The Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) of 2019 is a controversial piece of legislation enacted by the Government of India on December 12, 2019. The act amends the Citizenship Act of 1955 to provide a pathway to Indian citizenship for certain religious minorities from neighbouring countries.

Key features of the Citizenship Amendment Act include

• Eligibility Criteria: The CAA grants eligibility for Indian citizenship to Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Parsi, and Christian migrants who arrived in India from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Pakistan on or before December 31, 2014, and have faced religious persecution on their home countries.
• Exclusion of Muslims: Notably, the CAA excludes Muslims from its purview, leading to criticisms of religious discrimination and accusations of violating the secular principles enshrined in the Indian Constitution.
• Criticism and Protests: The Citizenship Amendment Act sparked widespread protests across India, with critics arguing that the act undermines the secular fabric of the nation and discriminates against Muslims. Protesters also raised concerns about the potential marginalisation of Muslim communities and the exclusionary nature of the legislation.
• Support from Government: The government defended the Citizenship Amendment Act, asserting that it aims to provide refuge and protection to persecuted religious minorities from neighbouring countries. The government argued that the act does not infringe upon the rights of Indian Muslims and is in line with the country's secular ethos.
• Legal Challenges: Several petitions challenging the constitutional validity of the Citizenship Amendment Act were filed in the Supreme Court of India. The court has heard arguments from both sides and is expected to deliver its judgment on the matter.

The Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) of 2019 has sparked various concerns and criticisms, both domestically within India and internationally. 

• One of the primary concerns regarding the CAA is its exclusion of Muslims from the list of religious minorities eligible for citizenship under the act. Critics argue that this selective approach based on religion goes against the secular principles enshrined in India's constitution and promotes religious discrimination.
• The CAA's focus on granting citizenship based on religious identity raises concerns about the secular nature of India's democracy. Critics argue that the act undermines the inclusive and pluralistic ethos of the country by favouring specific religious communities.
• Opponents of the CAA fear that the act, coupled with other proposed policies like the National Register of Citizens (NRC) and National Population Register (NPR), could have implications for the demographic composition of India. They raise concerns about the marginalisation and exclusion of certain communities, particularly Muslims, and the potential for statelessness among vulnerable populations.
• The constitutionality of the Citizenship Amendment Act has been challenged in the Supreme Court of India. Critics argue that the act violates the fundamental rights guaranteed by the Indian Constitution, including the right to equality and non-discrimination.
• The implementation of the CAA has led to social and political polarization within India. The act has become a contentious issue, leading to protests, debates, and divisions along religious and ideological lines.
• The CAA has also attracted international attention and scrutiny, with concerns raised by human rights organizations and foreign governments regarding religious freedom, minority rights, and the potential impact on vulnerable communities.

5. The Indian ideas and rules of citizenship in the Constitution before the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA), 2019

Before the enactment of the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) in 2019, the principles and rules of citizenship in India were primarily governed by the Constitution of India, which came into effect on January 26, 1950. The Constitution lays down the framework for citizenship and enshrines certain fundamental rights and principles related to citizenship. 

• Citizenship by Birth: According to Article 5 of the Indian Constitution, any person born in India on or after January 26, 1950, but before July 1, 1987, was automatically considered a citizen of India by birth, regardless of the nationality of their parents.
• Citizenship by Descent: Individuals born outside India on or after January 26, 1950, but before July 1, 1987, were eligible for Indian citizenship if either of their parents was a citizen of India at the time of their birth.
• Citizenship by Registration: The Constitution provides provisions for certain categories of persons to acquire Indian citizenship through registration. This includes persons of Indian origin who have resided in India for a specified period and meet other criteria prescribed by law.
• Citizenship by Naturalization: Foreigners who have resided in India for a specified period and fulfilled other conditions prescribed by law were eligible to apply for Indian citizenship through naturalization.
• Citizenship by Incorporation of Territory: Any territory that became part of India through accession or merger automatically conferred Indian citizenship on its inhabitants as per the provisions of the Constitution.
• Fundamental Rights: The Constitution guarantees certain fundamental rights to all citizens of India, regardless of their religion, ethnicity, or place of birth. These rights include the right to equality, freedom of speech and expression, freedom of religion, and the right to life and personal liberty.

• Citizenship Act, 1955: This act, enacted based on the Constitution's provisions, outlined ways to acquire Indian citizenship. Here are the main routes:

  • Birth: Being born in India (with some limitations) granted citizenship.
  • Descent: Children born to Indian parents abroad could become citizens.
  • Registration: People of Indian origin residing in India for seven years could register.
  • Naturalization: Foreigners meeting specific residency requirements could apply for naturalization.

The Indian Constitution before the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) of 2019 outlined principles of citizenship that were based on inclusivity, equality, and non-discrimination, with provisions for acquiring citizenship through birth, descent, registration, naturalization, and territorial incorporation. The CAA introduced amendments to these principles, particularly regarding eligibility for citizenship based on religious identity.

6. Section 6A of the Citizenship Act

Section 6A is a special provision inserted into the Indian Citizenship Act, 1955, in 1985, as part of the Assam Accord. It deals with the citizenship of people who migrated to Assam from Bangladesh:

• It applies to people who entered Assam on or after January 1, 1966, but before March 25, 1971.
• It grants citizenship to these people if they can prove that they were "ordinarily resident" in Assam on March 24, 1971.
• People who claim citizenship under Section 6A must apply to a Foreigners Tribunal. The Tribunal will then decide whether or not to grant them citizenship based on the evidence they provide.

7. What does NRC mean?

• NRC stands for the National Register of Citizens. It is a register maintained by the Government of India containing names and certain relevant information for the identification of Indian citizens in the state of Assam.
• The purpose of the NRC is to create a list of genuine Indian citizens residing in Assam and identify individuals who are not legal residents of the state.
• The NRC process in Assam has its origins in the Assam Accord of 1985, which aimed to address the issue of illegal immigration from Bangladesh and determine the citizenship status of individuals living in Assam.
• The NRC process requires individuals to provide documentary evidence to prove their citizenship based on criteria set by the government.
• The NRC process involves extensive documentation and verification to establish citizenship status, and it has been a contentious issue due to its impact on individuals' rights and concerns about exclusion and discrimination.
• The implementation of the NRC in Assam has led to debates, legal challenges, and social tensions regarding citizenship and immigration issues in India.

