CLIMATE FINANCE TAXONOMY
The 29th edition of the Conference of Parties (COP), arguably the most important of the UN’s climate conferences, was scheduled to end on November 22, after 11 days of negotiations, and take a collective step forward in addressing rising carbon emissions. However, deliberations are expected to carry on beyond the deadline with several sticking points outstanding.
- With global temperatures rising and the negative impacts of climate change intensifying, countries must move towards a net-zero economy, which balances the greenhouse gases emitted with those removed from the atmosphere.
- Taxonomies can be crucial in this transition by determining whether economic activities follow credible, science-based transition pathways. They can also boost the allocation of climate capital and mitigate the risks of greenwashing.
- For India, implementing a taxonomy could attract more international climate funds. Presently, green finance in India falls significantly short of the country's needs, representing only about 3% of total FDI inflows, according to the 2022 Landscape of Green Finance in India report by the Climate Policy Initiative.
- One major reason for the low levels of green finance is the lack of clear definitions for sustainable activities. A taxonomy would address this issue
- Based on analysis by the International Finance Corporation, India's potential for climate-friendly investments is substantial, estimated at $3.1 trillion over the period from 2018 to 2030. The electric vehicle industry stands out as the most promising sector, with an investment potential of $667 billion, driven by India's goal to transition all new vehicles to electric power by 2030. Additionally, the renewable energy sector remains attractive to investors, with opportunities valued at $403.7 billion during this timeframe.
- India aims to achieve 500 GW of renewable energy capacity by 2030. This ambitious goal opens significant investment opportunities in solar, wind, and hydroelectric power projects.
- Enhancing energy efficiency across various sectors, including industrial, residential, and commercial, presents vast investment prospects. This includes upgrading infrastructure, implementing smart grids, and adopting energy-efficient technologies
- Developing sustainable transportation systems, green buildings, and smart cities is crucial for India's growth. Investments in electric vehicles, public transit systems, and green construction technologies are essential components of this transformation
- Investments in climate-resilient infrastructure, such as flood defenses, water management systems, and agricultural technologies, are critical to mitigating the impacts of climate change
- As global attention on climate change intensifies, India has the potential to attract significant international climate finance. Implementing a robust climate finance taxonomy can enhance transparency and attract foreign investments
- The Indian government has introduced various policies and incentives to promote green investments. Programs like the National Solar Mission, FAME (Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles) scheme, and the Green Energy Corridor project provide a favorable environment for green investments
- Indian banks and financial institutions are gradually increasing their focus on green finance, offering green bonds and sustainable investment funds. This growing support from the financial sector can facilitate the flow of capital into green projects
- The EU Taxonomy is one of the most comprehensive frameworks, establishing clear criteria for what can be considered environmentally sustainable economic activities. It covers various sectors and aims to direct investment towards the EU's climate goals
- China has implemented its own Green Bond Endorsed Projects Catalogue, which outlines the criteria for green projects eligible for green bond financing. This taxonomy focuses on promoting clean energy, pollution prevention, resource conservation, and other environmentally beneficial project
- The UK is developing a Green Taxonomy aligned with the EU framework but tailored to the specific needs and priorities of the UK economy. It aims to support the country's commitment to net-zero emissions by 2050
- Japan has introduced its Green Bond Guidelines to encourage green bond issuance and investment in projects that contribute to environmental sustainability. These guidelines align with international standards but reflect Japan's unique environmental challenges and goals
- Canada is working on a national climate finance taxonomy to help standardize the classification of sustainable investments. This taxonomy aims to facilitate climate risk management, transition planning, and climate disclosure
- Singapore has developed the Singapore Green Bond Framework, which provides guidelines for green bond issuances in the country. This framework supports sustainable finance and investments in projects that address environmental challenges
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For Prelims: COP28, Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, Climate Finance, Climate Change, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Nationally Determined Contributions, COP27, Copenhagen Accord, Paris Agreement
For Mains:
1. Discuss the impact of climate change on developing economies. How can climate finance be effectively utilized to promote sustainable development in these economies? (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2016)
1. The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN and it will go into effect in 2017.
2. The Agreement aims to limit greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2°C or even 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.
3. Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility for global warming and committed to donate $1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries cope with climate change.
