The composition of the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) includes a chairperson and several members appointed by the President of India. According to the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993, the NHRC consists of:

• Chairperson: The chairperson is appointed by the President of India and must be a retired Chief Justice of the Supreme Court or a serving or retired Judge of the Supreme Court.

• Members: The NHRC can have up to four members, including a member who is or has been a Judge of the Supreme Court, a member who is or has been the Chief Justice of a High Court, and two other members who have knowledge or practical experience in matters relating to human rights.

These appointments aim to ensure the independence, expertise, and credibility of the NHRC in addressing human rights issues effectively. The members serve fixed terms as specified by the Act, and they collectively contribute to the commission's efforts to protect and promote human rights across the country

5.Appointment of NHRC Members

The appointment of members to the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) follows a process outlined in the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993. Here's an overview of the appointment procedure:

• Selection Committee: A Selection Committee is constituted to recommend candidates for appointment as Chairperson and members of the NHRC. The Selection Committee is chaired by the Prime Minister of India and includes the following members:

  • The Speaker of the Lok Sabha (House of the People) or the Deputy Speaker, in case the Speaker is unable to attend.
  • The Minister in charge of the Ministry of Home Affairs in the Government of India.
  • The Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha.
  • The Leader of the Opposition in the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) in the absence of the Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha

• The NHRC is authorized to inquire into complaints of human rights violations received from individuals or groups. It can investigate violations committed by public servants or by any authority or person acting under the government's authority
• The Commission has the power to monitor human rights violations, including through suo moto action, where it can initiate an inquiry based on media reports, complaints, or its own knowledge
• Following investigations or inquiries, the NHRC can make recommendations to the concerned authorities for remedial action, prosecution, or compensation to victims of human rights violations
• The NHRC engages in activities to raise awareness about human rights issues through seminars, workshops, publications, and other educational programs
• It advises the government on policies and measures to promote and protect human rights effectively
• The NHRC can intervene in court proceedings related to human rights violations, either as a party or as amicus curiae (friend of the court)
• The Commission conducts research and studies on human rights issues to better understand the challenges and formulate appropriate responses
• Based on its findings and experiences, the NHRC can recommend legislative reforms to strengthen human rights protection in the country
• The NHRC collaborates with international human rights organizations and participates in international forums to promote human rights globally
• The NHRC has the authority to visit and monitor places of detention, such as prisons and juvenile homes, to ensure that inmates' human rights are respected

• The NHRC lacks direct enforcement authority. It can investigate human rights violations, make recommendations, and issue guidelines, but it cannot enforce its decisions or ensure their implementation. Its recommendations are non-binding, and compliance by government agencies or other authorities is voluntary.
• The process of investigation and resolution of complaints by the NHRC can be lengthy and time-consuming, leading to delays in providing justice to victims of human rights violations. This delay can undermine the effectiveness of the NHRC in addressing urgent and serious violations
• The NHRC operates with limited resources, including budgetary allocations and staffing. This constraint can affect its capacity to handle a large number of complaints effectively and conduct thorough investigations into human rights violations
• The NHRC's jurisdiction is limited to investigating human rights violations committed by public servants or authorities acting under the government's authority. It may not have jurisdiction over violations by non-state actors or in certain areas like the armed forces, where separate mechanisms exist
• There have been instances where political pressures or interference have affected the independence and impartiality of the NHRC. Political influence can hinder its ability to address human rights violations objectively and without bias
• Many people, especially in rural areas and marginalized communities, may not be aware of the NHRC's existence or how to access its services. This lack of awareness and accessibility can prevent victims of human rights violations from seeking redress through the commission
• Even when the NHRC makes recommendations for remedial action or compensation, there may be instances where these recommendations are not implemented fully or effectively by the concerned authorities

CLOUD SEEDING

 

1. Context

 

The newly-launched Mission Mausam will not just help in improving weather forecasts in the country but also enable the Met department to develop capabilities to ‘manage’ certain weather events, like enhancing or suppressing rainfall over an area according to requirements

 

2. What is Cloud Seeding?

Cloud seeding is a form of weather modification technology designed to induce artificial rainfall.

