ARTICLE 356
1. Context
2. Article 356
- Article 356 of the Constitution of India gives the President of India power to suspend state government and impose President's rule of any state in the country "if he is satisfied that a situation has arisen in which the government of the state cannot be carried on by the provisions of the Constitution.
- It is also known as a "State Emergency" or "Constitutional Emergency".
- Upon the imposition of this rule, there would be no council of Ministers.
- The state will fall under the direct control of the Union government, and the Governor will continue to head the proceedings, representing the President of India.
3. Parliamentary approval and Duration
- A proclamation imposing President's Rule must be approved by both the House of Parliament within two months from the date of its issue.
- The approval takes place through a simple majority in either House, that is, a majority of the members of the House present and voting.
- Initially valid for six months, the President's Rule can be extended for a maximum period of three years with the approval of the Parliament, every six months.
4. Report of the Governor
- Under Article 356, President's Rule is imposed if the President, upon receipt of the report from the Governor of the state or otherwise, is satisfied that a situation has arisen in which the government of the state cannot be carried on by the provisions of the Constitution.
- A proclamation of the President's Rule may be revoked by the President at any time by a subsequent proclamation. Such a proclamation does not require parliamentary approval.
5. Origins of Article 356
- Article 356 was inspired by section 93 of the Government of India Act, of 1935. This provided that if a Governor of a province was satisfied that a situation had arisen in which the government of the province cannot be carried on by the provisions of the said Act, he could assume to himself all or any of the powers of the government and discharge those functions in his discretion.
- The Governor, could not encroach upon the powers of the high court. For the British, this provision allowed for a 'controlled democracy'-while providing some autonomy to provincial governments, section 93 allowed the British authorities to exercise ultimate power when they deemed necessary.
6. How was the provision used as a political weapon in independent India?
- During the decades of Congress's dominance at the Centre, Article 356 was used against governments of the Left and regional parties in the states.
- Until 1959, Jawaharlal Nehru's government had used the article six times, including to dislodge the first-ever elected communist government in the world, in Kerela in 1959.
- In the 1960s, it was used 11 times. After Indira came to power in 1966, Article 356 was used seven times between 1967 and 1969 alone.
- The 1970s were more politically turbulent. Between 1970 and 1974, President's Rule was imposed 19 times.
- Post Emergency, the Janata party government used it in 1977 to summarily dismiss nine congress-state governments. When Indira returned to power in 1980, her government too imposed president's Rule in nine states.
- In 1992-93, Prime Minister Narasimha Rao dismissed three BJP governments in the wake of the demolition of Babri Masjid, besides Kalyan Singh's government in UP.
7. Article 356 and its Safeguards
- The 1994 Supreme Court (S.R.Bommai case) majority decision, in essence, overturned a long tradition that the use of Article 356 was not subject to review by courts, a doctrine articulated in a landmark 1997 case, State of Rajasthan Vs Union of India.
- The Bommai case verdict laid down the conditions under which state governments may be dismissed, and the mechanisms for that process.
- In the S.R. Bommai case, a nine-member bench of the supreme court construed the scope of Article 356, which also allows the imposition of the President's Rule in the states, with stringent conditions.
- These included ascertaining whether objective conditions exist which render it impossible to carry out governance in the state where the proclamation has been made and the process has to be approved by both Houses of Parliament before consideration for Judicial review.
For Prelims & Mains
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For Prelims: Article 356, State Emergency, President, Parliament, Government of India Act, of 1935, Lok sabha, Rajya Sabha, S.R.Bommai case and section 93 of the Government of India Act, of 1935.
For Mains:
1.Explain how Article 356 is used as a political weapon in independent India and discuss its safeguards.