Select the correct answer using the code given below
A. 1 and 3 only
B. 2 only C. 2 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: B
2. The term ‘Intended Nationally Determined Contributions’ is sometimes seen in the news in the context of ( UPSC 2016)
A. pledges made by the European countries to rehabilitate refugees from the war-affected Middle East
B. plan of action outlined by the countries of the world to combat climate change
C. capital contributed by the member countries in the establishment of the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank
D. plan of action outlined by the countries of the world regarding Sustainable Development Goals
Answer: B 3. The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has announced which country to host the 28th Conference of the Parties (COP28) in 2023? (SSC CGL 2023) A. UAE B. US C. UK D. Russia Answer: A
4. Consider the following statements with reference to Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD): (RBI Grade B 2022)
1. OECD is an official Permanent observer to the United Nations and is referred to as a think-tank or as a monitoring group.
2. India is not a member of OECD.
3. OECD is funded by its member countries.
Which of the statement given above is/ are correct?
A. 1 only B. 1 and 2 only C. 2 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3 E. 2 only Answer: D 5. Which of the following statements regarding 'Green Climate Fund' is/are correct? (UPSC 2015)
1. It is intended to assist the developing countries in adaptation and mitigation practices to counter climate change.
2. It is founded under the aegis of UNEP, OECS, Asian Development Bank and World Bank.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: A 6. The 27th annual UN meeting on climate, COP27 (Conference of Parties) took place from 6th to 18th November, in which of the following country? (SSC GD Constable 2023) A. France B. Brazil C. Indonesia D. Egypt Answer: D 7. According to the Copenhagen Accord, what percentage of India has promised to reduce carbon emissions by the year 2020 as compared to 2005? (UP Police SI 2017) A. 20-25 percent B. 10-15 percent C. 30-35 percent D. 5-10 percent Answers: 1-B, 2-B, 3-A, 4-D, 5-A, 6-D, 7-A Mains 1. Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). What are the commitments made by India in this conference? (upsc 2021) |
H5N1
1. Context
2. Avian Influenza
- Avian Influenza, also known as Avian or Bird Flu, is a form of influenza caused by a virus found in birds.
- Avian Flu is similar to variants found in animals and humans – caused strains of influenza that have adapted to specific hosts.
3. Avian Influenza Type A viruses
- Type A viruses are classified based on two proteins on their surfaces – Hemagglutinin (HA) and Neuraminidase (NA). There are about 18 HA subtypes and 11 NA subtypes.
- Several combinations of these two proteins are possible e.g., H5N1, H7N2, H9N6, H17N10, H18N11, etc.
- All known subtypes of influenza A viruses can infect birds, except subtypes H17N10 and H18N11, which have only been found in bats.
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4. Effect on Birds
- Although avian influenza has different subtypes, H5N1 is a highly pathogenic subtype that causes mortality in birds.
- Since 2022, the virus has infected over 100 million birds across the globe, resulting in the deaths of over 50 million and the culling of millions of poultry.
- Unlike previous outbreaks of highly pathogenic subtypes of avian influenza, H5N1 is heavily impacting wild bird species, including many which were on the verge of extinction.
- While it is difficult to ascertain how many wild birds have been affected by the virus, a significant impact has been seen in eagles, pelicans, geese, waterfowl, gulls, falcons, and shorebirds, in addition to the highest possible impact on poultry seen till date, at least in the U.S.
- The impact of H5N1 on wild bird populations has varied depending on several factors, such as the level of exposure, geographical locations, and migratory patterns of the affected species.
- High mortality in wild birds due to the virus could lead to significant ecological consequences, including the vulnerability of predators and alterations in species composition in affected ecosystems, and therefore a possible impact on biodiversity not just limited to avian species.
- It has raised concerns regarding the spread of the virus among critically endangered avian populations.
5. Spreading to animals
- The highly contagious H5N1 virus can also occasionally spill over from birds to animals through direct or indirect contact with infected birds or their droppings.
- Worryingly, there have been several reports on the spillover of H5N1 to mammals during the current outbreak from different countries, infecting species such as sea lions, minks, foxes, wild bears, and skunks, apart from domestic animals such as dogs and cats.
- In 2023 alone, H5N1 caused the deaths of over 3,000 sea lions in Peru. In a recent yet to be peer reviewed study, scientists found that the virus could efficiently spread between ferrets in the laboratory.
