste enumeration, except for SCs and STs, which continued to be recorded in every census. In 1961, the government allowed states to conduct their own OBC surveys and create state-specific OBC lists, as there were no central reservations for OBCs at that time

A caste census is essential for several reasons:

Social Necessity: Caste remains a fundamental social framework in India. Inter-caste marriages were just 5% in 2011-12. Caste surnames and markers are common, residential areas are segregated by caste, and caste influences the selection of election candidates and cabinet ministers.
Legal Necessity: Effective implementation of constitutionally mandated social justice policies, including reservations in elections, education, and public employment, requires detailed caste data. Despite the Constitution using the term 'class,' Supreme Court rulings have established caste as a significant criterion for defining a backward class, necessitating comprehensive caste-wise data to uphold reservation policies.
Administrative Necessity: Detailed caste data helps correct wrongful inclusions and exclusions within reserved categories, prevents dominant castes from monopolizing reserved benefits, and is essential for sub-categorizing castes and determining the creamy layer's income/wealth criteria.
Moral Necessity: The lack of detailed caste data has allowed a small elite among upper castes and dominant OBCs to disproportionately control the nation's resources, income, and power

4. Arguments against the Caste Census

There are several arguments against conducting a caste census:

Social Division: Some argue that a caste census would exacerbate social divisions, although India's social hierarchies have existed for nearly 3,000 years, predating census efforts. Since 1951, counting SCs and STs has not led to conflicts among these groups. Moreover, India’s census already includes data on religion, language, and region, which are equally, if not more, divisive than caste. Ignoring caste in the census will not eliminate casteism any more than excluding religion, language, and region data will eradicate communalism and regionalism.
Administrative Challenge: Some claim that a caste census would be administratively complex. However, unlike the concept of race, which can be ambiguous but is still counted in many countries like the U.S., caste identification in India is relatively clear. The government has successfully enumerated 1,234 SC castes and 698 ST tribes. Therefore, counting the approximately 4,000 other castes, most of which are specific to certain states, should not pose an insurmountable challenge.
Increased Reservation Demands: Critics suggest that a caste census could lead to more demands for reservations. However, detailed caste data could actually help manage these demands more effectively by providing a factual basis for discussions. This would enable policymakers to address reservation claims more objectively, such as those from Marathas, Patidars, and Jats. In contrast, governments often prefer vague data because it allows them to make arbitrary reservation decisions for electoral gain

5. The Case for Other Backward Caste (OBC) in Census

The Constitution allows reservations for OBCs in education (Article 15(4)) and public employment (Article 16(4)), similar to SCs and STs. Following the Mandal Commission's recommendations, OBCs also benefit from reservations in the Central government and its undertakings. The Supreme Court's ruling in the Indra Sawhney case (1992) emphasized that the OBC list, originally based on the 1931 Census, should be updated regularly.
Unlike SCs and STs, OBCs do not have reserved electoral constituencies for MPs and MLAs. However, the 73rd and 74th Constitutional amendments (1993) introduced reservations for OBCs in panchayats and municipalities (Articles 243D(6) and 243T(6)). To implement this effectively, detailed caste and area-wise Census data of OBCs is necessary, which the government should have collected in the 2001 Census but did not.
When states like Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Odisha, and Jharkhand attempted to implement OBC reservations in local elections, courts halted these efforts due to the lack of caste-wise OBC data. The judiciary demands this data to uphold reservations, while the executive has avoided collecting it.
In contrast, the Supreme Court upheld the 10% reservation for economically weaker sections (EWS) among non-OBCs, SCs, and STs (mainly upper castes) in 2022 without empirical support. Given the EWS reservation, the Census should now include all castes, as it did until 1931.
Though the Census is a Union subject, the Collection of Statistics Act, 2008, allows States and local bodies to collect relevant data. States like Karnataka (2015) and Bihar (2023) have conducted caste surveys, but Census data holds more authority and is less disputed. The government's reluctance to include caste in the Census is both legally indefensible and administratively imprudent