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PHONE TAPPING
- Phone tapping can only be carried out with proper legal authorization. This typically involves obtaining a warrant from designated authorities, such as the Home Secretary or the Union Home Ministry, under specific conditions outlined in the law. These conditions usually involve national security concerns, threats to public order, or in the interest of preventing a crime
- Once authorized, government agencies such as law enforcement or intelligence agencies liaise with telecom service providers (TSPs) to facilitate the interception. TSPs are required to cooperate with government agencies in providing access to the targeted communication channels
- TSPs use specialised equipment to tap into phone conversations or data transmissions. This can involve the installation of intercepting devices at various points within the telecommunications infrastructure, allowing for the monitoring of phone calls, text messages, and Internet communications
- Once intercepted, the communications are typically monitored and analyzed by designated personnel within the relevant government agencies. This may involve listening to phone calls, reading text messages, or analyzing internet traffic to gather intelligence or evidence related to the authorized investigation
- There are legal safeguards in place to prevent abuse of phone tapping powers. The intercepted communications must be used strictly for the purposes authorized by the warrant, and there are provisions for judicial oversight to ensure compliance with legal procedures and protection of individual rights to privacy
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Who Can Tap Phones?
In various states, police possess the authority to conduct phone tapping. At the national level, ten agencies are empowered to carry out such actions: the Intelligence Bureau, Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), Enforcement Directorate, Narcotics Control Bureau, Central Board of Direct Taxes, Directorate of Revenue Intelligence, National Investigation Agency, Research and Analysis Wing (RAW), Directorate of Signal Intelligence, and the Delhi Police Commissioner. Any phone tapping conducted by unauthorized agencies is deemed unlawful. The regulations governing phone tapping in India are outlined in the Indian Telegraph Act of 1885
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- Section 5(2) of the Indian Telegraph Act of 1885 stipulates that phone tapping can be authorized by the Centre or states in cases of public emergencies or for public safety reasons, provided it is deemed necessary for maintaining public safety, national sovereignty, integrity, security, friendly relations with foreign states, public order, or preventing incitement to commit offenses.
- However, there is an exemption for the press, stating that press messages intended for publication in India from accredited correspondents to the Central or State Governments shall not be intercepted or detained unless specifically prohibited. The competent authority must document the reasons for phone tapping in writing.
- According to Rule 419A of the Indian Telegraph (Amendment) Rules, 2007, phone tapping orders can only be issued by designated government officials. Orders from the Government of India are issued by the Secretary to the Ministry of Home Affairs, while those from State Governments are issued by the Secretary in charge of the Home Department. These orders must be conveyed in writing to the service provider before phone tapping can commence.
- In exceptional circumstances, such as remote areas or operational urgencies, an authorized officer, not below the rank of a Joint Secretary to the Government of India or the State Home Secretary, may issue an order. However, in such cases, the interception must be promptly reported to the competent authority, which must approve or disapprove it within seven working days. If confirmation is not received within this period, the interception must cease.
- The duration of interception orders does not exceed 60 days unless renewed, up to a maximum of 180 days. Orders must contain reasons, and copies are forwarded to a review committee within seven days. This committee, chaired by the Cabinet Secretary at the Centre or the Chief Secretary in states, reviews interception requests regularly.
- Records related to interception orders are destroyed every six months unless required for functional purposes, and service providers are required to destroy interception-related records within two months of discontinuation. Multiple provisions aim to maintain transparency and accountability throughout the process.
- Service providers are responsible for ensuring no unauthorized interception occurs, with strict penalties, including fines or license revocation, for non-compliance. They must implement internal checks to maintain extreme secrecy and prevent unauthorized interception by their employees
The Indian Telegraph Act of 1885 holds significant historical importance in the context of India's telecommunications landscape.
Here's a brief overview of its historical background:
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Colonial Era: The Act was enacted during British colonial rule in India. It was a time when telegraphy was rapidly advancing globally and played a crucial role in communication and administration. The British colonial government in India recognized the importance of regulating telegraph services to maintain control and facilitate efficient communication across the vast territories of the Indian subcontinent.
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Consolidation of Telegraph Services: Prior to the enactment of the Indian Telegraph Act, telegraph services in India were managed by various private companies and government departments. The Act aimed to consolidate and regulate these services under a unified legal framework, providing the colonial government with the authority to oversee and manage telegraph communication effectively.
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Expansion of Telegraph Network: The late 19th century witnessed significant expansion in India's telegraph network, connecting major cities, towns, and administrative centers across the country. The Indian Telegraph Act provided the legal framework necessary for the establishment, operation, and maintenance of telegraph lines, stations, and equipment throughout British India.
