The Indian Space Research Organisation on Wednesday commenced the assembly of the Human Rated Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (HLVM3) for the Gaganyaan mission’s maiden uncrewed flight

2. Gaganyaan Mission

• Gaganyaan, meaning "Sky Craft" in Sanskrit, is India's ambitious human spaceflight program aimed at sending Indian astronauts to space.
• It is a testament to India's growing prowess in the field of space exploration and a source of immense national pride.
• The program, spearheaded by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), envisions launching a crewed orbital spacecraft into low Earth orbit (LEO) for a period of up to seven days.
• The spacecraft will carry three astronauts, marking a historic first for India.

3. About The TV-D1 Mission

• The TV-D1 mission consists of two abort missions designed to test the safety mechanisms that will allow the Gaganyaan crew to escape the spacecraft during emergencies.
• In this mission, a rocket will ascend to an altitude of nearly 17 km before an abort signal triggers the separation of the crew module.
• The crew module will then descend using a parachute for a splashdown in the Bay of Bengal.
• The TV-D1 mission will have a total duration of 532 seconds, from liftoff at 8 a.m. to the crew module's splashdown about 10 km from the Sriharikota coast.
• The rocket used for this mission is ISRO's low-cost Test Vehicle, designed specifically for system testing.
• During the flight, the rocket will reach a peak relative velocity of 363 meters per second, approximately 1307 km per hour. It's important to note that the crew module will be empty for this test.

4. Key Objectives of the TV-D1 Mission

The TV-D1 mission serves two primary objectives.

1. It aims to demonstrate the capabilities of the new Test Vehicle, hence its name Test Vehicle-Demonstration 1 (TV-D1).
2. It will showcase a basic version of the crew module, testing the systems responsible for separating the crew module from the rocket during an abort mission and ensuring the safe escape of astronauts.

The TV-D1 mission simulates an abort condition during the ascent trajectory, corresponding to a Mach number of 1.2, as anticipated in the Gaganyaan mission.

5. The Low-Cost Test Vehicle

• Unlike the upcoming full-fledged test flight of the crew module into space and back, which will use the human-rated LVM3 rocket in 2024, the TV-D1 mission employs a low-cost basic rocket.
• This Test Vehicle utilizes existing liquid propulsion technology but introduces innovations such as the throttleable and restartable L110 Vikas engine, capable of controlling propellant use.
• ISRO developed this cost-effective solution as each GSLV Mk III launch, which was previously used for such missions, costs between Rs 300-400 crore.

6. Safety and Crew Escape System

• Safety remains a top priority for ISRO in the Gaganyaan project, especially in light of international incidents involving space missions.
• The TV-D1 mission aims to test the systems ensuring the crew module's safety, such as environmental control, life support systems, and an integrated vehicle health management system.
• This system can detect anomalies that may jeopardize astronauts' safety and initiate mission abort procedures.

7. Preparations and Timeline for Gaganyaan

• ISRO has set a target timeframe for the Gaganyaan mission in 2024, with flexibility based on the development stages and ensuring the mission's safety.
• The schedule includes an unmanned mission at the beginning of the next year, abort missions this year, and discussions of the manned mission for late 2024 or early 2025.
• ISRO has completed the human rating of the LVM 3 rocket and performed static tests for human-rated solid rocket boosters.

8. Conclusion

The TV-D1 mission represents a significant milestone in the Gaganyaan program, as it integrates a near-complete system for a flight test. The success of this mission paved the way for further qualification tests and unmanned missions, ultimately leading to the first Gaganyaan mission with Indian astronauts. ISRO's dedication to safety and rigorous testing is paramount as India advances its space exploration endeavours.