Its effectiveness relies on the presence of adequate pre-existing clouds in the atmosphere.

Rain occurs when atmospheric moisture reaches a saturation point, and cloud seeding aims to expedite this process by introducing chemical 'nuclei.'

These nuclei provide surfaces around which condensation can occur.

Examples of rain-inducing nuclei include silver or potassium iodides, solid carbon dioxide (dry ice), or liquid propane. Delivery methods for these seeding agents include aerial dispersal via aircraft or ground-based spraying.

 

3. Cloud Seeding Methods

Cloud seeding is a weather modification technique used to enhance precipitation by introducing seeding agents into clouds. Various methods are employed to disperse these agents, promoting the formation of precipitation. Here are some common cloud seeding methods:

Aerial Seeding:

• • Aircraft Dispersion: Cloud seeding agents, such as silver iodide or other materials, are released into the atmosphere from aircraft. Flares or canisters containing the seeding agents are ignited and dispersed at appropriate cloud levels. The aircraft may fly through clouds or release seeding agents from above, depending on the cloud characteristics.

Ground-Based Seeding:

• • Ground-Based Generators: These are stationed on the ground to release seeding agents into the atmosphere. These generators may use flares or other mechanisms to disperse the seeding agents vertically into the air. Ground-based seeding is often employed in areas where aircraft may not be practical or cost-effective.

  • Rocket Launches: Some cloud seeding programs use rockets equipped with seeding agents to reach specific altitudes in the atmosphere. The rockets are launched from the ground and disperse the seeding agents into the target clouds.

Hygroscopic Flares:

• • Hygroscopic Materials: Certain seeding agents, known as hygroscopic materials, have an affinity for water vapor. These materials can absorb moisture from the air, promoting the coalescence of water droplets and eventually precipitation. Calcium chloride is an example of a hygroscopic material used in cloud seeding.

Remote Sensing and Monitoring:

• • Weather Radar: Meteorologists use weather radar to monitor cloud development and precipitation patterns. This information helps identify suitable clouds for seeding and assess the effectiveness of cloud seeding operations.

  • Weather Balloons and Instruments: Instruments carried by weather balloons provide data on atmospheric conditions, helping meteorologists determine the feasibility of cloud seeding. These instruments measure factors such as temperature, humidity, and wind speed at different altitudes.

Natural Ice Nuclei:

• • Collecting Natural Ice Nuclei: In some cases, natural ice nuclei (particles that can initiate the freezing of water droplets) are collected and dispersed into clouds to encourage the formation of ice crystals. This method is less common than using artificial seeding agents.

4. Applications of Cloud Seeding

Cloud seeding is primarily employed to enhance precipitation in specific regions, and it has applications in various fields. Some notable applications of cloud seeding include:

Water Resource Management:

• • Increased Precipitation: Cloud seeding aims to boost rainfall or snowfall in targeted areas, contributing to increased water resources. This is particularly valuable in regions facing water scarcity or drought conditions.

Agriculture:

• • Enhanced Crop Irrigation: Increased precipitation resulting from cloud seeding can benefit agriculture by providing additional water for crop irrigation. This is especially significant in arid or semi-arid regions where water availability is a limiting factor for agricultural productivity.

Water Supply Augmentation:

• • Reservoir Replenishment: Cloud seeding can help replenish reservoirs and aquifers, contributing to the augmentation of water supplies for domestic, industrial, and agricultural use.

Snowpack Augmentation:

• • Winter Sports Industry: In mountainous regions, cloud seeding is sometimes employed to enhance snowpack, particularly for ski resorts and winter sports areas. Increased snowfall can extend the winter season and improve conditions for skiing and other activities.

Forest Fire Prevention:

• • Reducing Fire Risk: In certain cases, cloud seeding is explored as a tool for reducing the risk of forest fires. By inducing precipitation, especially in dry and fire-prone areas, the moisture content of vegetation may increase, lowering the likelihood of wildfires.