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Regulation of Communication: The Act empowered the colonial government to regulate telegraph communication in India. It outlined provisions for issuing licenses, collecting fees, and enforcing regulations related to telegraphy. This regulatory framework played a crucial role in ensuring the smooth functioning of telegraph services and maintaining security and order in the colonial administration.
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Adaptation and Amendments: Over the years, the Indian Telegraph Act has undergone several amendments to keep pace with technological advancements and evolving communication needs. Subsequent amendments have expanded the scope of the Act to encompass new technologies such as telephone, internet, and digital communication, while also addressing emerging challenges related to privacy, security, and surveillance
The question of whether reforms are needed or if the Indian Telegraph Act of 1885 should be revoked entirely is a complex one, and it depends on various factors, including evolving technological advancements, legal considerations, and societal needs.
Here are some perspectives to consider:
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Reforms within the Act: The Indian Telegraph Act, despite its age, has been subject to numerous amendments over the years to accommodate changes in technology and communication practices. Reforms within the Act could focus on updating its provisions to reflect contemporary challenges such as digital communication, cybersecurity, and privacy concerns. This might involve clarifying and strengthening provisions related to data protection, surveillance, and lawful interception while safeguarding individual rights and freedoms.
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Modernization of Telecommunication Laws: Rather than revoking the Indian Telegraph Act outright, there could be a push for broader reforms aimed at modernizing telecommunication laws in India. This could involve drafting comprehensive legislation that addresses not only telegraphy but also other forms of communication such as telephone, internet, and digital platforms. Such legislation could provide a more coherent and adaptive framework for regulating modern communication technologies while upholding fundamental rights and principles.
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Enhanced Oversight and Accountability: Regardless of whether the Indian Telegraph Act is retained or replaced, there is a need for enhanced oversight and accountability mechanisms to ensure that any surveillance or interception activities conducted by authorities comply with legal standards and respect individual privacy rights. This could involve establishing independent oversight bodies or strengthening existing mechanisms for judicial review and transparency in surveillance practices.
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Public Consultation and Stakeholder Engagement: Any reforms to telecommunication laws, including the Indian Telegraph Act, should involve meaningful public consultation and engagement with relevant stakeholders, including civil society organizations, legal experts, technologists, and industry representatives. This would help ensure that any proposed changes reflect diverse perspectives and address the needs and concerns of all stakeholders.
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International Best Practices: In considering reforms to telecommunication laws, policymakers could also look to international best practices and standards for guidance. Studying the approaches adopted by other countries in regulating communication technologies and balancing security needs with individual rights could provide valuable insights for reform efforts in India
The legality of phone tapping in India must be considered within the framework of constitutional provisions, particularly Article 21 of the Indian Constitution, which guarantees the fundamental right to privacy and personal liberty. Here's an overview of how Article 21 relates to the legality of phone tapping:
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Article 21 - Right to Privacy and Personal Liberty: Article 21 of the Indian Constitution states that "no person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law." This provision is interpreted to encompass the right to privacy, which includes the right to confidentiality of communications.
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Scope of Article 21 in the Context of Phone Tapping: Phone tapping involves the interception of private communications, which directly implicates the right to privacy protected under Article 21. Individuals have a reasonable expectation of privacy in their communications, and any intrusion into this privacy must be justified by law and meet certain procedural safeguards.
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Legal Framework for Phone Tapping: The Indian Telegraph Act of 1885, along with subsequent amendments and rules, provides the legal framework for phone tapping in India. Section 5(2) of the Act allows for phone tapping in specific circumstances, such as public emergencies or in the interest of public safety, subject to procedural safeguards and oversight.
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Constitutional Validity of Phone Tapping: The Supreme Court of India has upheld the constitutionality of phone tapping in certain circumstances, provided it is carried out in accordance with law and procedural safeguards. In the landmark case of K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India (2017), the Supreme Court recognized the right to privacy as a fundamental right under Article 21 and emphasized the need for strict adherence to legal requirements and safeguards in cases involving intrusion into privacy, including phone tapping.