6. Failures attempts of Caste Census

After extensive lobbying by OBC leaders, Parliament unanimously resolved in 2010, with support from both Congress and BJP, to include caste enumeration in the 2011 Census. The last such enumeration was in the 1931 Census, which recorded 4,147 castes in India, excluding the depressed classes/untouchables.
However, the Socio-Economic and Caste Census (SECC) of 2011 was poorly designed and executed, resulting in an absurd figure of 4.6 million castes, and its results were never released.
The failure of SECC-2011 can be attributed to its conduct outside the framework of the Census Act, 1948, which was not amended to include caste as a parameter. Instead, it was managed by the Union Ministries of Rural Development and Urban Development, which lacked experience in conducting sociological surveys.
Additionally, the questionnaire was poorly designed with open-ended questions about caste, causing confusion among enumerators who struggled to differentiate between genuine castes, alternative names, larger caste groups, sub-castes, surnames, clan names, and gotras. In contrast, Bihar's 2023 Caste Survey provided a list of 214 specific caste names, with a 215th category labeled "Other Castes," resulting in more accurate data.
Despite the 2010 unanimous Parliamentary resolution, the Central government announced in 2021 that it would not include caste enumeration in the next Census.
It maintained this stance before the Supreme Court in response to a case filed by the Maharashtra government seeking the inclusion of OBCs in the 2021 Census. The Supreme Court's dismissal of Maharashtra's plea in December 2021 is contentious, given its own previous rulings

7. Way Forward

To address the failures of the SECC-2011, the Census Act of 1948 should be amended to mandate caste enumeration, removing the discretion from the Union executive. Caste should be included in the regular Census conducted by the Census Commissioner, with a few relevant questions added to the questionnaire. The government should also involve sociological and anthropological experts to create a draft list of castes specific to each state, publish this draft online for public feedback, and finalize it before distributing it to enumerators. The questionnaire should include questions about the respondent's sub-caste, caste, larger caste group, and caste surname. Using internet-enabled handheld devices preloaded with this information and limiting the enumerators' role to selecting the correct option will streamline the process and ensure accuracy.

States interested in caste enumeration should petition the Supreme Court to review its 2021 judgment. It is illogical to base OBC reservations on 1931 Census data and EWS reservations on no empirical data. The next Census must include caste enumeration

For Prelims: Socio-economic and caste census (SECC), Mandal Commission, Justice G Rohini's Commission, NITI Aayog, Article 341 and Article 342.

For Mains: 1. General Studies II: Welfare schemes for vulnerable sections of the population by the Centre and States and the performance of these schemes; mechanisms, laws, institutions and Bodies constituted for the protection and betterment of these vulnerable sections

Source: The Hindu

SAFE HARBOUR

1. Context

In written submissions to the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Communication and Information Technology, the Union Ministry of Information and Broadcasting said that it is reconsidering the concept of safe harbour for social media platforms, to combat the issue of “fake news” online

2. What is Safe Harbour?

The concept of safe harbour in law offers legal protection to websites that host user-generated content, shielding them from liability for unlawful material posted by third parties.
Introduced during the early development of the internet, it was designed to foster online innovation and prevent platform operators from being held accountable for content they neither created nor controlled.
This legal area is often referred to as intermediary liability, where safe harbour acts as a safeguard, generally exempting platforms from criminal responsibility for third-party content they host.
In the United States, these protections are embedded in Section 230 of the Communications Act of 1934, which was amended in 1996 to include these provisions. India has a comparable legal framework in Section 79 of the Information Technology Act, 2000, which similarly grants immunity to intermediaries under certain conditions.
However, these protections are conditional. Under Indian law, if an intermediary is made aware of illegal content—interpreted by the Supreme Court to mean either a court directive or official government notice—they must act promptly to remove it. Failing to do so results in the loss of their legal shield under Section 79.
Without the backing of safe harbour laws, digital platforms could face severe repercussions for content uploaded by users. A notable example occurred in 2004, when the head of eBay India was arrested after a user listed a disk containing child sexual abuse material for sale on the site