- The only known cases of the virus spreading between mammals were reported in minks that were raised in close confinement on a farm in Spain.
- The transmission of H5N1 from birds to mammals is rare, but when it does occur, it can be a cause for concern, as the virus could accumulate mutations and acquire the ability to potentially initiate human outbreaks.
- H5N1 has a high mortality rate of over 60% in humans and is primarily transmitted to humans through close contact with infected birds or animals, either through handling infected poultry or exposure to contaminated environments.
6. Enhanced Measures
- As the current H5N1 outbreak continues unabated with devastating impact on the avian population globally, and with significant ecological and economic consequences, the time has never been better to initiate efforts for preparedness towards building better, more efficient vaccines for avians and humans.
- Genomic surveillance should be done to map the continued evolution of the virus.
- Moreover, enhanced biosecurity measures are required to protect both animal and public health.
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For Prelims: Avian influenza H5N1, Bird Flu, Hemagglutinin (HA) and Neuraminidase (NA), influenza A viruses, Genomic surveillance, Pathogens, and Viruses.
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Previous year Questions
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1. H1N1 virus is sometimes mentioned in the news with reference to which one of the following diseases? (UPSC 2015) A. AIDS Answer: D 2. Consider the following statements : (UPSC 2010) 1. Every individual in the population is an equally susceptible host for Swine Flu. 2. Antibiotics have no role in the primary treatment of Swine Flu. 3. To prevent the future spread of Swine Flu in the epidemic area, the swine (pigs) must all be culled. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 only C. 2 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: A 3. Which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2013) 1. Viruses lack enzymes necessary for the generation of energy. 2. Viruses can be cultured in any synthetic medium. 3. Viruses are transmitted from one organism to another by biological vectors only. Select the correct answer using the codes given below. A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: A |
EUROPEAN FREE TRADE ASSOCIATION (EFTA)
The European Free Trade Association (EFTA) is an intergovernmental organization that aims to facilitate free trade and economic cooperation among its member states. EFTA was established on May 3, 1960, as an alternative trade bloc to the European Economic Community (EEC), which later evolved into the European Union (EU). The founding members of EFTA were Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.
The key aspects of EFTA
EFTA comprises four member countries: Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland. The organization has experienced changes in membership over the years, with some countries joining or leaving.
- EFTA's primary objectives include promoting free trade and economic cooperation among its member states. It aims to facilitate the reduction or elimination of barriers to trade in goods and services, enhance economic relations, and foster mutual understanding and collaboration in various economic sectors.
- While EFTA is a distinct organization, its member states often have close economic ties with the European Union. EFTA countries have developed various agreements and arrangements with the EU to facilitate trade and economic cooperation. However, EFTA member states are not part of the EU Customs Union or the EU Single Market.
- EFTA has engaged in numerous free trade agreements (FTAs) with countries and regions around the world. These agreements aim to reduce or eliminate tariffs and other trade barriers, promoting the flow of goods and services. EFTA countries have FTAs with countries in Europe, Asia, Africa, and South America.
- The EFTA Surveillance Authority oversees the application of EFTA's rules in its member states. It monitors compliance with agreements, including ensuring that competition rules and other regulations are adhered to by member countries.
- The EFTA Court serves as the judicial body for the EFTA states. It handles disputes related to the interpretation and application of EFTA law. The court's decisions contribute to the legal framework of EFTA's trade and economic agreements.
- Over the years, EFTA has seen changes in its membership. Some countries have joined, while others have left. Accession to EFTA involves negotiations and the fulfillment of certain criteria, reflecting the organization's commitment to free trade and economic cooperation.
- EFTA member countries have diverse and developed economies. They are known for their high living standards, economic stability, and competitiveness. The organization provides a platform for these countries to collaborate and engage in trade with partners around the world.
- While trade is a central focus, EFTA member states also collaborate in other areas, including research and development, innovation, and cultural exchanges. The organization serves as a forum for discussing and addressing various economic and policy issues.
Main Goals of EFTA
- To promote free trade and economic integration among its member states.
- To strengthen member states' economies and improve their competitiveness on the global market.
- To cooperate with other countries and international organizations to further liberalize trade and promote economic development.
Institutional Structure
- The EFTA Council is the organization's highest governing body, consisting of representatives from each member state. It meets regularly to discuss and decide on important matters related to EFTA's objectives and activities.