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Procedural Safeguards and Judicial Oversight: To ensure the legality of phone tapping, it must be authorized by competent authorities under the Indian Telegraph Act, and specific procedural safeguards must be followed. This includes obtaining prior authorization from designated officials, recording reasons for phone tapping, and judicial oversight to prevent abuse of power.
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Balancing Privacy and State Interests: While Article 21 protects the right to privacy, it also allows for reasonable restrictions on this right in the interest of state security, public order, and preventing crime. The legality of phone tapping depends on striking a balance between individual privacy rights and legitimate state interests, with the requirement that any intrusion into privacy be proportionate, necessary, and authorized by law
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For Prelims: Indian Polity and Governance
For Mains: General Studies II: Government policies and interventions for development in various sectors and issues arising out of their design and implementation
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Previous Year Questions
1.As per the interpretation by the Supreme Court of India, tapping of phone calls infracts the fundamental right provided in Article ________ of the Constitution.(SSC CPO 2019)
A.24
B.21
C.22
D.25
Answer (B)
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INDIA-MYANMAR
As many as 22 out of 43 crossing points along the Myanmar border under the revised Free Movement Regime (FMR) agreement have started functioning, said a senior government official
2.India's free movement regime (FMR) agreement with Myanmar
- The Free Movement Regime (FMR) is a mutually agreed-upon arrangement between India and Myanmar, allowing tribes residing along the shared border to travel up to 16 kilometers inside each other's country without the need for a visa.
- This initiative was implemented in 2018 as part of the Act East policy under the Narendra Modi government, coinciding with an improvement in diplomatic relations between the two nations.
- Originally intended for implementation in 2017, the FMR faced a delay due to the Rohingya refugee crisis that unfolded in August of that year.
- The historical context of the India-Myanmar border reveals that it was demarcated by the British in 1826 without consulting the opinions of the local inhabitants.
- This arbitrary division separated people of the same ethnicity and culture into two nations without their consent, and the present-day border reflects the British-drawn line.
- The communities residing in the region maintain strong ethnic and familial ties across the border. Notably, in Manipur's Moreh region, some villages have homes situated in Myanmar, while in Nagaland's Mon district, the border passes through the residence of the chief of Longwa village, effectively splitting his home into two.
- Beyond fostering people-to-people contact, the FMR aimed to boost local trade and business. The region has a rich history of trans-border commerce through customs and border haats, which is crucial for sustaining local livelihoods in the context of a low-income economy.
- For those on the Myanmar side of the border, Indian towns are more accessible for business, education, and healthcare compared to options within their own country
3. Significance of Free Movement Regime Agreement
- The ongoing conflict in Manipur involves a significant aspect related to the illegal migration of tribal Kuki-Chin groups from Myanmar into India. In this complex situation, the Meiteis have accused these migrants and an alleged "narco-terror network" along the India-Myanmar Border (IMB) of causing disturbances in the state.
- Conversely, the Kukis have accused the Meiteis and Chief Minister N Biren Singh, a Meitei himself, of using these allegations as a pretext for what they perceive as "ethnic cleansing."
- Amidst the heated and sensitive discussions surrounding this issue, there are concerns raised about the Free Movement Regime (FMR).
- While it has proven beneficial for local populations and has contributed to improving relations between India and Myanmar, the FMR has faced criticism in the past for inadvertently facilitating illegal immigration, drug trafficking, and the illicit trade of firearms.
- The India-Myanmar Border (IMB) traverses challenging terrain, consisting mainly of unfenced, forested, and undulating areas, making effective monitoring a difficult task. In Manipur, less than 6 kilometers of the border is fenced.
- Since the military coup in Myanmar on February 1, 2021, the ruling junta has initiated a campaign of persecution against the Kuki-Chin communities, leading to a significant influx of Myanmarese tribals across the western border into India, particularly Manipur and Mizoram.
- In Mizoram, where a substantial part of the population shares close ethnic and cultural ties with those across the border, over 40,000 refugees have sought shelter in camps, despite objections from the Union Ministry of Home Affairs
4. Migration as an Issue
- In recent months, Manipur has experienced an influx of illegal migrants. A committee established by the state government in 2023 reported a count of 2,187 such migrants. In September 2022, sources indicate that 5,500 illegal immigrants were apprehended in Moreh, with 4,300 being repelled. Biometric data for these individuals has been documented.