8. What is NPR?

• NPR stands for the National Population Register. It is a register of usual residents of India, which includes both citizens and non-citizens who have resided in a local area for at least six months or intend to stay for the next six months or more.
• The NPR is prepared at the local, sub-district, district, state, and national levels under the provisions of the Citizenship Act, 1955, and the Citizenship (Registration of Citizens and Issue of National Identity Cards) Rules, 2003.
• The main purpose of the NPR is to create a comprehensive identity database of residents in India. It collects demographic and biometric information to establish the identity of individuals and households.
• The data collected in the NPR includes details such as name, age, gender, marital status, occupation, educational qualification, address, and other relevant information.
• The NPR process involves house-to-house enumeration and collection of data by government officials or designated enumerators. The data collected is used for various purposes, including government planning, policy formulation, and social welfare schemes.
• It's important to note that the NPR is distinct from the National Register of Citizens (NRC). While the NPR focuses on creating a comprehensive database of residents, the NRC specifically deals with determining the citizenship status of individuals, particularly in the state of Assam, based on documentary evidence.
• The NPR has been a topic of discussion and debate in India, with concerns raised about privacy, data security, and potential misuse of information.

9. The difference between the NRC, NPR and CAA 

10. Is NPR connected to NRC?

11. Who are ‘Citizens’?

In general terms, citizens are individuals who hold citizenship in a particular country. Citizenship is a legal status that grants individuals certain rights, privileges, and responsibilities within the nation-state to which they belong. The concept of citizenship varies across different countries, but some common characteristics of citizenship include.

1. Legal Recognition: Citizens are legally recognized members of a country or state. They are entitled to the protection of the state and have access to its legal system.
2. Rights and Privileges: Citizens typically enjoy certain rights and privileges that non-citizens may not have, such as the right to vote, the right to work and reside in the country, access to social services, and the right to participate in the political process.
3. Responsibilities: Along with rights and privileges, citizenship also entails certain responsibilities, such as obeying the laws of the country, paying taxes, serving on juries if called upon, and sometimes participating in military service.
4. National Identity: Citizenship often involves a sense of national identity and belonging to a particular community or nation. This can include shared cultural, historical, and linguistic ties that bind citizens together.
5. Acquisition and Loss: Citizenship can be acquired through birth (jus soli or jus sanguinis), naturalization, or descent from a citizen parent. It can also be lost or renounced voluntarily or involuntarily, depending on the laws of the country.

 

INCOME TAX

 

1.Context

An analysis of firms which feature among the top purchasers of electoral bonds throws up many curious patterns. One of the common links is that a significant number of companies in the top donor list were under the scanner of the Enforcement Directorate or the Income Tax (I-T) Department at some point of time in the past five years

2.Income Tax

The term “income tax” refers to a type of tax that governments impose on income generated by businesses and individuals within their jurisdiction. By law, taxpayers must file an income tax return annually to determine their tax obligations.

3.History of Tax

• The United States imposed the nation's first income tax in 1862 to help finance the Civil War. After the war, the tax was repealed, but it was reinstated after the passage of the Revenue Act of 1913. That same year, Form 1040 was introduced.
• Most countries, including the U.S., employ a progressive income tax system in which higher-income earners pay a higher tax rate compared with their lower-income counterparts. The idea behind the progressive tax is that those who earn high incomes can afford to pay more taxes. In 2022, federal income tax rates range from 10% to 37%.

 4.Purpose of Tax

Income taxes are a source of revenue for governments. They are used to fund public services, pay government obligations, and provide goods for citizens.

The personal income tax that the government collects can help fund government programs and services, such as Social Security, national security, schools, and roads

Investment exempted from Income Tax Certain investments, like housing authority bonds, tend to be exempt from income taxes

5.Types of Income Tax

5.1.Individual Income Tax

Individual income tax is also referred to as personal income tax. This type of income tax is levied on an individual’s wages, salaries, and other types of income. This tax is usually a tax that the state imposes.

5.2.Business Income Tax

Businesses also pay income taxes on their earnings. Depending on the business structure, the corporation, its owners, or shareholders report their business income and then deduct their operating and capital expenses.

5.3.State and Local Income Tax

State income tax is a direct tax levied by a state on income earned in or from the state

5.4.What percent of income is taxed

The percent of your income that is taxed depends on how much you earn and your filing status. In theory, the more you earn, the more you pay.

 

 

For Mains:  1.Discuss the various modes of generation of income tax.

 

 

 

Source:investopedia

 

AGNI-V 

 

 

 

1. Context

 

On March 11 2024, Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced on social media the successful flight test of an Agni V ballistic missile with multiple independently targetable re-entry vehicle (MIRV) technology by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) under ‘Mission Divyastra’. It placed India in a small group of countries with this technology,bywhich a single missile can deliver multiple nuclear warheads.

2. About MIRV Technology

MIRV (Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicle) technology represents a significant advancement in missile capabilities, allowing missiles to carry multiple warheads, each capable of hitting separate targets. This technology has the potential to greatly increase the destructive power of missiles and can be strategically impactful in various scenarios.

• Technology Overview: Traditional missiles carry a single warhead and hit a single target. In contrast, MIRV-equipped missiles can carry multiple warheads, which can be programmed to strike different locations or targets independently. This flexibility enables simultaneous strikes at multiple locations or a sequential attack on the same target, ensuring a more comprehensive and devastating impact.
• Historical Context: MIRV technology is not new and was developed in the 1960s, initially deployed by major nuclear powers such as the United States and the Soviet Union in the 1970s. Over time, other countries like France, the United Kingdom, China, and more recently Pakistan, have also developed and tested MIRV-equipped missiles.
• Capabilities and Complexity: The number of warheads a missile can carry depends on various factors like design, weight, size, range, and technological parameters. For instance, India's recent test showcased a missile capable of carrying three to four warheads, while some systems can carry as many as 15 warheads or more. However, the development and deployment of MIRV technology require the miniaturization of warheads, independent guidance, navigation controls, and sequential release mechanisms, making it a complex and sophisticated technological endeavour.
• Strategic Implications and Concerns: While MIRV technology offers enhanced military capabilities, it has also raised concerns among arms control advocates. There are concerns that MIRV-equipped missiles could incentivize preemptive strikes and escalate tensions, thus increasing the risks associated with nuclear weapons. Despite these concerns, MIRV-equipped missiles have not been used in any conflict situation to date.