Air Quality Improvement:

• • Particle Removal: Cloud seeding can contribute to the removal of particulate matter and pollutants from the atmosphere. The process of precipitation can capture particles and cleanse the air.

Research and Climate Studies:

• • Scientific Investigations: Cloud seeding is sometimes used in scientific research to study cloud dynamics, precipitation processes, and atmospheric interactions. These studies help improve our understanding of weather patterns and climate systems.

Hydropower Generation:

• • Improved Reservoir Levels: Increased precipitation resulting from cloud seeding can contribute to higher water levels in reservoirs, positively impacting hydropower generation.

5. What are the Challenges involved in Cloud Seeding?

Cloud seeding, despite its potential benefits, is a practice that comes with several challenges and considerations. Some of the key challenges involved in cloud seeding include:

Effectiveness and Unpredictability:

• • The effectiveness of cloud seeding can be variable and is dependent on various factors such as cloud type, atmospheric conditions, and the presence of suitable seeding materials. Predicting the outcome of cloud seeding operations with certainty remains a challenge.

Ethical and Environmental Concerns:

• • Cloud seeding involves the intentional modification of weather patterns, raising ethical and environmental questions. Concerns include potential unintended consequences, ecological impacts, and the ethical considerations of altering natural precipitation processes.

Public Perception and Acceptance:

• • Cloud seeding initiatives may face public skepticism and opposition due to concerns about the unknown environmental impacts, the artificial manipulation of weather, and potential health effects of the seeding agents. Public acceptance is crucial for the success and continuation of cloud seeding programs.

Regulatory Approval:

• • Implementing cloud seeding programs often requires regulatory approval and adherence to environmental regulations. Obtaining permits and addressing regulatory concerns can be a time-consuming and complex process.

Scientific Uncertainty:

• • The scientific understanding of cloud seeding is still evolving, and uncertainties remain regarding its long-term effects, environmental impact, and overall effectiveness. Ongoing research is essential to address these uncertainties and improve the understanding of the practice.

Limited Scope and Scale:

• • Cloud seeding is generally effective within certain weather conditions and specific cloud types. Its applicability may be limited to certain regions and may not work in all meteorological conditions.

Weather Variability:

• • Natural weather variability can impact the success of cloud seeding. Unpredictable changes in atmospheric conditions, including wind patterns and temperature fluctuations, can influence the dispersion and effectiveness of seeding agents.

Technical Challenges:

• • The technology involved in cloud seeding, including the delivery of seeding agents, can face technical challenges. For example, the dispersion of seeding agents from aircraft or ground-based generators must be carefully calibrated for optimal results.

Cost:

• • Implementing and maintaining cloud seeding programs can be expensive. The costs include aircraft operations, ground-based generators, and the purchase of seeding materials. Cost-effectiveness is a consideration in the decision to pursue cloud seeding initiatives.

Data Collection and Monitoring:

• • Adequate data collection and monitoring are essential for assessing the impact of cloud seeding. Establishing comprehensive monitoring systems to evaluate changes in precipitation patterns and environmental conditions requires significant resources and infrastructure

 

For Prelims: General issues on Environmental ecology For Mains: General Studies III: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment

 

Previous Year Questions 1.In the context of which of the following do some scientists suggest the use of cirrus cloud thinning technique and the injection of sulphate aerosol into stratosphere? (UPSC CSE 2019) (a) Creating the artificial rains in some regions (b) Reducing the frequency and intensity of tropical cyclones (c) Reducing the adverse effects of solar wind on the Earth (d) Reducing the global warming Answer (d)

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

HELIUM

 

1. Context

 

Two NASA astronauts aboard Boeing’s Starliner will stay on the International Space Station for months because of a faulty propulsion system whose problems included helium leaks.

 

2. Helium

 

Source: Britannica

Helium is a chemical element with the symbol He and atomic number 2. It is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, and inert gas that belongs to the noble gas group in the periodic table. Helium is the second most abundant element in the universe after hydrogen.On Earth, it is relatively rare. It is mainly extracted from natural gas fields, especially in the U.S., Qatar, and Algeria.