Source: The Indian Express

 

ELECTRONIC VOTING MACHINE (EVM)

 

 

1. Context

After consecutive electoral losses, in the Haryana and Maharashtra Assembly elections, the Congress has raised the tempo with regard to its concerns about electronic voting machines (EVM)

 

2. What is an electronic voting machine (EVM)?

 

• An electronic voting machine (EVM) serves as a portable device utilized in the electoral process for parliamentary, legislative, and local body elections, including panchayats and municipalities.
• The EVM operates on microcontroller technology, aiming to modernize the election process while ensuring the elimination of invalid votes and maintaining the utmost secrecy of voting data. Additionally, it expedites the counting process, ensuring accuracy. The recorded voting data within EVMs can be stored for extended periods and retrieved when necessary.
• This technological system is dependable for conducting elections where a single candidate must be elected from multiple options, as it is configured for one position and one vote per voter. Utilizing the EVM, voters can cast their ballots for their preferred candidate or select the "None of the Above" (NOTA) option, which is provided in each machine for voters who opt not to support any contestant.
• In 1989, India's Election Commission (EC), in collaboration with two central government entities — the Electronics Corporation of India (ECIL) and Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) — developed the nation's own Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs). These machines saw their inaugural use during the 1999 Goa State Assembly elections

3. How does it work?

 

• To indicate their choice, a voter must press the button corresponding to the preferred candidate, prompting a red light to illuminate next to the candidate's name and symbol. Additionally, a prolonged beep will sound, confirming the successful casting of the vote.

• Inside the polling booth, the presiding officer will activate the ballot unit once the voter enters the designated compartment.

• To select a candidate, press the blue button adjacent to their name and symbol on the ballot unit.

• Upon selection, the candidate's name or symbol will be highlighted by a glowing red light, accompanied by an audible beep.

• Subsequently, the voter will receive a printed ballot slip featuring the selected candidate's name, symbol, and a serial number

4.Working Module of EVM

 

• An Electronic Voting Machine (EVM) comprises two components: a control unit and a balloting unit, interconnected by a five-meter cable.
• The control unit is assigned to a polling officer, while the balloting unit is placed within a compartment for voters to cast their votes. EVMs are adaptable even in areas lacking electricity, as they can operate using alkaline batteries.
• In the polling station, the control unit remains under the supervision of the Presiding Officer and is positioned inside the voting compartment, responsible for tallying the votes. Conversely, the balloting units are stationed within the voting compartment to facilitate voters in casting their ballots.
• The balloting unit offers voters blue buttons labeled horizontally with party symbols and corresponding candidate names. In contrast, the Control Unit provides the officer-in-charge with a 'Ballot' marked button, allowing them to proceed to the next voter without issuing a physical ballot paper

5.Controversy around the use of EVMs

The employment of Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) has stirred controversy in various regions due to concerns over their reliability, security, and transparency. Some of the controversies surrounding EVMs include:

• Security Concerns: Critics argue that EVMs are susceptible to tampering and hacking, which could compromise the integrity of election results. There have been allegations of EVM manipulation through malicious software or physical tampering, raising doubts about the fairness of elections.

• Lack of Transparency: The opaque nature of EVMs, particularly regarding the inner workings of the software and hardware, has been a point of contention. Critics argue that without a paper trail or verifiable audit mechanism, it's challenging to ensure the accuracy of election outcomes and detect any potential malfunctions or manipulation.

• Limited Accessibility: EVMs may pose challenges for certain demographics, such as elderly voters or those with disabilities, who may find it difficult to operate the electronic interface. This raises concerns about the inclusivity and accessibility of the electoral process.

• Trust and Confidence: Public trust in EVMs is crucial for the legitimacy of election results. However, controversies surrounding EVMs, including allegations of malfunctioning or tampering, can undermine trust in the electoral process and lead to doubts about the validity of election outcomes.

• Legal Challenges: In some cases, legal challenges have been filed questioning the legality or constitutionality of using EVMs in elections. These challenges often revolve around issues such as the absence of a paper trail, the reliability of electronic systems, and the potential for manipulation

6. What are VVPATs?

 

Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) is a mechanism introduced to enhance the transparency and credibility of electronic voting systems, particularly Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs). VVPAT provides a physical paper trail that allows voters to verify that their vote has been accurately recorded by the EVM.

Here's how VVPAT works:

• Paper Record: When a voter casts their vote using an EVM, the VVPAT system prints a paper slip containing the details of the vote, including the name and symbol of the candidate selected by the voter. This paper slip is visible through a transparent window for a few seconds before being automatically cut and dropped into a sealed box.