- The EFTA Secretariat, based in Geneva, Switzerland, provides administrative support and facilitates communication among member states.
- EFTA actively engages in negotiations and establishes free trade agreements (FTAs) with various countries and regions outside the organization, contributing to the expansion of economic cooperation.
Current Status of EFTA
- Despite not being part of the EU, EFTA members maintain close economic ties with the EU through a series of bilateral agreements.
- They participate in the European Single Market and are part of the Schengen Area, allowing for the free movement of goods, services, capital, and people.
- EFTA remains an important economic player in Europe, with a combined GDP of over €1 trillion and a population of over 13 million.
Benefits of EFTA Membership
- EFTA's free trade agreements and common market have led to a significant increase in trade and investment between member states and their trading partners.
- EFTA's focus on free trade and economic cooperation has helped to stimulate economic growth in member states.
- By cooperating on research and development, innovation, and education, EFTA member states have become more competitive in the global market.
- EFTA membership has contributed to a higher standard of living and greater prosperity for the citizens of member states.
Challenges for EFTA
- The EU remains EFTA's largest trading partner, but it also poses a significant challenge. The EU's larger size and economic power give it an advantage in negotiations, and some EFTA businesses have expressed concerns about being at a disadvantage compared to their EU counterparts.
- With the ongoing integration of the EU, EFTA needs to ensure that it remains relevant and attractive to potential members and trading partners. The association needs to continue to find ways to differentiate itself from the EU and to offer unique benefits to its members.
- The global economy is constantly evolving, and EFTA needs to be able to adapt to these changes. The association needs to focus on emerging markets and new technologies to ensure that its members remain competitive in the long term.
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For Prelims: European Union, free trade, European Free Trade Association, European Economic Community
For Mains:
1. Examine the impact of Switzerland's policy on tariff-free entry for all industrial goods on India's potential gains from the ongoing India-EFTA Free Trade Agreement negotiations. (250 Words)
2. Discuss the strategies and opportunities for EFTA to remain relevant, differentiate itself, and adapt to the evolving global economy. (250 Words)
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INDIA- CANADA
1. Context
2. Canada's Allegation
- Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau accusation that Indian security agencies might be linked to the murder of a Canadian citizen, Hardeep Singh Nijjar, sent shockwaves through diplomatic circles.
- Such a serious charge by a foreign leader against another nation before conclusive proof is rare and demands a thorough investigation.
- Canada's Foreign Minister Melanie Joly has emphasized the need for cooperation between the two countries in the investigation.
3. Diplomatic Escalation
- Canada took the initial step in the escalation by expelling an Indian diplomat in Ottawa, identified as the head of the Indian intelligence agency.
- In response, India expelled a Canadian diplomat based in New Delhi.
- India also issued travel advisories for its citizens in Canada, raising concerns about their safety. Visa services were suspended, affecting various categories of travellers.
4. About the Khalistan movement
- The Khalistan movement is a Sikh separatist movement that seeks to create an independent Sikh state called Khalistan in the Indian state of Punjab.
- The movement began in the 1970s and has been marked by violence and political unrest.
- The Khalistan movement is based on the belief that the Sikhs are a distinct people with their own unique culture and history.
- Sikhs believe that they have been persecuted by the Indian government, and they demand an independent state where they can govern themselves.
- The Khalistan movement has been supported by some Sikhs in India and abroad.
- However, it is opposed by the Indian government, which considers it to be a threat to national security.
4.1. Khalistan Problem Resurfaces
- This crisis has brought the long-standing issue of Khalistan back into India-Canada relations.
- While the relationship faced challenges in the past, including Canada's criticism of India's nuclear tests in 1998, the current issue centres around Canada's perceived support for separatist Khalistani groups.
- Canada's Liberal Party has been accused of pandering to these groups for votes, particularly in constituencies where Khalistani sympathies hold sway.
4.2. Khalistan and Canadian Politics
- Jagmeet 'Jimmy' Dhaliwal, associated with Canada's New Democratic Party, is viewed with suspicion by the Indian establishment due to his pro-Khalistan sympathies.
- Canada's hosting of events attended by individuals linked to pro-Khalistan outfits, like Jaspal Atwal, during Trudeau's visit in 2018, further strained relations.
- The Khalistan "referendum," encouraged by Pakistani intelligence agencies, has been a significant irritant in recent years.