Properties:

• Atomic number: 2
• Atomic mass: 4.0026 u
• Density: Very low (lighter than air)
• Boiling point: -268.93°C (4.22 K)
• Melting point: It doesn't solidify at normal pressure, even at absolute zero; it requires high pressures to become solid.

 

3.Why do spacecraft and rockets use helium?

 

Helium is chemically inert, meaning it doesn't react with other materials or ignite, and with an atomic number of 2, it's the second lightest element, just after hydrogen. Rockets must reach specific speeds and altitudes to enter and stay in orbit. A heavier rocket requires more energy, which leads to increased fuel consumption and the need for more powerful, expensive engines to develop, test, and maintain.

With an extremely low boiling point of –268.9°C, helium stays in a gaseous state even in extremely cold environments, making it ideal for use with rocket fuels stored at such temperatures

 

4. Applications of Helium in Aerospace

 

Helium is used in spacecraft and rockets primarily because of its inert nature, lightweight properties, and resistance to freezing or liquefying under extreme conditions.

 

Here are the key reasons why helium is so important in these aerospace applications:

 

• In rockets, liquid fuel and oxidizer are stored at extremely low temperatures to maintain them in liquid form (cryogenic fuels like liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen). As these liquids are consumed during flight, the tanks need to be pressurized to maintain a constant flow of fuel to the engines.
• Helium is ideal for this because it is inert and will not react with the highly volatile rocket fuels. It is also light enough to minimize the impact on the rocket's overall weight, which is crucial in space missions
• Helium is used to purge (clean out) fuel lines and tanks of spacecraft to remove any traces of reactive chemicals, ensuring that the next fuel load is uncontaminated.
• Before and after launch, helium is pumped through the system to remove residual fuel or oxidizer, thus avoiding the risk of combustion or explosion. Since helium is inert, it doesn't react with the materials or chemicals used in rockets
• In liquid-fueled rockets, cryogenic propellants like liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen are used, which must be kept at very low temperatures. Helium is used to pressurize and transfer these cryogenic propellants because it remains gaseous even at very low temperatures and does not solidify or become too dense under extreme conditions.
• Some rocket stages use helium to inflate tanks and assist in separation of stages during flight. For example, when the first stage of a rocket has burned its fuel, helium is pumped into the tank to pressurize it, ensuring proper separation between the stages
• Helium is also used in spacecraft cooling systems, especially in scientific equipment that requires precise temperature control, such as in satellite instruments or space observatories. For example, the James Webb Space Telescope uses helium to cool its infrared detectors
• Helium’s low density and non-flammable nature make it easy to store in high-pressure gas bottles, which are used to pressurize various systems on rockets. Helium is stored in compact, lightweight containers, which are critical in reducing the overall mass of the spacecraft

5. How is helium used in spacecraft?

 

Helium is employed to pressurize fuel tanks, ensuring a steady flow of fuel to the rocket’s engines. It is also used in cooling systems. As the rocket’s engines burn fuel and oxidizer, helium fills the empty space in the tanks to maintain consistent internal pressure.

Due to its inert nature, helium can safely interact with any residual substances left in the tanks without causing reactions

 

Here are the primary ways helium is used in spacecraft:

 

• Helium is used to maintain pressure in the spacecraft's fuel and oxidizer tanks. As the liquid propellants are consumed during a mission, helium is introduced into the tanks to keep the pressure stable, ensuring a smooth flow of fuel to the engines. Its light weight and non-reactive nature make it an ideal choice for this purpose
• Before launch and after certain operations, helium is used to purge fuel lines and tanks to remove residual chemicals, preventing contamination or unwanted reactions. This is important for maintaining the spacecraft's safety and ensuring the integrity of the propulsion system
• Spacecraft often use cryogenic fuels like liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, which are stored at extremely low temperatures. Helium is used to pressurize these cryogenic systems because it remains in a gaseous state at very low temperatures, avoiding freezing and ensuring consistent pressure
• During multi-stage rocket launches, helium is sometimes used to pressurize the tanks in between rocket stages, aiding in the smooth separation of stages. This helps to reduce risks during the transition between stages in flight
• Helium is also used to cool sensitive equipment on spacecraft, such as infrared detectors or scientific instruments, which need to be maintained at very low temperatures. For instance, space telescopes and observation satellites use helium to cool their sensors and other components
• Helium is part of the environmental control systems on spacecraft, helping to regulate pressure in sealed compartments or manage gases during space missions