3. Advantages of MIRV Technology

MIRV (Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicle) technology offers several strategic advantages that make it a sought-after military capability worldwide. These advantages include

• Multiple Damage Infliction: The primary advantage of MIRV technology is its ability to cause multiple damages with a single strike. By carrying multiple warheads, each capable of hitting different targets independently, MIRV-equipped missiles significantly increase the destructive potential of a single missile launch.
• Penetration of Missile Defence Systems: MIRV-equipped missiles pose a challenge to missile defence systems. Traditional missile defence systems are designed to detect, track, and intercept incoming missiles. However, MIRV technology complicates this task by deploying multiple warheads with independent trajectories. This makes tracking and interception extremely difficult for defence systems, increasing the likelihood of warheads penetrating the shield and causing damage.
• Decoy Warheads and Confusion: Another advantage of MIRV technology is the ability to include decoy warheads along with actual warheads. Decoy warheads can confuse defence systems, making it harder to differentiate between real and decoy targets. This further enhances the effectiveness of MIRV-equipped missiles in bypassing missile defence systems.
• Strategic Deterrence: For countries like India, which adhere to a no-first-use policy for nuclear weapons, MIRV technology provides a crucial capability for response strikes. The ability to deliver multiple warheads with precision and cause significant damage in a response strike serves as a potent deterrence against potential aggressors. This capability can deter adversaries from initiating conflict due to the risk of facing a disproportionate and devastating response.

4. Agni Missile System Upgrade

The recent integration of MIRV (Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicle) technology marks a significant upgrade for India's Agni family of ballistic missiles, developed indigenously by the DRDO (Defence Research and Development Organisation). The Agni missiles serve as crucial land-based delivery systems for India's nuclear arsenal.

• Development and Deployment: The Agni missile series, developed in the 1990s, includes short, medium, and intercontinental-range ballistic missiles. The first-generation Agni missiles were deployed in the armed forces in the mid-2000s. Ranging from Agni-I to Agni-IV, these missiles have varying ranges between 700 to 3,500 km and can carry single payloads weighing between 12 and 40 kilotons. The latest addition, Agni-V, equipped with MIRV technology, has a range exceeding 5,000 km and can potentially reach intercontinental distances of 5,500 km and above.
• Testing and Capabilities: Agni-V has undergone multiple tests since 2012, showcasing new features and capabilities. Its recent flight test in December 2022 highlighted its night-time capabilities and other advancements. Additionally, DRDO has been developing Agni-P missiles, modernized versions of the short-range Agni-1 and Agni-2, with expectations of integrating MIRV technology.
• Strategic Significance: The acquisition of MIRV technology by India was crucial, especially after China developed similar capabilities. With Pakistan also claiming tests with MIRV-equipped missiles, integrating MIRV into Agni missiles became imperative for India's strategic deterrence and defence capabilities. The upcoming Agni-VI missile, currently under development, is also expected to feature MIRV capabilities.
• National Announcement and Test Details: Prime Minister Narendra Modi personally announced this technological milestone, emphasizing its significance for India's defence posture. The recent test, conducted by Dr APJ Abdul Kalam Island off the coast of Odisha, validated the successful integration of MIRV technology. The mission achieved its designed parameters, as confirmed by DRDO through various telemetry and radar stations.

5. The Way Forward

 

By adopting forward-looking strategies, India can harness the potential of MIRV technology and other advanced missile capabilities to enhance its deterrence posture, contribute to regional stability, and safeguard national interests in an increasingly complex security environment.

 

 

For Prelims: Agni-V, MIRV technology, DRDO For Mains:  1. Discuss the strategic advantages and concerns associated with the integration of MIRV technology in ballistic missiles, with specific reference to India's recent Agni-V missile test. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. What is the range of Agni-5 ballistic missile? (MPSC Subordinate Services 2018) A. 5,000-5,500 km       B. 3,500 km       C. 7,500 km        D. 10,000 km   2. With reference to Agni-IV Missile, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2014) 1. It is a surface-to-surface missile. 2. It is fuelled by liquid propellant only 3. It can deliver one-tonne nuclear warheads about 7500 km away. Select the correct answer using the code given below. A. 1 only      B. 2 and 3 only       C. 1 and 3 only        D. 1, 2 and 3   3. MIRV stands for- (Rajasthan PTET 2011) A. Multi-directional Independently Reoriented Vehicle B. Multipurpose Integrally-targeted Revolutionary Vehicle C. Multiple Independently-targetable Re-entry Vehicle D. Multi-dimensional Independent Re-entry Vehicle   Answers: 1-A, 2-A, 3- C

 

Source: The Indian Express

 

POCSO ACT

 

1. Context

The Criminal Investigation Department (CID) has launched a probe into the POCSO case against the former Karnataka Chief Minister B.S. Yediyurappa.

2. Development of Legislation Against Child Sexual Abuse in India

Constitutional Provisions and International Commitments

• The Constitution of India includes provisions to protect children's rights.
• India has ratified international instruments like the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Protocol on the Sale of Children.

Lack of Dedicated Provision

• India lacked specific legislation addressing child sexual abuse.
• Cases were tried under various provisions of the Indian Penal Code, which were deemed insufficient.

Goa Incident and State-Level Response

• A child sexual abuse racket was exposed in Goa during the 1990s.
• The state government responded by enacting a law in 2003 to promote child rights.

Children's Code Bill, 2000

• The Special Expert Committee under Justice VR Krishna Iyer drafted the Children's Code Bill, presenting a comprehensive framework for child rights in India.