3. Intermediary liability protections

Although safe harbour comes with certain conditions, the Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021 introduced further requirements for digital platforms to maintain their protection from intermediary liability.
Under these rules, social media companies must appoint both a nodal contact person and a grievance officer based in India. They are also obligated to regularly publish transparency reports detailing user complaints and the actions taken in response.
Several aspects of the IT Rules have faced legal challenges over the past few years. For instance, in 2023, the government introduced amendments to the rules, granting the Press Information Bureau’s fact-checking unit the authority to label content as “fake news.”
Under this provision, platforms could lose their safe harbour status if they failed to take down such flagged content.
This amendment was quickly contested in court, notably by comedian Kunal Kamra, who filed a petition in the Bombay High Court. The petitioners argued that the government had overstepped its mandate by empowering a fact-checking body to act as a judge of truth, thereby pressuring social media platforms to remove content without issuing formal notices to users.
The Bombay High Court ruled in favor of Kamra, though the government has appealed the decision

4. Amending the safe harbour clause

The Indian government has criticized international social media companies for allegedly violating local regulations and responding too slowly to content removal requests. Prior to Elon Musk’s acquisition of Twitter (now called X), the platform frequently clashed with the central government over directives to restrict access to certain user content.
Even under Musk’s ownership, X has continued to challenge the government's authority to block or remove content without informing users, taking the matter to the Karnataka High Court.
In its efforts to push for stricter platform accountability, the Union government has proposed revisions to the safe harbour framework, aiming to compel tech companies to play a more active role in regulating not only misinformation but also AI-generated deepfakes, online scams, and similar threats.
In the United States, Section 230 of the Communications Act has come under scrutiny from both political sides—President Joe Biden’s administration has advocated scaling back these protections to hold platforms more accountable for extremist content, while former President Donald Trump criticized the law over claims of bias against conservative viewpoints

5. Way Forward

The Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology has indicated that it would draft a Digital India Act (DIA) that would incorporate these changes, but the outlines of how safe harbour would change under this proposed law have not yet been revealed. Moreover, no DIA draft law has been released yet

For Prelims: Cyber Crime, Artificial Intelligence, Internet of Things, Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre, National Cybercrime Reporting Portal, Budapest Convention, Global Cybersecurity Index, International Telecommunication union

For Mains:

1. India witnesses a high number of cybercrimes originating from Southeast Asia. Analyze the challenges this poses for Indian Law Enforcement Agencies and suggest measures to improve cross-border cooperation in tackling cybercrime. (250 words)

2. What are the key functions of the Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C)? Critically evaluate its effectiveness in combating cybercrime in India. (250 words)

3. The rise of Internet of Things (IoT) devices introduces new vulnerabilities in cyberspace. Analyze the cybersecurity challenges posed by IoT and suggest measures to mitigate these risks. (250 words)

Previous Year Questions

1. In India, under cyber insurance for individuals, which of the following benefits are generally covered, in addition to payment for the loss of funds and other benefits? (UPSC 2020)

1. Cost of restoration of the computer system in case of malware disrupting access to one's computer

2. Cost of a new computer if some miscreant wilfully damages it, if proved so

3. Cost of hiring a specialized consultant to minimize the loss in case of cyber extortion

4. Cost of defence in the Court of Law if any third party files a suit

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

A.1, 2 and 4 only B.1, 3 and 4 only C.2 and 3 only D.1, 2, 3 and 4

2. Global Cyber Security Index (GCI) 2020 is released by which of the following organizations? (RRB Clerk Mains 2021)

A. World Bank

B. United Nations Development Programme

C. International Telecommunication Union

D. World Economic Forum

E. None of these

Answers: 1-D, 2-C

Source: The Hindu

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Current Affair

SINGLE-USE PLASTIC

Mismanaged Waste

Source: The Hindu

NET ZERO

FREEBIES TO WELFARE

1. Context

2. About Freebies

3. The Perils of the Freebie Culture

4. Types of Freebies and Welfare Schemes

5. Impact on Election Outcomes

6. Criticism and Concerns

7. Effectiveness and Implementation

8. Role of the Election Commission

9. Conclusion

HYDROGEN AS A FUEL

AIR POLLUTION

CASTE CENSUS

SAFE HARBOUR

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