 

 

For Prelims: PSLV, GSLV, GSLV Mk-III, SSLV For Mains: GS III- Science & Technology- Satellite Applications, Challenges and Solutions

 

 

Previous Year Questions 1. With reference to India's satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2018) 1. PSLVs launch satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites. 2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth. 3. GSLV Mk III is a four- staged launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 C. 1 and 2 D. 3 only Answer: A

Source: Indianexpress

 

HINDI DIWAS

1. Context

As India observes Hindi Diwas today, let’s revisit history and learn about the Munshi-Ayyangar formula and other associated facts. Take a look at the essential concepts, terms, quotes or phenomena everyday and brush up your knowledge

2. Hindi Language

• Hindi is the fourth most spoken language in the world and is written in Devanagari script. The language got its name from the Persian word 'Hind' - meaning 'land of the Indus River', and is a descendant of Sanskrit.
• Turk invaders in the early 11^th century named the language of the region Hindi, 'language of the land of the Indus River'.
• It is the official language of India, English being the other official language.
• Hindi is also spoken in some countries outside India, such as in Mauritius, Fiji, Suriname, Guyana, Trinidad & Tobago and Nepal.
• Hindi in its present form emerged through different stages, during which it was known by other names. The earliest form of old Hindi was Apabhramsa. In 400 AD Kalidas wrote a romantic play in Apabhramsa called Vikramorvashiyam.
• The modern Devanagari script came into existence in the 11th century.

3. Debates in the Constituent Assembly

The Constituent Assembly debated the issue of the official language for three days in September 1949. There were many different views expressed, with some members arguing for Hindi, some for Hindustani, and some for English.

1. RV Dhulekar from Uttar Pradesh argued that Hindi should be the national language, not just the official language. He said that the nation was not ready to wait for 15 years to start reading the Vedas and the Upanishads, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, and Lilavati and other mathematical works in Hindi.
2. Frank Anthony from Central Provinces and Berar made a case for English. He said that English was one of the greatest assets that India possessed in the international field and that it should not be given up.
3. Pandit Lakshmi Kanta Maitra from Bengal argued that Sanskrit should be the national and official language. He said that Sanskrit was the revered grandmother of languages of the world and that it was still alive with full vigour and vitality.
4. Qazi Syed Karimuddin from Central Provinces and Berar argued that Hindustani should be the national language. He said that Mahatma Gandhi had championed Hindustani and that it was the only language in which both Hindus and Muslims could easily express themselves.
5. TA Ramalingam Chettiar from Madras said that they had agreed to Hindi simply because it was spoken by a large number of people in the country. He argued that Hindi could not be the national language, because it was no more national to them than English or any other language.

4. Munshi-Ayyangar Formula

• In the end, the Constituent Assembly adopted the Munshi-Ayyangar formula as a compromise solution.
• This formula said that Hindi would be the official language of the Union government, but English would continue to be used for all official purposes of the Union for 15 years.

5. Constitutional Provisions

• Article 343 of the Indian Constitution, as adopted in 1950, established Hindi in the Devanagari script as the official language of the Union.
• It also specified that English would continue to be used for official purposes for 15 years.
• After this period, concerns arose about the imposition of Hindi in non-Hindi-speaking regions, particularly Tamil Nadu.

6. Conclusion

• The debate on the official language of India was a long and heated one, with different members of the Constituent Assembly expressing different views.
• The Munshi-Ayyangar formula was eventually adopted as a compromise solution, making Hindi the official language of the Union government, but also allowing English to continue to be used for all official purposes for fifteen years. The debate over the official language of India continues to this day.