5. Social and economic indicators between India and Canada
Canada's FDI in India: Canada accounts for a modest 0.56% of India's total Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). Out of the $645,386.0884 million in FDI equity inflow into India between April 2000 and June 2023, Canada contributed 0.5644% ($3,642.5243 million).
Indian Diaspora in Canada: Canada is home to a significant portion of overseas Indians. Of the 3,21,00,340 overseas Indians, 5.26% (16,89,055) reside in Canada. This includes 1,78,410 Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) and 15,10,645 Persons of Indian Origin (PIOs).
Indian Students in Canada: Canada is a popular destination for Indian students. In 2022, out of an estimated 13,24,954 Indian students studying abroad, 13.83% (1,83,310) were enrolled in Canadian institutions, according to data from the Ministry of External Affairs.
Canada's Role in Indian Tourism: Canada is the fourth-largest source of tourists visiting India, based on 2021 figures. Canadian tourists accounted for 5.3% (80,437) of Foreign Tourist Arrivals (FTAs) in India during that year. Notably, a significant portion of these tourists (72.6%) were members of the Indian diaspora.
Bilateral Trade: India's bilateral trade with Canada amounted to $8,161.02 million in the financial year 2022-23, making up only 0.70% of India's total trade of $1,165,000.88 million. Despite its modest size, India maintains a trade surplus with Canada, with exports surpassing imports by $58.45 million.
Trade Highlights
India's major exports to Canada during 2022-23 included medicines, vannamei shrimp, smartphones, gold-set diamond jewellery, basmati rice, iron pipes for oil/gas pipelines, coaches powered by external electricity, diamonds, and cotton t-shirts.
Key imports from Canada included coking coal, potassium chloride, lentils (masur dal), newsprint, wood pulp (mechanical and chemical pulp processes), and copper ores and concentrates.
5.1. Top Indian Imports from Canada
6. Diplomatic Complexity
- Diplomats familiar with Canada's foreign policy assert that the country is often influenced by immigrant interests.
- Pro-Khalistan elements, though a minority in the Canadian Sikh community, control several influential gurdwaras and can exert political influence in key constituencies.
- This small but influential group shapes Canada's policy towards India.
7. Geopolitical Implications
- Canada holds a significant role in global geopolitics, being part of the G7 and sharing intelligence within the Five Eyes alliance.
- This diplomatic standoff poses a challenge for Western powers, including the US, UK, Australia, Germany, France, and Japan, as they maintain strategic partnerships with both Canada and India.
- Balancing these relationships becomes crucial in the wake of this crisis.
8. Conclusion
- The India-Canada diplomatic crisis underscores the importance of addressing each other's concerns and conducting a fair and impartial investigation into the allegations.
- Both nations must work to de-escalate tensions and find a way forward while considering the broader geopolitical implications of their actions.
- This crisis serves as a lesson for Canada and its partners on how to handle the sensitive issue of Khalistan in diplomatic relations.
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For Prelims: India-Canada, Khalistan, Foreign Direct Investment, Tourism, Bilateral Trade, Geo-politics, Wood Pulp, News Print, Lentils, Potassium Chloride, Coking Coal
For Mains:
1. Examine the resurgence of the Khalistan movement in India-Canada relations. How has Canada's perceived support for Khalistani groups affected bilateral ties? (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. In the context of bilateral trade negotiations between India and the European Union, what is the difference between European Commission and European Council? (UPSC 2010)
1. European Commission represents the EU in trade negotiations whereas the European Council participates in the legislation of matters pertaining to economic policies of the European Union.
2. European Commission comprises of the Heads of State or government of member countries whereas the European Council comprises of the persons nominated by European Parliament.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: D
2. With reference to Foreign Direct Investment in India, which one of the following is considered its major characteristic? (UPSC 2020)
A. It is the investment through capital instruments essentially in a listed company.
B. It is a largely non-debt creating capital flow.
C. It is the investment which involves debt-servicing.
D. It is the investment made by foreign institutional investors in the Government securities.
Answer: B
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COP 29
- A significant milestone in COP history was the establishment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988, a collaborative effort between the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
- The IPCC's primary role is to produce comprehensive assessment, special, and methodological reports that review scientific data on climate change and propose potential responses.