Draft Bill Addressing Offences Against Children

• In 2005, the Department of Women and Child Development prepared a draft bill to address different offenses targeted against children.

Study of Child Abuse Report (2007)

• Published by the Ministry of Women and Child Development.
• Covered 13 states with a sample size of 12,447 children, 2,324 young adults, and 2,449 stakeholders.
• Found that 50.76% of children surveyed reported experiencing one or more forms of sexual abuse.
• Boys reported a higher overall percentage of sexual abuse than girls, contrary to prevailing perceptions.

Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Bill, 2010

• In September 2010, the Ministry of Women and Child Development prepared a draft bill.
• After several revisions, it came into force as the POCSO Act on Children's Day (November 14, 2012).

3. Analysis of POCSO Act Trials and Case Characteristics

• Acquittals and Convictions: Analysis shows that 43.44% of trials under the POCSO Act end in acquittals, while only 14.03% end in convictions. For every one conviction, there are three acquittals, indicating a significant disparity.
• State-wise Disparity in Acquittals and Convictions: Acquittals are significantly higher than convictions in all states studied. Examples: In Andhra Pradesh, acquittals are seven times more than convictions, and in West Bengal, acquittals are five times more than convictions. Kerala has a relatively lower gap, with acquittals constituting 20.5% and convictions constituting 16.49% of total disposals.
• Relationship Between Victim and Accused: Out of 138 examined judgments, only 6% of cases involved accused who were strangers to the victim. In 44% of cases, the relationship between the victim and accused was unidentified. Known acquaintances constituted 22.9% of the accused, family members accounted for 3.7%, and cases with prior romantic relationships made up 18%.
• Age Distribution of Victims and Accused: Among the 138 cases studied, 5.47% of victims were under 10 years, 17.8% were between 10-15 years, and 28% were between 15-18 years. The age of the victim was unidentified in 48% of cases. Age details of accused individuals were not identified in 63.6% of cases. Identified age ranges of accused: 11.6% between 19-25 years, 10.9% between 25-35 years, 6.1% between 35-45 years, and 6.8% above 45 years.
• Offenses and Severity: Penetrative sexual assault (31.18%) and aggravated penetrative sexual assault (25.59%) collectively account for over half of all POCSO cases. These offenses carry the most stringent punishments under the POCSO Act.

4. Analysis of POCSO Case Disposal and Pendency

• Delayed Disposal: On average, it takes 509.78 days for a POCSO case to be disposed of, exceeding the one-year stipulated timeframe under the Act.
• Increase in Pending Cases: The pendency of POCSO cases had been gradually increasing over the years. Notably, there was a sharp rise in pending cases between 2019 and 2020, attributed to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic.
• Reasons for Delay: Slow pace of police investigation and delays in depositing samples with Forensic Science Laboratories were identified as primary reasons for case delays.
• Transfers of Cases: 22.76% of cases were disposed of through transfers from one court to another. One-fifth of the cases in the dataset ended in transfers, indicating administrative mismanagement or wrongful appreciation of facts by the police.
• Increasing Transfer Trend: The percentage of transfers out of total disposals was around 8% in 2013 but rose to a little over 19% in 2019 and a concerning 42% in 2020. This trend is seen as problematic due to the time wasted as cases are transferred between courts.

5. POCSO Trials and Case Statistics in India

• Delhi's POCSO Trials and Case Length: Delhi has the highest number of POCSO trials in the country, with 13.54 cases per 100,000 population in 2018. However, Delhi also had the highest average case length in 2020, at 1,284.33 days.
• Average Time for Convictions: Chandigarh and West Bengal are the only states where the average time taken for convictions is within one year. States like Chhattisgarh, Haryana, Kerala, Sikkim, Chandigarh, and the NCT of Delhi have a higher reporting of POCSO cases.
• Districts with the Highest Number of POCSO Trials: The five districts with the highest number of POCSO trials (pending and disposed of) are Namchi (Sikkim), New Delhi, Central Delhi, Medak (Telangana), and West Garo Hills (Meghalaya).
• Pendency and Disposal Rates: Uttar Pradesh has the highest pendency, with 77.77% of the total POCSO cases filed between November 2012 and February 2021 pending. Tamil Nadu has the highest disposal percentage at 80.2%.
• Districts with Highest Pendency Percentages: The five districts with the highest pendency percentages include Lucknow, Hardoi, Budaun, and Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh and Howrah in West Bengal.

6. Gaps in Implementation

• Absence of Support Persons: According to the study, "support persons" are not appointed in most POCSO cases. The Supreme Court highlighted that in 96% of cases, victims were not provided with a support person.
• Role of support Persons: A support person can be an individual or organization working in child rights or protection, an official from a children's home or shelter home. or a staff member of the District Child Protection Unit (DCPU). Their role is to guide and support the victim throughout the legal process.
• Insufficient Designated POCSO Courts: The analysis reveals that not all districts have designated POCSO courts. As of 2022, 408 POCSO courts have been established in 28 states under the Government's Fast Track Special Court Scheme.
• Lack of Special Public Prosecutors: There is a shortage of special public prosecutors specifically appointed to handle POCSO cases. Even when appointed, they are often engaged in non-POCSO cases, leading to a lack of dedicated focus on POCSO matters.

For Prelims: Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO), Convention on the Rights of the Child, and the Protocol on the Sale of Children, Children's Code Bill, 2000,  Child Abuse Report (2007).  For Mains: 1. Critically analyze the findings of the analysis on convictions, acquittals, victim-accused relationships, and offense patterns in POCSO cases in India. (250 words).