• Verification by Voter: The voter can visually inspect the printed paper slip to confirm that it accurately reflects their chosen candidate. This allows voters to verify that their vote has been cast as intended.

• Audit Trail: The paper slips collected in the sealed box serve as a physical audit trail of the electronic votes recorded by the EVM. In case of any dispute or recount, these paper slips can be used to verify the accuracy of the electronic results.

7. Representation of People Act, 1981

 

• The Representation of the People Act, 1981 is a significant legislation in India that primarily deals with the conduct of elections and the qualifications and disqualifications for membership of Parliament and State Legislatures. However, there is no such legislation by the name "Representation of the People Act, 1981."
• Instead, the primary legislation governing elections in India is the Representation of the People Act, 1951. This Act has been amended several times, including in 1981, to accommodate changes in electoral processes, procedures, and to address emerging issues related to elections.
• The Representation of the People Act, 1951, covers various aspects of elections, including the preparation of electoral rolls, delimitation of constituencies, qualifications and disqualifications for membership of Parliament and State Legislatures, conduct of elections, election offences and disputes, and the powers and functions of the Election Commission of India.
• It's important to note that while the Representation of the People Act, 1951, remains the primary legislation governing elections, there have been amendments and additions made over the years to address evolving electoral practices and challenges

 

For Prelims: Indian Polity and Governance For Mains: Governance, Constitution and Polity.

 

Previous Year Questions Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2017) 1. The Election Commission of India is a five-member body. 2. The Union Ministry of Home Affairs decides the election schedule for the conduct of both general elections and bye-elections. 3. Election Commission resolves the disputes relating to splits/mergers of recognised political parties. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 3 only Answer (d) The election commission has three election commissioners, one Chief Election Commissioner and two Election Commissioners. Hence statement 1 is incorrect.Election commission decides the election schedule for the conduct of both general elections and bye-elections. Hence statement 2 is incorrect. It also decides the disputes relating to splits/mergers of recognized political parties. Hence only statement 3 is correct. Mains In the light of recent controversy regarding the use of Electronic Voting Machines (EVM), what are the challenges before the Election Commission of India to ensure the trustworthiness of elections in India? (2018)

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

SECTION 6A OF CITIZENSHIP ACT

 

 

1. Context

The 4:1 majority ruling by a Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court of India, in October 2024, that upheld the constitutional validity of Section 6A of the Citizenship Act, 1955 is significant

 

 

2. What is Section 6A of the Citizenship Act?

Section 6A is a special provision inserted into the Indian Citizenship Act, 1955, in 1985, as part of the Assam Accord. It deals with the citizenship of people who migrated to Assam from Bangladesh:

• It applies to people who entered Assam on or after January 1, 1966, but before March 25, 1971.
• It grants citizenship to these people if they can prove that they were "ordinarily resident" in Assam on March 24, 1971.
• People who claim citizenship under Section 6A must apply to a Foreigners Tribunal. The Tribunal will then decide whether or not to grant them citizenship based on the evidence they provide.

 

3. Questions surrounding Section 6A

• The constitutionality of Section 6A has been challenged in court, with some arguing that it is discriminatory against people who migrated to Assam after 1971.
• There have been concerns about how Section 6A has been implemented, with some people alleging that it has led to the disenfranchisement of legitimate citizens.
• Some Assamese people argue that Section 6A has led to a large influx of migrants, which has threatened their culture and identity.

 

4. Citizens and Aliens

Citizens

• A citizen is a person who has full legal membership in a country.
• Citizens have certain rights and privileges that are not available to non-citizens, such as the right to vote, hold public office, and own property.
• Citizens also have certain responsibilities, such as obeying the law and paying taxes.

Aliens

• An alien is a person who is not a citizen of the country in which they are living.
• Aliens may have some of the same rights as citizens, such as the right to freedom of speech and religion. However, they do not have all of the same rights as citizens, and they may be subject to certain restrictions, such as not being able to vote or hold public office.
• Aliens are also subject to the laws of the country in which they are living, and they may be deported if they break the law.