- Today, the IPCC is recognized as a critical boundary organization at the science-policy interface, but during the 1980s, climate science faced considerable uncertainty, skepticism, and limited data. The release of the IPCC's first report in 1990 was pivotal, prompting global calls for a climate change treaty
- The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is an international organization founded in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
- It was created to provide a clear, scientific view of the current state of knowledge on climate change, its potential impacts, and possible response options.
- The IPCC does not conduct its own research; rather, it assesses and synthesizes the work of thousands of scientists worldwide to deliver objective and transparent reports.
- These assessment reports are widely used by policymakers to inform climate-related decisions and international negotiations, such as those under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
- The IPCC’s work is structured around producing major assessment reports, special reports on specific issues, and methodologies to assist nations in compiling greenhouse gas inventories.
- Its first report, published in 1990, was instrumental in bringing global attention to climate change and laid the groundwork for the formation of international climate treaties, including the UNFCCC.
- Over time, the IPCC has become a critical link between scientific research and policy action, helping shape the global response to climate change
- The Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC) was a key body established to develop and negotiate international agreements on climate change. Formed in response to the growing urgency to address climate issues, the INC's most significant achievement was drafting the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which was finalized and adopted at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.
- The INC consisted of representatives from various countries and was tasked with creating a framework for global cooperation on climate action. This involved negotiating the responsibilities of countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, adapt to the impacts of climate change, and promote sustainable development practices.
- The work of the INC laid the foundation for subsequent climate treaties and protocols, including the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement, establishing a path for international collaboration on climate change mitigation and adaptation.
- The committee’s work concluded once the UNFCCC was adopted, and its ongoing functions were transferred to the Conference of the Parties (COP), which now convenes annually to review progress and negotiate further commitments
- The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is a foundational international treaty adopted at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.
- Its primary goal is to address climate change by stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to prevent dangerous human-induced interference with the climate system. The UNFCCC serves as the main framework guiding global efforts to mitigate climate change, adapt to its impacts, and promote sustainable development.
- Under the UNFCCC, countries agreed to collaborate on climate action, with developed nations taking the lead in reducing emissions, recognizing their historical contributions to greenhouse gas levels.
- The convention established a process for ongoing negotiations, known as the Conference of the Parties (COP), where member states meet annually to review progress, set goals, and negotiate commitments.
- Key agreements, such as the Kyoto Protocol in 1997 and the Paris Agreement in 2015, were formed under the UNFCCC framework, enabling countries to establish legally binding or voluntary emissions reduction targets and adaptation strategies.
- The UNFCCC remains a crucial platform for international cooperation on climate change, involving over 190 countries in efforts to address one of the most pressing global challenges of the 21st century
- The UNFCCC established ambitious goals for tackling climate change, yet it became clear that additional processes were necessary to support and expand the convention's objectives.
- Over time, the Framework Convention led to the creation of various institutions, processes, and structures to foster global collaboration.
- Among these was the establishment of the Conference of the Parties (COP), which serves as the convention's primary governing body.
- Each year, the COP gathers representatives from the parties—countries that have ratified the UNFCCC—to review progress, negotiate further actions, and strengthen commitments.
- The COP is unique as the world’s only multilateral forum where nearly all nations come together to jointly craft and implement climate policies. Currently, the UNFCCC includes 198 parties (197 countries and the European Union).
- The first COP took place in Berlin, Germany, in 1995, where the Berlin Mandate was introduced. This milestone emphasized the need for legally binding commitments specifically for developed countries, marking a significant advancement in international climate action
- The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty that was adopted in 1997 under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and came into effect in 2005.
- It was the first legally binding agreement to set specific greenhouse gas emission reduction targets for developed countries, recognizing their historical responsibility for climate change.
- The protocol’s primary objective was to reduce global emissions by at least 5% below 1990 levels during its first commitment period, from 2008 to 2012.
- One of the protocol's innovative features was its market-based mechanisms, including emissions trading, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and Joint Implementation (JI).
- These mechanisms allowed countries to meet part of their targets through investments in emission-reducing projects, either within their own borders or in other nations, especially developing countries.
- While the Kyoto Protocol marked a major step forward in international climate policy, it faced challenges. Some key nations, such as the United States, opted not to ratify it, and developing countries were not required to reduce emissions under the agreement, leading to criticism about its fairness and effectiveness.