Previous year Question

1. In India, the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, ____ is a comprehensive law to provide for the protection of children from the offenses of sexual assault, sexual harassment, and pornography, while safeguarding the interests of the child. (SSC CGL 2021) A.2012 B. 2006 C. 2010 D. 2008 Answer: A

Source: The Indian Express

 

VOLCANOES

 

 

1. Context

A volcano in Iceland erupted on March 16, 2024 for the fourth time since December, the country’s meteorological office said, spewing smoke and bright orange lava into the air in sharp contrast against the dark night sky. One resident of Grindavik, a town near the fissure, who had been evacuated in November said, “We’re just like, this is business as usual

 

2. Merapi volcano in West Sumatra and “Ring of Fire”

The Marapi volcano, located in West Sumatra, Indonesia, is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. The Ring of Fire is a horseshoe-shaped area in the Pacific Ocean basin where a large number of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur. It's characterized by active tectonic plate boundaries, including subduction zones, where one tectonic plate is forced beneath another.

Marapi is one of Indonesia's most active volcanoes and stands about 2,891 meters (9,485 feet) tall. It's situated near the city of Bukittinggi and has a history of frequent eruptions. While some of its eruptions have been relatively small and non-explosive, it has occasionally produced more significant eruptions with ash plumes and pyroclastic flows.

The region surrounding Marapi and much of Indonesia, in general, is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire due to the complex tectonic activity in the area. The Indo-Australian Plate is subducting beneath the Eurasian Plate, leading to seismic and volcanic activity along the Sumatran Fault and other associated fault lines.

The Pacific Ring of Fire is known for its high seismic and volcanic activity, housing a majority of the world's active volcanoes and experiencing a large number of earthquakes. This area's geological dynamics make it prone to geological hazards, but it also provides valuable insights into plate tectonics and volcanic activity for scientific research

3. Volcanoes and Volcanic Landforms

Volcanoes are natural features on Earth's surface that form when magma (molten rock beneath the Earth's crust) erupts through openings or vents. The erupted materials, including lava, ash, gases, and pyroclastic flows, accumulate around the vent, building up and forming various volcanic landforms. Here are some key volcanic landforms:

Shield Volcanoes: These are broad, gently sloping volcanoes characterized by their low viscosity lava, which flows easily. They're built up by numerous eruptions of thin, runny lava. Examples include Mauna Loa in Hawaii and the Galápagos Islands' volcanoes.

Stratovolcanoes (Composite Volcanoes): These are steep-sided, conical volcanoes built by multiple layers of lava, ash, and volcanic rocks. They are often associated with explosive eruptions due to their viscous lava. Famous examples include Mount St. Helens in the United States, Mount Fuji in Japan, and Mount Vesuvius in Italy.

Cinder Cone Volcanoes: These are small, steep-sided volcanoes formed from ejected lava fragments that pile up around the vent. They usually have a bowl-shaped crater at the summit. Paricutin in Mexico is a well-known cinder cone volcano.

Calderas: These are large, basin-shaped depressions formed after massive eruptions, where the volcano's summit collapses into the emptied magma chamber. Crater Lake in Oregon, USA, is a prime example of a caldera.

Lava Plateaus: These are vast flat areas created by successive lava flows that cover large areas of land. The Deccan Plateau in India and the Columbia River Plateau in the United States are examples of lava plateaus.

Volcanic Islands: Many islands around the world, like Hawaii, Japan, and the Philippines, were formed by volcanic activity. These islands were created as volcanoes erupted underwater and gradually built up above sea level.

Volcanic Craters: Formed at the summit of some volcanoes, these bowl-shaped depressions are created either by explosions or the collapse of the volcano's summit following an eruption.

Volcanic landforms vary based on factors like the type of eruption, the composition of the lava, and the frequency of eruptions. They contribute significantly to the Earth's landscape and often provide fertile soils and valuable resources, while also posing risks to nearby populations due to potential eruptions and associated hazards

4. Types of Volcanoes

Volcanoes come in various types, each formed by different eruptive processes and materials. Here are the main types of volcanoes:

Shield Volcanoes: These volcanoes have broad, gentle slopes due to the relatively fluid lava (low viscosity) they produce. Eruptions from shield volcanoes tend to be non-explosive and result in the flowing of lava over large distances. Examples include Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea in Hawaii.

Stratovolcanoes (Composite Volcanoes): Stratovolcanoes are tall, steep-sided cones formed by alternating layers of lava, ash, and volcanic rocks. They often produce explosive eruptions due to the higher viscosity of their lava. Mount St. Helens in the United States and Mount Fuji in Japan are examples of stratovolcanoes.

Cinder Cone Volcanoes: These small, steep-sided volcanoes are formed from the accumulation of pyroclastic material (such as ash, cinders, and volcanic rocks) ejected during eruptions. They usually have a bowl-shaped crater at the summit. Paricutin in Mexico is a famous cinder cone volcano.

Lava Domes: Lava domes are created by the slow extrusion of highly viscous lava. They form rounded mounds often found within the craters of larger volcanoes. Lava domes, such as Mount St. Helens' post-eruption dome, can be highly unstable and prone to collapse.

Complex Volcanoes: These are composite volcanoes that exhibit multiple vents and overlapping cones. They're formed by the accumulation of materials from various eruptions over time. Mount Rainier in the United States is an example of a complex volcano.

Submarine Volcanoes: Found underwater, these volcanoes create seamounts or volcanic islands. They can form chains, like the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain, as tectonic plates move over hotspots beneath the Earth's crust.

Supervolcanoes: These are rare but extremely powerful volcanoes capable of producing colossal eruptions. They form immense calderas after catastrophic explosions that empty the magma chamber. Yellowstone Caldera in the United States is an example of a supervolcano

5. Relation among Plate Tectonics, Volcanoes and Earthquake 

Plate tectonics, volcanoes, and earthquakes are interconnected and are all part of the Earth's dynamic processes.

Plate Tectonics: The Earth's lithosphere (the outermost layer) is divided into several large and small plates that float on the semi-fluid asthenosphere beneath them. These plates are in constant motion, driven by forces like mantle convection, and this movement is known as plate tectonics.

Volcanoes: Volcanoes are closely associated with plate boundaries, where tectonic plates interact. There are three primary types of plate boundaries:

• • Divergent Boundaries: At divergent boundaries, plates move away from each other. Magma from the mantle rises to fill the gap, solidifies, and creates new crust. This process forms mid-ocean ridges, where underwater volcanoes and volcanic activity occur.