 

5. Ways of Acquiring Citizenship

The Citizenship Act of 1955 prescribes five ways of acquiring Indian citizenship:

1. By birth: A person born in India after January 26, 1950, is a citizen of India by birth.
2. By descent: A person born in India on or after January 26, 1950, but before December 10, 1992, whose father was an Indian citizen at the time of his birth, is a citizen of India by descent.
3. By registration: A person who is a citizen of another country may apply for Indian citizenship by registration if they have been residing in India for a continuous period of 12 months immediately before the date of application.
4. By naturalization: A person who is not a citizen of India may apply for Indian citizenship by naturalization if they have been residing in India for a continuous period of 11 years immediately before the date of application.
5. By incorporation of territory: When territory is incorporated into India, the people who were residing in that territory at the time of incorporation are granted Indian citizenship.

 

6. Ways of Losing Citizenship

The Citizenship Act, 1955, prescribes three ways of losing Indian citizenship:

1. Renunciation involves a voluntary surrender of Indian citizenship by a citizen through a formal declaration. This declaration can only be made if the individual has acquired the citizenship of another country. This is a straightforward process and does not require any prior approval from the Indian government. Once renounced, Indian citizenship cannot be regained automatically. However, a former citizen can reapply for Indian citizenship through naturalization, subject to meeting the eligibility criteria.

2. Termination occurs automatically when an Indian citizen acquires the citizenship of another country without fulfilling the conditions for retaining Indian citizenship. Specifically, an Indian citizen who lives outside India for a continuous period of 7 years without registering with an Indian diplomatic or consular officer loses their citizenship. This period can be extended under certain exceptional circumstances, such as serving in the employment of the Indian government or a public sector undertaking.

3. Deprivation involves the withdrawal of Indian citizenship by the Indian government on specific grounds outlined in the Citizenship Act. These grounds include:

• • Obtaining Indian citizenship by fraud, false representation, or concealment of a material fact.
  • Disloyalty or disaffection towards the Constitution of India.
  • Trading with the enemy during a war.
  • Engaging in activities prejudicial to the sovereignty and integrity of India.
  • Being convicted of an offence for which they are sentenced to imprisonment for 2 years or more.

The process of deprivation involves a formal inquiry and hearing by a designated authority. The individual has the right to be represented by a lawyer and to present their defence. If found guilty, their citizenship is revoked by the Central government.

 

7. Assam Accord

• The plea before the Constitutional bench in the Supreme Court challenges one of the core elements of the Accord which determines who is a foreigner in the state and the basis of the final National Register of Citizens in Assam, published in 2019.
• Clause 5 of the Assam Accord states that January 1, 1966, shall serve as the base cutoff date for the detection and deletion of “foreigners” but it also contains provisions for the regularisation of those who arrived in the state after that date and up till.

Section 6 A of the Citizenship Act was inserted as an amendment to accommodate this. What Section 6 A essentially does is establish March 24, 1971, as the cut-off date for entry into the state, meaning that those entering the state after that would be considered “illegal immigrants”.

 

• It states that while those who came to Assam on or after January 1, 1966, but before March 25, 1971, from Bangladesh shall be detected as “foreigners”, they would have to register themselves according to rules made by the Central Government.
• Till a period of 10 years from the date they were detected as foreigners, they would have the same rights and obligations as Indian citizens except for being included in electoral rolls for any assembly or parliamentary constituency.
• At the end of the ten years, they were to be deemed citizens.
• The final National Register of Citizens in Assam which was published in 2019 was conducted with this cut-off date of 24 March 1971.

