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DAILY CURRENT AFFAIRS, 27 JUNE 2024

CASTE CENSUS

 

1. Context

The Tamil Nadu Assembly on 26/06/2024 unanimously adopted a resolution, proposed by Chief Minister M.K. Stalin, urging the Union government to conduct a caste-based census along with the general population census.

2. Caste Census

  • The socio-economic and caste census (SECC) was conducted in 2011 for the first time since 1931.
  • SECC is meant to canvass every Indian Family, both in rural and urban India, and ask about their economic status to allow central and state authorities to come up with a range of indicators of deprivation, permutations, and combinations that could be used by each authority to define a poor or deprived person.
  • It is also meant to ask every person their specific caste name to allow the government to re-evaluate which caste groups were economically worse off and which were better off.
  • SECC has the potential to allow for a mapping of inequalities at a broader level.
3. Takeaways from Bihar Survey
According to data released by Development Commissioner Vivek Singh, Bihar’s total population now stands at a little over 13.07 crore, up from 10-odd crore in the 2011 Census. The EBCs make up 36.01% of this, and OBCs an additional 27.13%. The survey also found that Yadavs, the main vote base of the RJD, are the largest group, accounting for 14.27% of the total population.
The Dalits, or Scheduled Castes, account for 19.65%, higher than expected, while STs comprise 1.68%.

4. History of Caste Census

The caste census is the demand to include the caste-wise tabulation of India's population in the upcoming exercise.

4.1 Caste census in Colonial Era:

  • The First Census conducted in 1871 included questions about caste. This data was then used to divide and conquer India.
  • It first privileged Brahmins are interpreters of Indian culture and then targeted them as the root of caste-based oppression and inequality.
  • This classification was also a source of anti-Brahmin movements of the 20th century.
  • Every census until 1931 had data on caste.
  • The practice was stopped by the British with the 1941 Census, citing financial constraints. The Indian government did not pick up the dropped parameter.

4.2 Caste data published in the Census post-independence:

  • Since the first exercise in independent India in 1951, India has published separate data on Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST).
  • The Census does not include data on other castes.
  • The Government of India had decided on the policy of official discouragement of Caste.
  • It was decided that in general, no race/caste/tribe inquiries should be made and such enquires should be restricted to the Scheduled Castes and Tribes notified by the President of India in pursuance of Articles 341 and 342 of the Constitution.

5. Importance of Caste Census

5.1 Promote Rational Decision Making

  • A caste census, which will generate exhaustive data will allow policymakers to develop better policies, and implementation strategies, and will also enable a more rational debate on sensitive issues.

5.2 Promotes Democratic Policymaking

  • Advocates of its inclusion believe that the activity will be a pro-poor exercise that will help plan better and more targeted welfare schemes in the country.
  • A caste census would bring forward a large number of issues that any democratic country needs to pay attention to.
  • For instance, this census will reveal information regarding caste-based marginalization, deprivation, the kind of jobs pursued by a caste, etc.
  • So, the caste census is nothing but the collection of data that is necessary for any democratic policymaking.

5.3 The rationale for the Reservation Policy

  • Some proponents also suggest that a Caste Census will also help reservation policymakers have a more accurate idea of the affirmative action needed.
  • While this data is currently available for SC and ST populations, the OBC population is estimated widely as per the number noted by the Mandal Commission at 52%.
  • The Justice Rohini Committee was appointed in 2017 to look into the sub-categorization of the OBC communities; however, in the absence of data, there can be no data bank or any proper sub-categorization.
  • All commissions have had to rely on data from the last caste census (1931). There have been substantive demographic changes since then and therefore, the data has to be updated.

5.4 Constitutional Mandate

  • Indian Constitution also favors conducting a caste census.
  • Article 340 mandates for appointment of a commission to investigate the conditions of socially and educationally backward classes and make recommendations as to the steps that should be taken by the governments.