 

For Prelims: Official language, National Language, Hindi Diwas, Munshi-Ayyangar Formula, Constituent Assembly of India, RV Dhulekar,  Vedas, the Upanishads, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, Lilavati, Frank Anthony, Pandit Lakshmi Kanta Maitra, Sanskrit, Qazi Syed Karimuddin, Hindustani, TA Ramalingam Chettiar,  For Mains:  1. Discuss the historical context and the debates within the Constituent Assembly regarding the choice of the official language of India. How did the Munshi-Ayyangar formula attempt to address the linguistic diversity of the country? (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Official language of the Indian Union is  (ACC 121 CGAT 2019)  A. Hindi in Devnagari script B. Hindi and English C. English D. Hindi, English and Urdu   Answer: A   2. When is 'Hindi Diwas' celebrated? (HP TGT (Arts) TET 2014) A. 14 September  B. 15 September    C. 16 September    D. 17 September   Answer: A   3. On which day is “World Hindi Day’ (WHD) observed every year to mark the first anniversary of World Hindi Conference (WHC), which was held in 1975? (RRC Group D 2018)  A. 5th September    B. 14th October      C. 10th January         D. 26th January   Answer: C   4. Who said in the Constituent assembly debate on 27 August 1947, “I believe separate electorates will be suicidal to the minorities." (NTPC CBT-I  2021)  A. R V dhulekar      B. 'Govind Bhallabh Pant C. B. Pocker Bahadur D. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel   Answer: B   5. What are Upanishads? (HP TGT (Arts) TET 2017) A. Religious book of Hindus B. Book dealing with ancient Hindu Laws C. Book on Social Behaviour of man D. Book of prayer to God   Answer: A   6. Ramcharitmanas was the influential work on Ramayana by: (MP Jail Prahari 2018)  A.Tulsidas       B. Kalidas   C. Ramananda         D. Kabirdas   Answer: A   7. Who wrote the book Ramayana? (Soldier GD 2021) A. Surdas        B. Kalidas          C. Veda Vyasa          D. Valmiki   Answer: D   8. The Lilavati of Bhaskara is a standard text on: (CDS GK 2016)  A. Mathematics        B. Surgery       C. Poetics        D.  Linguistics   Answer: A   9. The author of 'Lilavati', Bhaskar-IInd was - (UKPSC 2022) A. Physician        B. Mathematician       C. Musician         D. Sculptor   Answer: B   10. Who was the first nominated Deputy Chairman of the Constituent Assembly? (MPPSC 2020) A. T. T. Krishnamachari    B. V. T. Krishnamachari C. H.C. Mukherjee D. Frank Anthony   Answer: D   11. With reference to Dhrupad, one of the major traditions of India that has been kept alive for centuries, which of the following statements are correct? (UPSC 2012) 1. Dhrupad originated and developed in the Rajput kingdoms during the Mughal period. 2. Dhrupad is primarily devotional and spiritual music. 3. Dhrupad Alap uses the Sanskrit syllabus from Mantras. Select the correct answer using the codes given below: A. 1 and 2 only       B.  2 and 3 only      C. 1, 2 and 3         D.  None of the above is correct   Answer: B

 

Source: The Indian Express

 

ISRAEL-PALESTINE

 

 

1. Context

The ongoing Israel-Palestine conflict has its roots in the emergence of  the “Jewish question” in Europe in the late 18th century. Over the years, how have intermittent peace efforts, violent uprisings, and regional agreements such as the Abraham Accords shaped the longstanding conflict?