- In 2023, Manipur Chief Secretary Vineet Joshi expressed concerns to the Assam Rifles about 718 reported new infiltrations from Myanmar and requested the paramilitary force to identify and repatriate them.
- The Manipur government contends that village chiefs have unlawfully relocated migrants from Myanmar to new settlements in the hills, resulting in deforestation. An eviction effort targeting these new villages became a source of tension between Kukis in the hills and the government in March of the previous year, leading to violence in the state.
- The hills surrounding the Imphal valley are inhabited by Kuki and Naga peoples, while the valley itself is predominantly home to the Meiteis. The extent of illegal immigration from Myanmar to Manipur is reflected in the detention of 410 individuals from that country who have been residing in the state without proper documentation. Additionally, around 2,400 individuals seeking refuge are currently housed in detention facilities along the border areas, having fled Myanmar
5. What happens after removing Free Movement Regime (FMR)?
The removal of the Free Movement Regime (FMR) between India and Myanmar on January 2nd, 2024, has significant implications for both countries and the communities living along the border. Here's a breakdown of what might happen:
Immediate impacts:
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Stricter border controls: Increased patrolling, fencing of strategic sections, and stricter visa requirements are likely to be implemented along the 1600km border. This could lead to:
- Reduced cross-border movement: Residents who used the FMR for trade, social visits, or accessing healthcare across the border will face difficulties.
- Economic disruption: Local economies that relied on cross-border trade and exchange might suffer.
- Disruption of traditional way of life: Communities with cultural and family ties across the border could face challenges maintaining those connections.
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Security concerns: While the FMR's removal aims to address security issues like insurgency and illegal smuggling, it might not be a complete solution. These activities could continue through other means, potentially even increasing due to stricter border controls.
- The unilateral decision to end the FMR could strain diplomatic relations between the two countries. Myanmar might view it as a lack of trust and cooperation
- The influx of refugees fleeing Myanmar's political turmoil could worsen if they are unable to cross the border legally. This could put a strain on India's resources and create humanitarian challenges
- The long-term future of cross-border movement and the livelihoods of communities that depend on it remain uncertain. Finding alternative solutions that address security concerns while minimizing negative impacts will be crucial
- The northeastern states of India and Myanmar have historical cultural linkages. Communities living in border regions often share ethnic, linguistic, and cultural ties
- During British colonial rule, both India and Myanmar were part of British India. The border between the two countries was demarcated during this period
- Myanmar (then Burma) gained independence from British rule in 1948, a year before India. They established diplomatic relations soon after
- Over the years, India and Myanmar have signed various bilateral agreements covering trade, security, cultural exchange, and infrastructure development
- Both countries have cooperated on security issues, particularly in addressing cross-border insurgencies and ensuring the stability of the border regions
- Economic ties between India and Myanmar have strengthened. They have collaborated on projects related to connectivity, trade, and investment
- The Free Movement Regime allows tribes living along the India-Myanmar border to travel up to a certain distance without a visa, fostering people-to-people contact
- India has been involved in infrastructure development projects in Myanmar, including the Kaladan Multimodal Transit Transport Project, which aims to improve connectivity between the northeastern states of India and Myanmar's Sittwe port
Recent Developments:
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Rohingya Crisis:
- The Rohingya refugee crisis in Myanmar has been a significant concern for both countries. India has expressed humanitarian concerns while emphasizing the importance of addressing the root causes of the crisis.
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Strategic Importance:
- Myanmar holds strategic importance for India's "Act East" policy, aiming to enhance economic and strategic relations with Southeast Asian nations.