 

For Prelims: Citizenship Act 1955, Aliens, Assam Accord   For Mains:  1. Discuss the challenges and concerns surrounding the implementation of Section 6A. How can these be addressed to ensure a fair and impartial process? (250 words) 2. Examine the administrative challenges associated with the implementation of Section 6A. How can these be overcome to ensure efficient and effective decision-making? (250 words)

 

Previous Year Questions Consider the following statements: (2018) Aadhaar card can be used as a proof of citizenship or domicile. Once issued, the Aadhaar number cannot be deactivated or omitted by the Issuing Authority. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only       (b) 2 only          (c) Both 1 and 2           (d) Neither 1 nor 2   2. What is the position of the Right to Property in India? (UPSC  2021) (a) Legal right available to citizens only (b) Legal right available to any person (c) Fundamental Rights available to citizens only (d) Neither Fundamental Right nor legal right   3.  With reference to the Delimitation Commission, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2012) 1. The orders of the Delimitation Commission cannot be challenged in a Court of Law. 2. When the orders of the Delimitation Commission are laid before the Lok Sabha or State Legislative Assembly, they cannot effect any modifications in the orders. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?  A. 1 only             B. 2 only           C. Both 1 and 2               D. Neither 1 nor 2     4. Barak Valley in Assam is famous for which among the following? (MSTET 2019) A.  Bamboo Industry B. Petroleum Production C. Cottage Industries D. Tea Cultivation     5. Which one of the following is an important crop of the Barak Valley? (Karnataka Civil Police Constable 2019) A. Sugarcane           B.  Jute            C. Tea                    D. Cotton     6. Under Assam Accord of 1985, foreigners who had entered Assam before March 25, _____ were to be given citizenship.  (DSSSB JE & Section Officer 2022) A. 1954           B. 1971         C.  1981           D. 1966   Answers: 1-D, 2-B, 3-C, 4-D, 5-B, 6-B

 

 

Source: The Indian Express

 

GREENHOUSE GASES(GHGs)

 

 

1. Context

 

Carbon markets hold the potential to transform Indian agriculture, turning sustainable farming practices into a lucrative opportunity for farmers while combating climate change. In this, carbon pricing is a critical tool for mitigating climate change. It functions through compliance and voluntary carbon markets. Compliance markets, regulated by governments or international bodies such as the United Nations, impose emissions caps on companies. Businesses exceeding these caps must either purchase carbon credits from projects that mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, such as agroforestry or sustainable agriculture projects, or pay carbon taxes for their extra emissions.

 

2.What are greenhouse gases?

 

Greenhouse gases are gases that trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, leading to the greenhouse effect and contributing to global warming. These gases include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), ozone (O3), and fluorinated gases (such as hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, and nitrogen trifluoride).

These gases allow sunlight to enter the Earth's atmosphere freely. Once absorbed, the Earth's surface emits infrared radiation, but instead of allowing this radiation to escape back into space, greenhouse gases trap and re-radiate some of it back towards the Earth's surface. This process warms the Earth's surface and lower atmosphere, leading to the greenhouse effect.

Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes, have significantly increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, amplifying the greenhouse effect and contributing to global climate change

Here are the major greenhouse gases:

• Carbon dioxide (CO2): The most abundant greenhouse gas emitted through human activities. It is released when fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas are burned
• Methane (CH4): Methane is emitted from agriculture, waste decomposition, and fossil fuel production. It is a more potent greenhouse gas than CO2, but it breaks down in the atmosphere more quickly
• Nitrous oxide (N2O): Nitrous oxide is emitted from agriculture, industrial processes, and burning fossil fuels. It is a long-lived greenhouse gas that can stay in the atmosphere for centuries
• Fluorinated gases These are man-made chemicals used in refrigerants, air conditioners, and fire extinguishers. They are very potent greenhouse gases, but they are emitted in much smaller quantities than other greenhouse gases
• Water vapor (H2O): The most abundant greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. Water vapor plays an important role in the natural greenhouse effect, but human activities do not significantly affect the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere

3. What is the Greenhouse gas effect?

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that occurs when certain gases in the Earth's atmosphere trap heat from the sun. This process is essential for maintaining the Earth's temperature within a range suitable for life. Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth would be much colder, and life as we know it would not exist.

Here's how the greenhouse effect works:

• Solar radiation: Sunlight reaches the Earth's atmosphere and passes through it, warming the Earth's surface.

• Absorption and re-radiation: The Earth's surface absorbs some of this solar energy and then emits it as infrared radiation (heat). Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), water vapor (H2O), and others, absorb some of this infrared radiation.