  • Convergent Boundaries: At convergent boundaries, plates move toward each other. When an oceanic plate collides with a continental plate or another oceanic plate, the denser oceanic plate sinks beneath the lighter plate in a process called subduction. The sinking plate melts as it descends into the mantle, leading to the formation of magma that rises to the surface, resulting in explosive volcanoes. Examples include the Andes and the Cascades.

  • Transform Boundaries: At transform boundaries, plates slide past each other horizontally. While these boundaries are not associated with volcanic activity directly, the stress buildup and release along these boundaries often cause earthquakes.

Earthquakes: Earthquakes occur due to the movement and release of stress along faults, which are fractures in the Earth's crust. Tectonic plate movements generate enormous amounts of energy that cause the Earth's crust to crack along these faults, resulting in seismic waves, or vibrations, that we feel as earthquakes.

Thus, the movement and interaction of tectonic plates at plate boundaries create conditions conducive to both volcanic eruptions and seismic activity (earthquakes). The locations and types of volcanoes and earthquakes are influenced by the specific plate boundary and the nature of the plate movement at that boundary. Overall, plate tectonics serve as the underlying mechanism that connects the occurrence of volcanoes and earthquakes on Earth

6. How can volcanic eruptions affect the environment and natural ecosystem?

Volcanic eruptions can have significant impacts on the environment and natural ecosystems in several ways:

Air Quality: Eruptions release gases such as sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and others. These gases can contribute to air pollution, leading to acid rain formation, smog, and the potential for respiratory issues in humans and animals.

Climate Effects: Volcanic ash and gases can reach the upper atmosphere, where sulfur dioxide reacts with water vapor to form sulfuric acid aerosols. These aerosols can reflect sunlight, leading to a cooling effect on the Earth's surface. However, this effect is temporary and can be followed by a period of warming due to greenhouse gases emitted during the eruption.

Ash Fallout: Volcanic ash can blanket large areas, affecting vegetation by blocking sunlight, damaging crops, and contaminating water sources. Heavy ashfall can collapse roofs, disrupt transportation, and damage infrastructure.

Lahars and Mudflows: Eruptions can melt snow and ice on a volcano's slopes, generating lahars (volcanic mudflows) that carry debris, ash, and rocks downslope, potentially devastating nearby communities and ecosystems.

Ecosystem Disturbance: Volcanic eruptions can destroy habitats, vegetation, and animal populations. However, some ecosystems are adapted to volcanic activity and may even benefit from the nutrient-rich volcanic soils that support new growth over time.

Water Contamination: Ash and volcanic materials can contaminate water sources, affecting aquatic life and making water unsafe for consumption.

Global Effects: Major volcanic eruptions, especially so-called "supervolcano" eruptions, can release vast amounts of ash and gases into the atmosphere, potentially leading to short-term global climate effects, including temperature drops and altered weather patterns

 

 

For Prelims: Indian and World Geography-Physical, Social, Economic Geography of India and the World For Mains: General Studies I: Important Geophysical phenomena such as earthquakes, Tsunami, Volcanic activity, cyclone etc., geographical features and their location-changes in critical geographical features and in flora and fauna and the effects of such changes

 

TRADE AND ECONOMIC PARTNERSHIP AGREEMENT (TEPA)

 

 

 

 

1. Context

 

The Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement (TEPA) between India and EFTA (European Free Trade Association) marks a significant development in India's recent Free Trade Agreements (FTAs). Unlike previous agreements, TEPA focuses on strengthening economic ties with EFTA countries such as Switzerland, Norway, Iceland, and Liechtenstein. This agreement symbolizes India's shift towards deeper engagement with the western world, as it is the first FTA with a European country and represents a westward tilt in India's FTA strategy.

 

 

2. India's FTAs signal trade openness

The successful finalization of a Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with developed nations like Switzerland and Norway sends a strong positive message to the global community. It highlights India's steadfast commitment to trade liberalization, especially amidst increasing protectionism worldwide, affecting both developed and developing economies. For trading partners, an FTA with India holds great appeal as it signifies overcoming India's previously high tariff barriers to access a vast market. The negotiations for the Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement (TEPA) began nearly 15 years ago, but recent months have seen rapid progress, coinciding with the swift conclusion of FTAs with Australia and the UAE. Additionally, talks for FTAs with the U.K. and the EU are reportedly in an advanced stage.

 

 

3. The key features of TEPA

Investment

• TEPA outlines a target of attracting $100 billion in investments into India from EFTA countries, which is expected to create one million jobs over a span of 15 years.
• However, the agreement also includes provisions allowing India to revoke tariff concessions if the anticipated investment levels are not met.
• A careful examination of the legal text reveals that for these projected investments and job creation to materialize, two conditions must be fulfilled: India must maintain a high growth rate of 9.5%, and the return on investments made by EFTA countries in India should exceed 16% annually throughout the 15-year period.
• Failure to meet these conditions could lead to a scaling back of ambitions by both parties. India reserves the right to adjust tariff concessions proportionally after 18 years if it deems necessary.
• It's important to note that the investment chapter of TEPA does not fall under dispute resolution mechanisms and primarily serves as a declaration of intent.
• Ultimately, the actual benefits of TEPA will hinge on the responsiveness of the private sector to the opportunities provided by the agreement.

Trade in goods

• The primary benefit of the TEPA agreement lies in the increased market access it provides for EFTA countries to India through tariff concessions.
• India is obligated to phase out tariffs on a wide range of products within a span of seven to ten years under this agreement.
• This move will particularly benefit EFTA exports such as seafood like tuna and salmon, fruits like olives and avocados, coffee capsules, oils such as cod liver and olive oil, as well as various confectionery and processed food items including chocolates and biscuits.
• Additionally, products like smartphones, bicycle parts, medical equipment, clocks, watches, many medicines, dyes, textiles, apparels, iron and steel products, and most machinery will also enjoy reduced tariffs.
• Furthermore, tariffs on cut and polished diamonds will be halved from 5% to 2.5% within five years. As for wines, India has implemented tariff reductions on a gradual scale: wines priced between $5 and less than $15 will see a duty reduction from 150% to 100% in the first year, eventually decreasing to 50% over a decade.
• Wines costing $15 or more will witness an initial duty cut from 150% to 75%, gradually reducing to 25% after ten years.
• However, certain products such as gold (which constitutes 80% of merchandise imports from EFTA countries), dairy products, soya, coal, and certain sensitive agricultural items have been excluded from India's tariff concession list.
• Regarding India's exports to EFTA countries, there will be minimal impact as most products already face low or zero tariffs due to the Most Favored Nation (MFN) status enjoyed by these nations in EFTA countries.
• For instance, the majority of India's $1.3 billion merchandise exports to Switzerland are industrial products with zero tariffs, while agricultural exports form a small fraction with limited gains due to their low trade values.