Source: Al Zajeera

 

2. Israel-Palestine Conflict

The Israel-Palestine conflict is a long-standing and deeply rooted dispute over territory and national identity between Israelis and Palestinians. It is one of the most protracted conflicts in the world and has resulted in significant political, social, and humanitarian ramifications

Source: The Hindu

 

The following are the various aspects of the Israel-Palestine Conflict:

 

Historical Background: The conflict can be traced back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries when Jewish immigration to Palestine, then part of the Ottoman Empire, increased due to Zionist aspirations for a Jewish homeland. After World War I, the League of Nations granted Britain a mandate to govern Palestine, leading to increased tensions between Jewish and Arab communities

Partition and the Creation of Israel: In 1947, the United Nations proposed a partition plan to divide Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states, with Jerusalem as an international city. The plan was accepted by the Jewish leadership but rejected by Arab leaders. In 1948, Israel declared independence, leading to the first Arab-Israeli war

Arab-Israeli Wars and Conflicts: Over the years, there have been several wars and conflicts, including the Suez Crisis (1956), the Six-Day War (1967), and the Yom Kippur War (1973), with Israel often pitted against various Arab states

Occupation and Settlements: After the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel occupied the West Bank, East Jerusalem, Gaza Strip, and Golan Heights. Israeli settlements in these territories have been a major point of contention, as Palestinians view them as an obstacle to the establishment of a Palestinian state.

Palestinian Resistance and Nationalism: Palestinian resistance movements, including the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), have played a significant role in seeking Palestinian self-determination and statehood. The PLO was recognized as the representative of the Palestinian people by the United Nations.

Peace Processes: Numerous attempts have been made to negotiate a peaceful resolution to the conflict, with varying degrees of success. The Oslo Accords in the 1990s established the Palestinian Authority and outlined a framework for a two-state solution, but progress has been slow.

Jerusalem: The status of Jerusalem is a particularly contentious issue. Both Israelis and Palestinians claim it as their capital, and its final status has been a major point of contention in peace negotiations.

 

3. Challenges of their Conflict

The conflict has had a profound humanitarian impact on the Palestinian people, including displacement, economic hardships, and restrictions on movement.

The Gaza Strip, in particular, has faced significant challenges, including blockades and conflict-related destruction

The international community, including the United States, has played a role in attempting to mediate and resolve the conflict.

The United Nations and various international organizations have also been involved in efforts to address the humanitarian aspects of the conflict.

 

4. Abrahamic accords

• The Abraham Accords are a series of agreements aimed at normalizing diplomatic and economic relations between Israel and several Arab states.
• These accords represent a significant shift in the political landscape of the Middle East and have garnered international attention.
• The Abraham Accords were first announced in August 2020. They are named after the biblical figure Abraham, who is considered a father figure in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
• Several Arab nations have entered into normalization agreements with Israel as part of the Abraham Accords
• The countries that had officially normalized relations with Israel under the Abraham Accords included the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Bahrain, Sudan, and Morocco
• These agreements involve mutual diplomatic recognition between Israel and the participating Arab states.
• Israel and these countries established formal diplomatic relations, including opening embassies and appointing ambassadors
• Israel & the UAE signed a normalisation deal in 2020 that came into effect the next year. Also brokered by the US, the “Abrahamic Accords” led to the UAE becoming the third Arab country, after Egypt in 1979 and Jordan in 1994, to agree to formally normalise its relationship with Israel. The two also signed a trade deal in May 2022
• The Abraham Accords initially included the UAE and Bahrain, and later, Sudan and Morocco.

5. Way forward

The conflict continues to be a subject of global concern and diplomacy, with many advocating for a peaceful and negotiated resolution that addresses the legitimate aspirations and rights of both Israelis and Palestinians.

 

Source: indianexpress

 

 

MISSION MAUSAM

 

 

 

1. Context

 

The Union Cabinet, chaired by the Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi, has approved ‘Mission Mausam’ today with an outlay of Rs.2,000 crore over two years. 