6. Last Cast Census and redundancy

  • A separate Socio-Economic and Caste Census (SECC) was conducted by the Ministry of Rural Development in rural areas and the Ministry of Housing & Urban Poverty Alleviation in urban areas in 2011.
  • It was the largest exercise of the listing of castes and has the potential of finding inequalities at a broader level.
  • SECC was a tool to identify beneficiaries of state support and it is open for use by Government departments to grant and/ or restrict benefits to households.
  • However, the SECC data excluded caste data and was published by the two ministries in 2016.
  • The raw caste data was handed over to the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment.
  • The ministry formed an Expert Group under the Former NITI Aayog Vice-Chairperson Arvind Pangaria for the classification and categorization of data.
  • The Pubic data eventually released gave numbers of different castes in India but not the population-wise data as was the demand.
  • Only the details of the economic conditions of the people in rural and urban households were released. The caste data has not been released till now.
  • The Centre says that an analysis of the data showed "that the caste enumeration...was fraught with mistakes and inaccuracies" and "is not reliable".

7. Way Forward

  • A Caste census without data integrity would be much worse. Instead of going behind the caste bases census, the government can subclassify the Backward classes like in Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, etc. This will provide the benefit to intended beneficiaries.
  • Since the government has already appointed Justice G Rohini's panel on the sub-categorization of OBCs. The panel has to fast-pace the sub-classification process.
  • The Government can use technologies like Artificial Intelligence and machine learning to assess the SECC data and condense them into meaningful categories and some important caste-based information. This will provide the necessary time to analyze the need for a caste census.

 

For Prelims: Socio-economic and caste census (SECC), Mandal Commission, Justice G Rohini's Commission, NITI Aayog, Article 341 and Article 342.
For Mains: 1. General Studies II: Welfare schemes for vulnerable sections of the population by the Centre and States and the performance of these schemes; mechanisms, laws, institutions and Bodies constituted for the protection and betterment of these vulnerable sections.
 
 
Source: The Hindu
 

GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND PROJECT

 
 
1. Context
Calling Union Tribal Affairs Minister Jual Oram’s promise to look into the clearances granted for the ₹72,000-crore Great Nicobar Island Project only “mildly” encouraging, Congress leader Jairam Ramesh on Wednesday raised doubt over how much power Union Ministers had over their own portfolios in a government headed by Prime Minister Narendra Modi
 
2.What is the Great Nicobar Island Project?
 
  • The Great Nicobar Island Project is a significant infrastructure development initiative undertaken by the Indian government on Great Nicobar Island, part of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Indian Ocean. The project aims to transform the island into a strategic and economic hub.
  • A deep-draft international container transshipment terminal is planned to be developed at Galathea Bay. This port is expected to serve as a key shipping hub in the region, facilitating trade and reducing dependency on transshipment ports in other countries
  • An international airport is proposed to improve connectivity to the island, both for tourism and strategic purposes. This airport will be capable of handling wide-bodied aircraft and will enhance the island's accessibility
  • To support the infrastructure and population growth, a gas- and solar-based power plant will be developed. This plant aims to provide a reliable and sustainable energy source for the island's needs
  • A modern township with residential, commercial, and recreational facilities is planned to accommodate the increased population and workforce that the project will attract. This township is expected to have state-of-the-art amenities and infrastructure
 
Strategic and Economic Importance
  • Great Nicobar Island is situated near the Malacca Strait, one of the world's busiest shipping lanes. Developing this island will enhance India's strategic presence in the Indian Ocean Region, particularly in terms of maritime security and trade control
  • The project aims to boost the local economy by creating job opportunities and attracting investments. Improved infrastructure and connectivity are expected to stimulate tourism and other economic activities on the island
  • Enhancing connectivity through the transhipment port and international airport will integrate Great Nicobar Island more closely with the global and regional trade networks, potentially making it a key logistical and commercial hub
 