 

Trade in services

 

• In the services sector, both India and EFTA members have committed to liberalization across various sectors, offering significant benefits. Notable advantages for India include commitments from Norway to grant access to yoga instructors and traditional medicine practitioners from India, provided they comply with Norway's legal framework.
• Additionally, Norway and Switzerland have committed to allowing highly skilled Indian professionals to move as intra-corporate transferees for four and three years, respectively, contingent upon obtaining work permits.
• However, the practicalities of service delivery are often influenced by regulatory requirements in each country.
• A dedicated annex in the TEPA outlines a framework to simplify the recognition of qualifications for service suppliers by streamlining various requirements. This includes the possibility of achieving equivalence by supplementing academic or training requirements instead of repeating the entire professional degree.
• Separate annexes for financial services and telecom services also establish disciplines aimed at facilitating the provision of such services.
• A notable departure from previous FTAs involving India is that benefits under the trade in services chapter will extend to any corporate entity incorporated in an EFTA member country, even if its actual operations are in another WTO member nation, including those without FTAs with India.
• This provision could potentially allow free riders to benefit from TEPA. To mitigate this risk, the investment chapter mandates that benefits are restricted to entities with substantial business activities within EFTA countries. However, services related to commercial presence will be governed by the services chapter.

 

Sustainable development

• The Trade and Sustainable Development (TSD) chapter within TEPA is a significant milestone for India as it includes commitments on environmental and labor aspects, marking a departure from India's previous skepticism regarding linking these issues in FTAs due to concerns about potential protectionist measures.
• The TSD chapter incorporates various multilateral environmental agreements and labor conventions, emphasizing a balanced approach between rights and obligations.
• For instance, the TSD chapter references international agreements such as the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement, which acknowledge varying obligations for developed and developing nations concerning environmental responsibilities.
• Similarly, labor conventions under the International Labour Organization (ILO) follow a tripartite framework involving governments, employers' organizations, and employee representatives.
• While the TSD chapter does not fall under dispute resolution mechanisms, India must ensure that any scrutiny regarding its implementation of environmental and labor obligations, as mandated by the TSD chapter, respects the delicate balance inherent in multilateral environmental and labor conventions.
• This approach is crucial to maintain the integrity of the agreements and promote sustainable development practices within the framework of the TEPA.

Intellectual property rights

 

• The TEPA addresses concerns raised by pharmaceutical and high technology multinational corporations (MNCs) from EFTA countries regarding the protection of intellectual property rights (IPR) beyond the WTO's Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement.
• Notably, the TEPA acknowledges certain demands from these entities. For instance, India's Patents Act currently allows for pre-grant opposition of a patent application.
• The TEPA's IPR Annex stipulates a swift rejection of "prima facie unfounded" oppositions, potentially subjecting India's internal regulatory processes to external scrutiny regarding meeting this standard.
• Similarly, Indian law mandates the filing of an annual statement on the working of a patent.
• Under the TEPA, this reporting frequency is extended to every three years, with annual statements required only in specific cases.
• This change raises concerns that the existing statutory requirement in Indian law may need to be reconsidered to accommodate these case-specific scenarios.
• It's worth noting that amendments to India's patent rules were notified shortly after the signing of the TEPA, highlighting a potential misalignment between FTA commitments and subsequent legal changes.
• In essence, the TEPA delves into unfamiliar territory regarding IPR protection, and its impact will become clearer through its implementation over time.
• Close monitoring of how these provisions are applied and their effects on India's regulatory framework will be essential to assess the agreement's overall impact accurately.

 

4. The Way Forward

 

By following the steps and maintaining a proactive approach, stakeholders can navigate the complexities of TEPA, maximize its benefits, address challenges, and contribute to fostering stronger economic ties between India and EFTA countries.

 

 

For Prelims: TEPA, India, European Union, EFTA, Free trade agreement For Mains:  1. In light of the The Trade and Economic Partnership Agreement, suggest a roadmap for India to navigate the complexities of Free Trade Agreements and maximize potential benefits. (250 words)

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Consider the following countries: 1. Australia 2. Canada 3. China 4. India 5. Japan 6. USA Which of the above are among the free-trade partners' of ASEAN? (UPSC 2018) A. 1, 2, 4 and 5          B.  3, 4, 5 and 6      C.  1, 3, 4 and 5       D.  2, 3, 4 and 6   2. Increase in absolute and per capita real GNP do not connote a higher level of economic development, if (UPSC 2018) (a) Industrial output fails to keep pace with agricultural output. (b) Agricultural output fails to keep pace with industrial output. (c) Poverty and unemployment increase. (d) Imports grow faster than exports.   3. The SEZ Act, 2005 which came into effect in February 2006 has certain objectives. In this context, consider the following: (2010) Development of infrastructure facilities. Promotion of investment from foreign sources. Promotion of exports of services only. Which of the above are the objectives of this Act? (a) 1 and 2 only     (b) 3 only         (c) 2 and 3 only           (d) 1, 2 and 3 4. A “closed economy” is an economy in which (UPSC 2011) (a) the money supply is fully controlled (b) deficit financing takes place (c) only exports take place (d) neither exports nor imports take place 5. With reference to the “G20 Common Framework”, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022) 1. It is an initiative endorsed by the G20 together with the Paris Club. 2. It is an initiative to support Low Income Countries with unsustainable debt. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only         (b) 2 only            (c) Both 1 and 2          (d) Neither 1 nor 2   Answers: 1-C, 2-C, 3-A, 4-D, 5- C

Source: The Hindu

 

DIALYSIS

 

 

1. Context

 

Hockman et al.'s study, published in The Lancet Regional Health-Southeast Asia on March 13, 2024, delves into the analysis of patient survival rates among individuals undergoing dialysis across 193 centers in India. Their primary focus was on all-cause mortality rates, starting from 90 days after a patient's enrollment at a center, while considering various patient-level and center-level characteristics. The study's results underscore the imperative to not only expand dialysis infrastructure nationwide but also to standardize dialysis care protocols, aiming to reduce mortality rates among patients undergoing dialysis.