 

2.About Mission Mausam

 

• Mission Mausam, led primarily by the Ministry of Earth Sciences, is envisioned as a comprehensive and transformative initiative aimed at significantly advancing India’s capabilities in weather and climate science, research, and services.
• Its objective is to better equip various stakeholders, including citizens and end-users, in addressing extreme weather events and the challenges posed by climate change. In the long term, this ambitious program will strengthen capacity and resilience across communities, sectors, and ecosystems.
• As part of this mission, India will greatly expand its research and development efforts in atmospheric sciences, with a special focus on weather surveillance, modeling, forecasting, and management.
• By incorporating advanced observation systems, high-performance computing, and state-of-the-art technologies such as artificial intelligence and machine learning, Mission Mausam aims to set a new standard for highly accurate weather predictions.
• The mission’s priorities include enhancing data collection and understanding to provide precise and timely weather and climate information across various time frames and regions.
• This will cover monsoon predictions, air quality alerts, extreme weather warnings, cyclone forecasts, and management strategies for fog, hail, and rain. It will also focus on building capacity and raising awareness.
• Key elements include the installation of next-generation radar and satellite systems with advanced sensors, high-performance supercomputers, and the development of improved Earth system models. A GIS-based automated Decision Support System will enable real-time data dissemination.
• Mission Mausam is expected to have a direct positive impact on several sectors, including agriculture, disaster management, defense, environment, aviation, water resources, power, tourism, shipping, transportation, energy, and health.
• It will also enhance data-driven decision-making in areas like urban planning, transport infrastructure, offshore operations, and environmental monitoring

 

3. Key takeaways of Mission Mausam

 

• The mission will be primarily carried out by three major institutions under the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES): (a) India Meteorological Department, (b) Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, and (c) National Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasting.

• These will receive support from other MoES organizations, including the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services, the National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research, and the National Institute of Ocean Technology.

• The goal of Mission Mausam is to strengthen India's capacity to forecast and manage extreme weather events and the impacts of climate change.

• The mission will focus on improving data collection and understanding to provide precise and timely weather and climate information across different time frames and geographic areas.

• It will gather data on monsoon patterns, air quality, extreme weather conditions, cyclones, and strategies for managing fog, hail, and rain.

• Key components of the mission include: (a) the deployment of advanced radars and satellite systems with cutting-edge sensors, (b) high-performance supercomputers and the development of improved Earth system models, and (c) a GIS-based automated decision support system for real-time data dissemination.

• The mission will benefit sectors such as agriculture, disaster management, defense, aviation, energy, water resources, and tourism.

• It will enhance decision-making processes in urban planning, transportation, and environmental monitoring.

• Through this initiative, India will significantly advance its research and capacity in atmospheric sciences, particularly in weather monitoring, modeling, forecasting, and management.

• The mission will integrate sophisticated observation systems, high-performance computing, and emerging technologies like artificial intelligence and machine learning.

• In essence, Mission Mausam aims to improve India's weather forecasting capabilities by upgrading monitoring infrastructure, investing in scientific research, and enhancing the skills of scientists

4. What is Cloud Seeding?

 

• Cloud seeding, a weather modification technique to induce artificial rainfall, has been tested in several countries, including India, with mixed results. Over the next 18 months, leading up to 2026, the number of doppler radars, wind profilers, radiometers, and radiosondes will see a significant increase.
• These instruments are crucial for gathering weather data from the earth’s surface, atmosphere, and oceans. Cloud seeding works by accelerating the natural rain formation process, but it only functions when sufficient clouds are present in the atmosphere.
• Rain occurs when atmospheric moisture reaches a saturation point, and cloud seeding helps speed up this process by introducing chemical 'nuclei' around which condensation can form. These 'rain seeds' may include substances like silver or potassium iodide, dry ice (solid CO2), or liquid propane, which can be dispersed either from aircraft or by ground-based spraying methods

 

 

For Prelims: General issues on Environmental ecology For Mains: General Studies III: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment

 

Previous Year Questions 1.In the context of which of the following do some scientists suggest the use of cirrus cloud thinning technique and the injection of sulphate aerosol into stratosphere? (UPSC CSE 2019) (a) Creating the artificial rains in some regions (b) Reducing the frequency and intensity of tropical cyclones (c) Reducing the adverse effects of solar wind on the Earth (d) Reducing the global warming Answer (d)

 

 

Source: Indianexpress