• Re-emission: The absorbed energy is re-radiated in all directions, including back toward the Earth's surface. This trapped heat warms the lower atmosphere and the Earth's surface, similar to how a greenhouse traps heat.

• Balance: The greenhouse effect helps maintain the Earth's temperature in a range suitable for life. However, human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation, have significantly increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to enhanced greenhouse effect or global warming

 

4. What are hydrofluorocarbons?

 

• Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are a class of synthetic greenhouse gases commonly used in refrigeration, air conditioning, foam blowing agents, aerosol propellants, and other industrial applications. They are composed of hydrogen, fluorine, and carbon atoms.
• HFCs were developed as alternatives to chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), which were phased out due to their significant ozone-depleting potential. Unlike CFCs and HCFCs, HFCs do not contain chlorine atoms, so they do not contribute to ozone depletion.
• However, they are potent greenhouse gases, with high global warming potentials (GWPs), meaning they trap heat in the atmosphere at a much higher rate than carbon dioxide (CO2).
• Due to their role in contributing to climate change, efforts have been made internationally to regulate and phase out the use of HFCs. The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol, adopted in 2016, aims to gradually reduce the production and consumption of HFCs globally.
• Many countries are transitioning to alternative refrigerants with lower global warming potentials, such as hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs) and natural refrigerants like ammonia and carbon dioxide. These efforts are essential for mitigating climate change by reducing the emissions of potent greenhouse gases like HFC

5. What are the adverse effects?

 

The greenhouse gas effect, when intensified beyond natural levels due to human activities, leads to a range of adverse effects on the environment, ecosystems, and human societies.

 

Some of these effects include:

• The primary consequence of intensified greenhouse gas effect is global warming. Increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere trap more heat, leading to a rise in average global temperatures
• Global warming alters weather patterns and climatic conditions worldwide, leading to changes such as more frequent and intense heatwaves, storms, droughts, and floods. These changes can disrupt ecosystems, agriculture, and water supplies, leading to ecological imbalances and economic losses
• Warmer temperatures cause polar ice caps and glaciers to melt, contributing to rising sea levels. This phenomenon threatens coastal communities, low-lying islands, and habitats, increasing the risk of flooding and erosion
•  Increased atmospheric CO2 levels lead to higher levels of carbon dioxide dissolving into oceans, resulting in ocean acidification. This harms marine life, particularly organisms with calcium carbonate shells or skeletons, such as corals, mollusks, and certain plankton species
• Climate change disrupts ecosystems and habitats, forcing species to migrate, adapt, or face extinction. The rapid pace of climate change often outpaces the ability of many species to adapt, leading to biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation
• Climate change exacerbates health risks, including heat-related illnesses, respiratory problems from poor air quality, increased prevalence of infectious diseases, and food and water insecurity due to changing agricultural conditions
• Climate change can lead to displacement of populations due to extreme weather events, loss of livelihoods in sectors such as agriculture and fishing, and increased conflicts over resources like water and arable land. These disruptions can strain social systems and economies, particularly in vulnerable regions

6.What is Montreal Protocol?

 

The Montreal Protocol is an international environmental agreement aimed at protecting the Earth's ozone layer by phasing out the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS). It was negotiated in 1987 and entered into force in 1989. The protocol is regarded as one of the most successful international environmental treaties.

Key points about the Montreal Protocol include:

• Objective: The primary goal of the Montreal Protocol is to phase out the production and consumption of ODS, which are substances that contain chlorine and bromine atoms and are responsible for ozone depletion in the stratosphere.

• Ozone Layer: The ozone layer is a region of the Earth's stratosphere that contains a high concentration of ozone molecules (O3). This layer plays a crucial role in absorbing and filtering out harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun, protecting life on Earth from its harmful effects.

• Ozone-Depleting Substances: The Montreal Protocol targets several categories of ODS, including chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform, among others. These substances were commonly used in refrigeration, air conditioning, foam blowing agents, fire extinguishers, and other industrial applications.

• Phasing Out: The protocol established a timetable for phasing out the production and consumption of ODS, with developed countries committing to earlier phase-out schedules and developing countries given more time to comply. Amendments to the protocol tightened regulations and accelerated the phase-out schedules over time.