 

2. Chronic Dialysis in India

• India is home to one of the highest numbers of patients undergoing chronic dialysis globally, estimated at approximately 175,000 individuals in 2018. This number continues to rise steadily on a daily basis.
• The authors attribute this trend to the initiation of the National Dialysis Service in 2016, aimed at enhancing accessibility to dialysis, alongside ongoing endeavors to develop cost-effective dialysis systems.
• These initiatives are further accentuated by the increasing incidence of end-stage renal disease across the country.
• Prior to the recent study conducted by Hockman et al., there was a notable absence of large-scale studies examining patient survival rates among individuals undergoing haemodialysis in India.
• Moreover, there was a lack of consideration for center-level effects on survival outcomes. The authors highlight that the only significant study in this domain, conducted in Andhra Pradesh, utilized claims data from a publicly-funded insurance scheme spanning from 2008 to 2012.
• This study, involving 13,118 beneficiaries, revealed that 10.2% of patients succumbed within six months of commencing haemodialysis.
• However, this study had limited scope to explore potential variations in survival rates among different dialysis centers, a phenomenon well-documented in other countries.
• Consequently, critical knowledge gaps persisted in understanding the comprehensive patterns of dialysis outcomes in India, thus hindering efforts to enhance patient care standards.
• Notably, there remains a lack of a national benchmark for survival rates among patients undergoing dialysis in India, underscoring the necessity for further research and standardization in this crucial healthcare domain.

 

3. Analyzing Survival Rate Variations Across Dialysis Centers

• The authors conducted an in-depth analysis to measure the differences in survival rates among various dialysis centers across India and to determine the extent to which these differences could be attributed to center-based characteristics.
• Their findings revealed that both center-level and patient-level characteristics play a role in determining survival rates, yet there remains a significant unexplained variation between different centers.
• This study, one of the largest of its kind, involved over 23,600 patients undergoing haemodialysis at any center within the NephroPlus network for a duration of 90 days or more, spanning from April 2014 to June 2019.
• The primary focus was on all-cause mortality rates, starting from 90 days after a patient's enrollment at a center.
• The individual-level variables taken into account included sex, smoking status, medical history such as diabetes, heart disease or heart failure, hypertension, hepatitis B and hepatitis C status among patients.
• Additionally, socio-economic factors such as education level, monthly household income, dialysis frequency, and type of vascular access were also considered for evaluation.
• On the other hand, center-level variables encompassed the frequency of nephrologist visits, the number of beds available, staffing levels, and the total number of patients served by each center.
• These variables were crucial in understanding the dynamics influencing survival rates and identifying potential areas for improvement in dialysis care delivery across different centers.

 

4. Factors Affecting Mortality Rates in Dialysis Patients

• After adjusting for various multi-level factors, the estimated 180-day survival rate ranged from 83% to 97% across different dialysis centers.
• Notably, patients attending rural centers experienced a mortality rate 32% higher than those at urban centers.
• While this difference may partly stem from unmeasured variations in patient characteristics, it underscores the specific challenges encountered by rural dialysis centers, as noted by the authors.
• Several patient characteristics were identified as significant factors associated with mortality rates.
• Patients with catheter-based vascular access had a higher mortality rate compared to those with access through an arteriovenous fistula or graft.
• Additionally, individuals receiving financial support for dialysis treatment through government panels or private insurance demonstrated lower mortality rates than those making out-of-pocket payments.
• A notable inverse relationship was observed between mortality and dialysis vintage, with patients undergoing dialysis for at least a year prior to center enrollment exhibiting a 17% lower mortality rate compared to those initiating dialysis within 30 days before center admission.
• Furthermore, the presence of diabetes was linked to a higher mortality rate among dialysis patients.
• By incorporating center-level factors such as staffing levels, care processes, and patient volume into the analysis, the researchers observed a 31% reduction in variability in survival rates across different dialysis centers.
• This underscores the importance of considering both patient-specific and center-specific factors in improving outcomes and standardizing care practices within the dialysis setting.

 

5. The way forward

• The authors propose establishing the first national benchmark for survival among dialysis patients in India, marking a crucial step as the country expands dialysis access. They emphasize the necessity of ongoing quality improvement programs to ensure optimal patient outcomes in dialysis care.
• As the demand for dialysis services is expected to rise significantly in the future, there's a clear need for enhanced health infrastructure and care delivery systems.
• While broader improvements in healthcare infrastructure are crucial, the authors stress the importance of implementing a collaborative quality improvement framework nationwide.
• They advocate for setting national standards for dialysis outcomes in India and stress the significance of understanding how center- and patient-level characteristics impact these outcomes.
• Drawing from experiences in nephrology and other medical specialties, where practice patterns and patient outcomes vary widely among centers, establishing national benchmarks for dialysis outcomes becomes imperative.
• These benchmarks will enable comparisons of dialysis centers' performances over time, driving continuous improvement in care quality. The authors consider their study findings as the initial step in this journey towards standardized and improved dialysis care across India.

For Prelims: dialysis, National Dialysis Service For Mains:  1. Explain the factors contributing to the variability in survival rates among different dialysis centers in India. Evaluate the impact of patient-level and center-level characteristics on dialysis outcomes and discuss potential strategies to standardize care practices and reduce mortality rates. (250 Words)

Source: The Hindu