Environmental and Social Considerations
  • The project has raised concerns about its potential impact on the island's rich biodiversity and ecosystems. Great Nicobar Island is home to unique flora and fauna, including endangered species. Ensuring sustainable development practices and environmental protection measures will be crucial
  • There are concerns about the impact on local communities, particularly indigenous tribes such as the Nicobarese and Shompen. Ensuring that their rights and livelihoods are protected is a key consideration for the project
  • The project's emphasis on using renewable energy sources like solar power and promoting eco-friendly practices is an effort to mitigate environmental concerns. However, balancing development with conservation will be an ongoing challenge
 
 
Great Nicobar
 
Great Nicobar is the largest of the Nicobar Islands, part of the Union Territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands in India. It is located in the Indian Ocean, near the western entrance of the Malacca Strait, which is a key maritime route for international trade.
 
Here are some key aspects of Great Nicobar:
  • Great Nicobar is situated at the southern end of the Nicobar Islands, approximately 1,280 kilometers (800 miles) from the Indian mainland
  • The island features diverse landscapes, including dense tropical rainforests, hilly terrain, and coastal areas. Mount Thullier is the highest point on the island, rising to an elevation of about 642 meters (2,106 feet)
  • Great Nicobar is known for its rich biodiversity and is part of the Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve. The island hosts unique flora and fauna, including several endemic and endangered species. The Nicobar megapode, Nicobar tree shrew, and saltwater crocodile are some of the notable species found here
  • The island is sparsely populated, with a mix of indigenous tribes and settlers from other parts of India. The Nicobarese and Shompen are the primary indigenous communities on the island
  • The indigenous tribes have distinct cultural practices, languages, and traditions. Efforts are being made to preserve their cultural heritage and ensure their rights and well-being amidst development initiatives
  • Great Nicobar’s strategic location near the Malacca Strait, one of the world's busiest maritime routes, enhances its significance for India's maritime security and trade interests
  • Given its strategic position, the island hosts Indian military installations, which play a crucial role in monitoring and securing the Indian Ocean Region
 
 
3. Strategic Importance
 
  • The Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean region are critically important for India's strategic and security interests, especially as the Chinese People’s Liberation Army Navy aims to increase its presence in these waters.
  • India is concerned about the buildup of Chinese naval forces at key Indo-Pacific chokepoints, particularly Malacca, Sunda, and Lombok. China's efforts to extend its influence in the area include constructing a military facility on the Coco Islands in Myanmar, located just 55 km north of the Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
  • Earlier this year, The Indian Express reported significant upgrades to the military infrastructure on the Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
  • This includes modernizing airfields and jetties, creating new logistics and storage facilities, establishing a base for military personnel, and enhancing surveillance capabilities.
  • The goal of these upgrades is to support the deployment of more military forces, larger warships, aircraft, missile batteries, and troops.
  • Maintaining close surveillance over the area surrounding the archipelago and establishing a strong military presence on Great Nicobar is crucial for India's national security
4. Environmental Concerns
  • The proposed infrastructure upgrade has faced opposition due to its potential ecological threat to the islands. Wildlife conservation researchers, anthropologists, scholars, civil society members, and the Congress party have raised concerns about the devastating impact on the Shompen, a particularly vulnerable tribal group (PVTG) of hunter-gatherers, who have an estimated population of a few hundred individuals residing in a tribal reserve on the island.
  • Critics claim the project infringes on the rights of the tribal population and will harm the island’s ecology, including the felling of nearly a million trees. There are fears that the port project will damage coral reefs, affecting the local marine ecosystem, and pose a threat to terrestrial species like the Nicobar Megapode bird and leatherback turtles, which nest in the Galathea Bay area.
  • A statement by senior Congress leader and former Environment Minister Jairam Ramesh highlighted that the proposed port is in a seismically active zone, which experienced permanent subsidence of about 15 feet during the 2004 tsunami.
  • The statement also accused the local administration of insufficiently consulting the Tribal Council of Great and Little Nicobar Islands as required by law.
  • In November 2022, the tribal council withdrew a no-objection certificate it had issued for the diversion of about 160 sq km of forest land, citing inadequate information provided to them.
  • In April 2023, the Kolkata Bench of the National Green Tribunal (NGT) chose not to interfere with the environmental and forest clearances granted to the project. However, the Tribunal ordered the formation of a high-power committee to review the clearances. There is still no clarity on whether the committee, mainly composed of government representatives, has submitted its report
 