• Success: The Montreal Protocol is widely regarded as successful in achieving its objectives. By reducing the production and consumption of ODS, the protocol has led to a gradual recovery of the ozone layer. Scientific assessments have confirmed a decrease in the atmospheric concentrations of ODS and a healing of the ozone layer.

• International Cooperation: The Montreal Protocol exemplifies successful international cooperation in addressing global environmental challenges. It has been ratified by almost every country in the world, demonstrating a shared commitment to protecting the ozone layer and mitigating climate change (as many ODS are also potent greenhouse gases)

7.Way Forward

 

Since 2020, the US has banned the import of HCFC 22 for any purpose other than in a process which results in its transformation or destruction. The American Innovation and Manufacturing (AIM) Act, passed by Congress in December 2020, authorised the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to phase down the production and consumption of numerous forms of HFCs

 

 

For Prelims: General issues on Environmental ecology, Bio-diversity and Climate Change – that do not require subject specialization For Mains: General Studies III: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Global warming is attributed to the presence of the following gases in the atmosphere : (UGC NET 2022) (A) Methane (B) Sulphur dioxide (C) Surface Ozone (D) Nitrogen dioxide (E) Carbon dioxide Choose the correct answer from the options given below : 1.(A), (B), (C), (E) only 2.(A), (C), (E) only 3.(A), (C), (D), (E) only 4.(A), (B), (D), (E) only Answer (2)

Source: Indianexpress

 

HIND KUSH MOUNTAINS

 

 

1. Context

 

Due to rising temperatures, record glacier melting has occurred in 2023 globally, including in Asia, according to the State of the Cryosphere 2024 report

 

2. Cryosphere Report 2024

 

• If carbon dioxide emissions continue to increase at their current rate, global temperatures could rise by 3°C or more above pre-industrial levels by the end of this century.
• This would pose significant risks to the planet's cryosphere, with wide-ranging impacts on ecosystems, human livelihoods, and the global economy.
• These issues were emphasized in the State of the Cryosphere 2024 – Lost Ice, Global Damage, a report presented at the United Nations Climate Change Conference held in Baku, Azerbaijan, from November 11 to 22.
• This annual report, published since 2021 by the International Cryosphere Climate Initiative, evaluates the state of the world's cryosphere.
• According to the report, rising temperatures in 2023 led to unprecedented glacier melting worldwide, including in Asia.
• The Indian Himalayan Region is one of the areas directly impacted by these changes. Before delving into the effects of cryosphere loss in the Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region, it is essential to understand the cryosphere, its components, its importance, and the ways global warming is influencing it

3. Cryosphere: Components 

 

• The term "Cryosphere" originates from the Greek word kryos, meaning "icy cold." It refers to the Earth's frozen water components, including snow, glaciers, ice caps, ice sheets, sea ice, and permafrost.
• These features are predominantly found in polar regions, high latitudes, and elevated areas of the planet. Permafrost is defined as ground that remains frozen for at least two consecutive years.
• The Cryosphere is essential to the Earth’s climate and water systems. It serves as a natural reservoir, providing water during periods of scarcity or when perennial sources run dry.
• Snow, with its high reflectivity (albedo), reflects over 90% of solar radiation, contributing to the regulation of global temperatures and maintaining a cooler planet.
• The glaciers in the Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region, often referred to as the "Third Pole" or the "Water Tower of the Earth," supply water to major river systems such as the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra.
• Formed through the accumulation of snow over centuries or millennia, glaciers are vital indicators of climate change and global warming.
• As layers of snow accumulate, they capture data about historical climatic conditions, including temperature, air bubbles, dust, heavy metals, and acid traces. This information, preserved in glaciers and ice sheets, can be studied using ice-core analysis.
• However, as permafrost thaws, it releases greenhouse gases like methane (CH₄) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) into the atmosphere, further intensifying global warming