- Despite its limitations, the Kyoto Protocol set the foundation for future climate agreements, including the Paris Agreement, which took a more inclusive approach to emission reductions
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For Prelims: COP29, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Paris Agreement, Fossil Fuel, Loss and Damage Fund, carbon dioxide, Methane, Glasgow conference
For Mains:
1. Examine the key outcomes of COP28, focusing on the measures aimed at transitioning away from fossil fuels and mitigating methane emissions. Assess the effectiveness of the agreements in catalyzing immediate climate actions. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions 1. The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has announced which country to host the 28th Conference of the Parties (COP28) in 2023? (SSC CGL 2023) A. UAE B. US C. UK D. Russia
2. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international treaty drawn at (UPSC 2010) A. United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm, 1972 B. UN Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, 1992 C. World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, 2002 D. UN Climate Change Conference Copenhagen, 2009
3. UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) entered into from - (Sr. Teacher Gr II NON-TSP G.K. 2018) A. 21 March 1994 B. 5 June 1992 C. 12 May 1991 D. 5 June 1993
4. The 'Paris Agreement' adopted in Conference of the Parties (COP 21) in December 2015 will be effective provided the document is signed by: (UPSC CAPF 2016) A. 51 UNFCCC parties accounting for at least 51% of global greenhouse gas emission
B. 51 UNFCCC parties accounting for at least 55% of global greenhouse gas emission
C. 55 UNFCCC parties accounting for at least 55% of global greenhouse gas emission
D. 75 UNFCCC parties accounting for at least 51% of global greeenhouse gas emission
5. The term ‘Intended Nationally Determined Contributions’ is sometimes seen in the news in the context of (UPSC 2016) (a) pledges made by the European countries to rehabilitate refugees from the war-affected Middle East
6. With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2016)
Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answers: 1-A, 2-B, 3-A, 4-C, 5-B, 6-B Mains1. ‘Climate change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change? (UPSC 2017) 2. Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). What are the commitments made by India in this conference? (UPSC 2021) |
Source: The Indian Express
COMMISSION FOR AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT (CAQM)
Air pollution in Delhi has been in the ‘severe’ and ‘severe plus’ category for the most part of the last 10 days. This week, the Supreme Court pulled up the Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM), the government’s monitoring agency, on its inadequate pollution control response.
- The Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) in the National Capital Region (NCR) and nearby areas was initially established through an ordinance in 2020, which was subsequently replaced by an Act of Parliament in 2021.
- Its primary mandate is to enhance coordination, conduct research, identify issues, and address challenges related to air quality and associated concerns.
- At its inception, the CAQM comprised 15 members, including current and former officials from the Ministry of Environment and other Union government departments, along with representatives from various State governments, NGOs, and other organizations. Currently, the commission, led by Rajesh Verma, has expanded to 27 members.
- The CAQM succeeded the Environmental Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority (EPCA), which was created by the Supreme Court in 1998. Unlike the CAQM, the EPCA lacked statutory authority, which experts criticized as limiting its ability to enforce compliance among defiant agencies.
- Nevertheless, several initiatives now overseen by the CAQM, such as the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP)—a framework of temporary emergency measures to combat air pollution—were originally implemented under the EPCA's guidance
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Powers of CAQM
The Commission for Air Quality Management in the National Capital Region and Adjoining Areas Act, 2021, empowers the CAQM to undertake any necessary measures, issue directives, and address grievances aimed at safeguarding and enhancing air quality in the NCR and surrounding regions. According to Section 14 of the Act, the commission is authorized to take strict action against officials who fail to comply with its directives
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- The Supreme Court recently criticized the Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) for delays in enforcing stricter anti-pollution measures as Delhi's air quality worsened.
- Despite the Air Quality Index (AQI) reaching hazardous levels, the CAQM postponed the implementation of Stage 4 measures under the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP), prompting the Court to question the lack of urgency in addressing the crisis.
- The justices emphasized that such measures should be triggered as soon as AQI levels indicate severe pollution to prevent further deterioration.
- The Court also highlighted systemic failures, including inadequate action against stubble burning in Punjab and Haryana, and criticized the CAQM for focusing on meetings without concrete enforcement of rules.
- It warned against scaling down measures prematurely and stressed the need for stricter penalties and immediate action to curb pollution sources effectively
- Although the CAQM formulates strategies and coordinates with various agencies, the actual implementation of these measures rests with the respective agencies.