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Military Coup in Myanmar:
- The military coup in Myanmar in February 2021 has posed challenges to the bilateral relationship, and India, along with the international community, has closely monitored developments in Myanmar
MALARIA
Symptoms of malaria typically appear 10-15 days after the infective mosquito bite and include:
- Fever
- Chills
- Headache
- Nausea and vomiting
- Muscle pain and fatigue
- Sweating
- Anemia (due to the destruction of red blood cells)
- Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes due to liver damage)
In severe cases, malaria can cause complications such as:
- Cerebral malaria (affecting the brain)
- Severe anemia
- Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)
- Organ failure
| Type of Malaria | Prevalence | Severity | Characteristics |
|---|---|---|---|
| Plasmodium falciparum | Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, Southeast Asia | Most severe, causes majority of malaria-related deaths | Severe anemia, cerebral malaria, multi-organ failure, irregular fever patterns |
| Plasmodium vivax | Asia, Latin America, parts of Africa | Less severe than P. falciparum but causes significant illness | Relapsing malaria due to dormant liver stages (hypnozoites), tertian fever patterns (every 48 hours) |
| Plasmodium ovale | West Africa, other parts of Africa, western Pacific islands, Southeast Asia | Less severe than P. falciparum, similar to P. vivax | Causes relapses due to hypnozoites, tertian fever patterns (every 48 hours) |
| Plasmodium malariae | Worldwide, less common than P. falciparum and P. vivax | Milder form of malaria, chronic infections can persist for years | Quartan fever pattern (every 72 hours), chronic infections can lead to nephrotic syndrome (a serious kidney condition) |
| Plasmodium knowlesi | Southeast Asia, particularly Malaysia | Can cause severe, rapidly progressing infections similar to P. falciparum | Originally a parasite of macaques, can be transmitted to humans, daily fever patterns (every 24 hours) |
Vaccination for malaria has been a significant focus of research and development due to the global impact of the disease. Here is an overview of the current status and progress in malaria vaccines:
RTS,S/AS01 (Mosquirix)
- Developer: GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) in partnership with the PATH Malaria Vaccine Initiative and supported by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.
- Target Parasite: Plasmodium falciparum.
- Mechanism: The RTS,S/AS01 vaccine targets the circumsporozoite protein (CSP) of the malaria parasite, which is crucial for the parasite's ability to infect liver cells.
- Efficacy: Provides partial protection, with efficacy varying by age and number of doses. In clinical trials, it reduced malaria cases by about 30-50% in young children.
- Implementation: Approved by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2021. Pilot programs have been launched in several African countries, including Ghana, Kenya, and Malawi, to assess real-world effectiveness and feasibility.
R21/Matrix-M
- Developer: University of Oxford in collaboration with the Serum Institute of India and Novavax.
- Target Parasite: Plasmodium falciparum.
- Mechanism: Similar to RTS,S, this vaccine also targets the CSP of the malaria parasite but includes a different adjuvant (Matrix-M) to enhance immune response.
- Efficacy: Preliminary studies have shown higher efficacy rates compared to RTS,S, with up to 77% efficacy in initial trials.
- Status: Undergoing further clinical trials to confirm efficacy and safety before broader implementation.
Other Candidates
- SPf66: An earlier vaccine candidate developed in Colombia, showed variable efficacy in trials and is no longer pursued.
- PfSPZ Vaccine: Developed by Sanaria Inc., it uses live, attenuated sporozoites to induce immunity. It has shown promise in early-phase trials but requires more extensive testing.
Challenges and Future Directions
- Efficacy: While current vaccines like RTS,S and R21 show partial efficacy, there is a need for vaccines with higher and more durable protection.
- Multiple Strains: Plasmodium falciparum's genetic diversity poses a challenge for creating a universally effective vaccine.
- Combination Approaches: Research is ongoing into combining vaccines with other malaria control measures such as bed nets, antimalarial drugs, and vector control strategies.
- Long-term Immunity: Efforts are focused on developing vaccines that provide long-lasting immunity, potentially reducing the need for frequent booster doses.
Adjuvant technology refers to the use of substances in vaccines that enhance the body's immune response to the provided antigen. These substances, called adjuvants, are crucial for improving the efficacy of vaccines, especially those that rely on weaker antigens or aim to induce a stronger and longer-lasting immunity. Here's a detailed overview of adjuvant technology:
Purpose of Adjuvants
- Enhance Immune Response: Adjuvants help to boost the magnitude and duration of the immune response to an antigen.
- Dose Sparing: By enhancing the immune response, adjuvants can reduce the amount of antigen needed in each vaccine dose.