Climate Situations   Global temperatures have already risen approximately 1.2°C above pre-industrial levels. The Paris Climate Agreement of 2015 aimed to limit this increase to well below 2°C, with an aspirational goal of keeping it under 1.5°C by the century's end. To meet these targets, countries were required to implement their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), which outline their planned climate actions and commitments. However, the State of the Cryosphere report highlights that current NDCs and climate pledges are insufficient. Even if these commitments are fully implemented, surpassing the 2°C threshold set by the Paris Agreement remains likely. If carbon dioxide emissions continue at their current rate, global temperatures could rise by 3°C or more above pre-industrial levels by the end of the century, leading to significant and potentially catastrophic impacts on the planet

 

4. Impacts on the Global Cryosphere

 

• Rising global temperatures are impacting every aspect of the Cryosphere. For the third consecutive summer, Antarctica's sea ice extent has fallen below 2 million square kilometers. Research indicates that the stability thresholds for the world's largest ice sheets—Greenland and parts of Antarctica—are significantly below a warming of 2.2°C.
• If the current warming trend of 1.2°C persists, there is a risk of complete loss of Antarctic sea ice during summer months.
• This would warm surrounding waters and accelerate ice sheet melting through calving. A similar situation exists in the Arctic, where surpassing the 1.5°C threshold could eventually lead to sea level rises exceeding 10 meters over the coming centuries.
• The Cryosphere's deterioration is evident worldwide. Venezuela lost its last glacier, Humboldt, this year, and Indonesia’s Eternity Glacier is expected to disappear within two years.
• Glaciers in the tropical Andes are losing ice mass ten times faster than the global average. In Europe, under current warming trends, one-third of the Alps' glaciers could vanish by 2050, with up to two-thirds lost if high emissions continue through mid-century.
• As temperatures rise, precipitation patterns are shifting, with less snowfall and more rain, even at high altitudes, reducing overall seasonal snow cover. Additionally, thawing permafrost is releasing more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
• While scientists have identified 450 ppm as a critical CO₂ threshold, projections suggest levels could reach 500 ppm, even if current Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) are fully implemented

 

5. Hind Kush Himalayan range

 

• The Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) range, often referred to as the "Third Pole," is a vast mountain system spanning across eight countries: Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, Bangladesh, and Myanmar. It is home to some of the world's tallest peaks, including Mount Everest and K2, and serves as a crucial source of water and biodiversity
• The HKH region is known as the "Water Tower of Asia," supplying freshwater to some of the world's major river systems, such as the Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra, Yangtze, and Mekong. These rivers support nearly two billion people across South Asia and Southeast Asia
• The region contains thousands of glaciers, which act as natural reservoirs by storing water in the form of ice. However, these glaciers are highly sensitive to climate change, with many experiencing rapid melting due to rising global temperatures
• The report highlights that 2023 experienced unprecedented glacier melting globally, including in Asia, driven by rising temperatures. In the Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region, snowfall during the winter of 2023–2024 reached record-low levels. This reduction in seasonal snow is expected to significantly affect food, energy, and water security at both national and regional levels.
• The Indian Himalayan Region, encompassing 13 states and Union Territories, is particularly vulnerable to these changes. Projections indicate that a global temperature rise of just 2°C could result in a 50% reduction in ice from High Mountain Asian glaciers. Even with a 1.5°C increase, substantial cryosphere loss in the HKH region appears inevitable.
• Such changes are expected to exacerbate catastrophic events, including Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs), which are already a pressing concern in High Mountain Asia, particularly in India. A recent example is the October 2023 GLOF event at South Lhonak Lake in Sikkim, which caused significant loss of life and extensive damage to infrastructure

 

6. Way Forward

 

The report emphasizes the critical need for immediate global action to limit warming to 1.5°C, which remains the only feasible path to safeguard significant portions of the Cryosphere and reduce the risk of catastrophic events.

In addition to cutting emissions, substantial investments are required to strengthen the adaptive capacities of communities directly impacted by these changes. The upcoming revision cycle for Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) in 2025 provides an important opportunity for nations to update and honor their climate commitments

 

For Prelims: Cryosphere, Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) Range, GLOFs   For Mains: Develop a multidimensional understanding of the cryosphere's significance and threats

 

Source: Indianexpress