- A CAQM official noted that the commission has significantly improved coordination and planning efforts.
- For instance, while paddy stubble burning—a major contributor to severe air pollution—occurs primarily in October and November, discussions with State officials begin as early as February and continue throughout the season.
- In 2022, the CAQM collaborated with Punjab and Haryana to develop action plans for managing stubble burning, which are reviewed and updated annually.
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For Prelims: Graded Response Action Plan, National Capital Region (NCR),Environmental pollution(prevention control)Authority (EPCA).
For Mains:
1. What is GRAP? What is the Delhi-NCR action plan as air pollution increases? (250 words).
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LACHIT BORPUKHAN
- Lachit Borphukan (1622–1672) was a legendary military commander of the Ahom Kingdom, celebrated for his leadership and strategic acumen in defending Assam from Mughal invasions.
- His most notable achievement was leading the Ahom forces to victory in the Battle of Saraighat (1671), where he thwarted the Mughal army, commanded by Raja Ramsingh I, from reclaiming Assam.
- This battle is remembered as a landmark in Indian military history for its display of guerrilla tactics and naval warfare on the Brahmaputra River.
- Born on November 24, 1622, Lachit was the son of Momai Tamuli Barbarua, a prominent administrator and warrior of the Ahom Kingdom.
- He was appointed by King Charadhwaj Singha as one of the five Borphukans, a prestigious position that combined administrative, judicial, and military responsibilities.
- Lachit's dedication to his duties and his patriotism are exemplified in the story of how he executed his uncle for neglecting his responsibilities during the construction of a crucial defensive rampart.
- His unwavering commitment earned him immense respect and has made him a symbol of Assamese pride and valor.
- Every year on November 24, Lachit Divas is observed in Assam to honor his legacy
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From 1615 to 1682, the Mughal Empire, led by Jahangir and later Aurangzeb, launched several campaigns to conquer the Ahom kingdom. In January 1662, Mir Jumla, the Governor of Bengal, led Mughal forces in a campaign that resulted in the occupation of parts of Ahom territory.
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Between 1667 and 1682, the Ahoms, under successive rulers beginning with Chakradhwaj Singha (reigning from 1663 to 1670), mounted a determined counter-offensive to recover their lost lands.
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In 1669, Aurangzeb tasked Raja Ram Singh I with regaining the territories reclaimed by the Ahoms. This led to the Battle of Alaboi on August 5, 1669, fought in the Alaboi Hills near Dadara in North Guwahati.
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Unlike the Mughals, who favored open-field battles, Lachit Borphukan used his deep understanding of the terrain to employ guerrilla tactics. These strategies enabled his smaller, more agile forces to outmaneuver the Mughal army.
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Similar to Shivaji’s tactics against the Mughals in Marathwada, Lachit struck the enemy through surprise raids, targeting their camps and static positions. These assaults caused significant casualties among unsuspecting Mughal troops and disrupted their operations.
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After initial setbacks, Ram Singh deployed his elite Rajput and Mughal veterans, which shifted the momentum of the Battle of Alaboi. Approximately 10,000 Ahom soldiers lost their lives, as per Assam’s archaeological records.
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Unlike in Alaboi, where Lachit was forced into a land battle, he strategically lured the Mughals into a naval engagement during the Battle of Saraighat. As a skilled naval commander, he orchestrated a series of surprise pincer movements to outflank and overpower the Mughal fleet.
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Historian H.K. Barpujari noted that the Ahom forces combined frontal assaults with surprise rear attacks. They deceived the Mughal fleet by feigning an attack from the front, prompting the Mughals to leave their rear vulnerable, allowing the main Ahom fleet to secure a decisive victory.
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Lachit succumbed to a chronic illness a year after the Battle of Saraighat. Despite his poor health during the battle, he led his troops to triumph, further solidifying his legendary status.
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The Battle of Saraighat cemented Lachit Borphukan’s reputation as a brilliant strategist, earning comparisons with India’s greatest military leaders. To honor his legacy, the Lachit Borphukan Gold Medal, established in 1999, is awarded to the best cadet at the National Defence Academy
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For Prelims: Anglo-Burmese War, Treaty of Yandabo
For Mains: Anglo-Burmese Wars as part of Colonial Expansion, Role of treaties like Yandabo in consolidating British control over new territories
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