- Broadening Immunity: They can help generate a more comprehensive immune response, including both humoral (antibody-mediated) and cellular immunity.
- Improving Efficacy in Diverse Populations: Adjuvants can enhance vaccine efficacy in populations with weaker immune responses, such as the elderly or immunocompromised individuals.
Types of Adjuvants
Several types of adjuvants are used in vaccines, each with different mechanisms of action. Some common adjuvants include:
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Aluminum Salts (Alum):
- Description: One of the oldest and most widely used adjuvants.
- Mechanism: Enhances antigen uptake by antigen-presenting cells and stimulates a strong antibody response.
- Use: Found in vaccines for diseases like hepatitis B and diphtheria-tetanus.
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Oil-in-Water Emulsions:
- Examples: MF59, AS03.
- Mechanism: Enhance the recruitment and activation of immune cells at the injection site.
- Use: Found in influenza vaccines.
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Saponin-Based Adjuvants:
- Examples: QS-21.
- Mechanism: Enhance both antibody and cell-mediated immune responses.
- Use: Found in vaccines for malaria (RTS,S) and herpes zoster (Shingrix).
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Toll-like Receptor (TLR) Agonists:
- Examples: CpG 1018, MPL (Monophosphoryl lipid A).
- Mechanism: Mimic microbial components to activate innate immune responses.
- Use: Found in hepatitis B vaccines (Heplisav-B) and HPV vaccines (Cervarix).
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Liposomes:
- Description: Spherical vesicles that can encapsulate antigens and adjuvants.
- Mechanism: Enhance antigen delivery and stimulate strong immune responses.
- Use: Under research for various vaccines.
Role in Malaria Vaccines
In malaria vaccines, adjuvants are essential for inducing a robust immune response against the malaria parasite, which has a complex life cycle and various evasion strategies.
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RTS,S/AS01:
- Adjuvant: AS01, which includes MPL and QS-21.
- Mechanism: Enhances both antibody and cell-mediated responses, crucial for targeting the liver stage of Plasmodium falciparum.
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R21/Matrix-M:
- Adjuvant: Matrix-M, a saponin-based adjuvant.
- Mechanism: Stimulates strong immune responses, potentially offering higher efficacy than RTS,S.
The recently released World Malaria Report shows that the number of cases and deaths due to the mosquito-borne infection in India has continued to decline.India’s downward trend was reflected in the larger WHO South East Asian region that remained on track to achieving the 2030 target of reducing cases and deaths by 90 percent, the report said.
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For Prelims: General Science, Current Events of National and International Importance For Mains: GS-II, III: Social Justice and International Relations; Achievements of Indians in Science & Technology, Developments and their Applications and Effects in Everyday Life |
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Previous Year Questions
1.Widespread resistance of malarial parasite to drugs like chloroquine has prompted attempts to develop a malarial vaccine to combat malaria. Why is it difficult to develop an effective malaria vaccine? (UPSC CSE 2010)
(a) Malaria is caused by several species of Plasmodium Answer (b) The answer is (b) Man does not develop immunity to malaria during natural infection. Here's why the other options are incorrect: (a) Malaria is caused by several species of Plasmodium - While this is true, it doesn't directly explain the difficulty in developing a vaccine. A vaccine can target multiple strains as needed. (c) Vaccines can be developed only against bacteria - This is not true. We have vaccines for many viral diseases as well. (d) Man is only an intermediate host and not the definitive host - This is a fact about the parasite's life cycle, but it doesn't impact vaccine development. |
GLOBAL SOUTH
1. Context
2. The need for the ‘Global North’ and the ‘Global South
- For a long time in the study of international political systems, the method of categorising countries into broad categories for easier analysis has existed.
- The concepts of ‘East’ and ‘West’ is one example of this, with the Western countries generally signifying greater levels of economic development and prosperity among their people and Eastern countries are considered as being in the process of that transition.
- Another similar categorisation is of First World, Second World and Third World countries, referring to countries associated with the Cold war-era alliances of the US, the USSR, and non-aligned countries, respectively.
- At the centre of these concepts is the World Systems approach introduced by sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein in 1974, emphasising an interconnected perspective of looking at world politics.
- He said there are three major zones of production: core, peripheral and semiperipheral.
- The core zones reap profits, being the owners of cutting-edge technologies in countries like the US or Japan.
- Peripheral zones, on the other hand, engage in less sophisticated production that is more labour-intensive. In the middle are countries like India and Brazil.
3. The need for new terms
- In the Post-Cold War world, the First World/Third World classification was no longer feasible, because when the Communist USSR disintegrated in 1991, most countries had no choice but to ally at some level with the capitalist US the only remaining global superpower.
- Other classifiers have also seen criticism. The East/West binary was seen as often
perpetuating stereotypical thinking about African and Asian countries. - Categorising incredibly diverse countries into a monolith was felt to be too simplistic.
Also, the idea that some countries were ‘developed’ while others were not was thought to be too wide a classification, inadequate for accurately discussing concerns.
| Writing in 2014 from the perspective of his organisation’s philanthropic activities, Bill Gates said of the ‘developing’ tag, “Any category that lumps China and the Democratic Republic of Congo together confuses more than it clarifies. Some so-called developing countries have come so far that it’s fair to say they have developed. A handful of failed states are hardly developing at all. Most countries are somewhere in the middle.” |
4. Importance of Global South
- What sets the terms Global North and South apart are that first, they are arguably more accurate in grouping like countries together, measuring similarly in terms of wealth, indicators of education and healthcare, etc.
- Another commonality between the South countries is that most have a history of colonisation, largely at the hands of European powers.
- Secondly, this classification trains more focus on the Global South. When leaders such as Jaishankar mentioned, they are also pointing to the region’s historical exclusion from prominent international organisations such as the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council.
- As bodies like the UN and the IMF are involved in major decision-making that affects the world in terms of politics, economy and society, the exclusion is seen by these countries as contributing to their slower growth.
- As a result, the idea that the South can together advocate for common causes has
come up, as underlined by the External Affairs Minister.
| Interestingly, when Jaishankar criticised the expectation of India to take a stance on the Ukraine war and rebuke Russia in June this year, China’s state-owned newspaper Global Times praised the comments. This is where the idea of ‘SouthSouth’ cooperation comes in. |
- Why the concept is being reiterated now partly because of the economic emergence of some of these South countries, such as India and China, in the last few decades.
- Many consider the world to now be multipolar rather than one where the US alone dominates international affairs.
- The progress achieved by many Asian countries is also seen as challenging the idea that the North is ideal.
- As Samuel P Huntington wrote in his 1996 book ‘The Class of Civilizations and the Remaking of Global Order, “East Asians attribute their dramatic economic development not to their import of Western culture but rather to their adherence to their own culture.”
5. Criticism of the classification
- Some of the earlier terms’ criticisms apply here, too, such as the argument that the term is too broad.
- In the ongoing debate about North countries paying for funding green energy, having historically contributed to higher carbon emissions, many in the Global North have objected to China and India’s exclusion from this, given their increasing industrialisation.
- There is also the question of whether the South simply aims to replace the North and the positions it occupies, again continuing a cycle in which a few countries accumulate crucial resources.
- Much controversy currently surrounds the question of whether elites of the global South and ‘rising powers’ genuinely have the intention to challenge the dominant structures of global capitalist development.
- In the rise of Asia, the continued neglect of Africa has been questioned as well.
- China is increasingly making inroads here through the Belt and Road Initiative for developing infrastructure.
- But whether that results in a win-win situation for both parties or focuses on profit for only China remains to be seen.
For Prelims & Mains
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For Prelims: G20, Global South, Global North, Cold war, Post-Cold War, UNSC, UN, IMF, Russia and Ukraine War, SouthSouth Cooperation
For Mains:
1. What is Global South? Discuss the significance and impact of Global South in India. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
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For Prelims
1. In which one of the following groups are all the four countries members of G20? (UPSC 2020) (a) Argentina, Mexico, South Africa and Turkey 1. Ans: (a) For Mains
1. “The broader aims and objectives of WTO are to manage and promote international trade in the era of globalization. But the Doha round of negotiations seem doomed due to differences between the developed and the developing countries.” Discuss in the Indian perspective. ( UPSC 2016)
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