 
For Prelims: National Green Tribunal (NGT), Great Nicobar Island, Coastal Regulation Zones, Turtles, Dolphins, Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs), Mangroves, Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve
For Mains: Significance and Issues Related to Great Nicobar Island Project
 
Previous Year Questions

1. Which one of the following pairs of islands is separated from each other by the ‘Ten Degree Channel’? (2014)

(a) Andaman and Nicobar
(b) Nicobar and Sumatra
(c) Maldives and Lakshadweep
(d) Sumatra and Java

Answer (a)

2. Which of the following have coral reefs? (2014)

  1. Andaman and Nicobar Islands
  2. Gulf of Kachchh
  3. Gulf of Mannar
  4. Sunderbans

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 2 and 4 only
(c) 1 and 3 only 
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Answer (a)

3. In which one of the following places is the Shompen tribe found? (2009)

(a) Nilgiri Hills
(b) Nicobar Islands
(c) Spiti Valley
(d) Lakshadweep Islands

Answer (b)
 
Source: indianexpress
 

ROOFTOP SOLAR SCHEME

 
 
 
1. Context
 
India’s installed rooftop solar (RTS) capacity increased by 2.99 GW in 2023-2024, the highest growth in a year. As of March 31, the total installed RTS capacity in India was 11.87 GW, according to the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy. To meet rising energy demand, India needs to double down on its efforts to expand its RTS potential
 
2.Rooftop Solar Scheme
 

The Rooftop Solar Scheme, also known as the PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana, is a government initiative in India that aims to promote the installation of solar panels on rooftops of residential buildings. The scheme's objectives include:

  • The scheme aims to provide up to 300 units of free electricity per month to one crore (ten million) households.
  • By generating their own solar power, households can reduce their dependence on the grid and save on electricity bills.
  • Solar power is a clean and renewable energy source that helps reduce greenhouse gas emissions and combat climate change.
  • The scheme aims to increase India's energy security and reduce its reliance on fossil fuels

Eligibility:

The scheme is open to all residential consumers in India. However, there may be specific requirements or limitations set by individual state governments. It's important to check with your local electricity distribution company (DISCOM) for detailed information on eligibility criteria and application procedures

 

What is India’s current solar capacity?

India's current solar capacity is rapidly growing, making it difficult to give a precise real-time number. Here's what we know:

  • Installed Capacity: As of January 2024, India's installed solar capacity is around 74.30 GW. This includes both grid-connected and off-grid solar systems.
  • Rapid Growth: India has been experiencing one of the fastest growth rates in solar power adoption globally. The country continues to add new solar capacity at a remarkable pace
 
 
3.Why is an expansion of solar energy important for India?
 
  • India heavily relies on imported fossil fuels, making its energy security vulnerable to global market fluctuations and geopolitical tensions. By expanding solar energy, India can reduce its dependence on external energy sources and enhance its energy security
  • India faces significant environmental challenges, including air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. Solar energy is a clean and renewable resource, and its widespread adoption can help mitigate environmental degradation, reduce air pollution, and combat climate change.
  • Solar energy contributes to diversifying the energy mix, reducing the country's dependence on finite fossil fuel resources. This diversification enhances resilience to energy price volatility and supply disruptions associated with fossil fuels.
  • Millions of people in India still lack access to reliable electricity. Solar power, especially in decentralized or off-grid systems, can provide a cost-effective and sustainable solution to bring electricity to remote and underserved areas, thereby improving the quality of life and supporting economic development
  • The solar energy sector has the potential to create jobs across various skill levels, from manufacturing and installation to maintenance and research. The expansion of the solar industry can contribute to employment generation and support the country's economic growth
  • Solar projects can be deployed in rural areas, providing not only electricity but also opportunities for local economic development. Solar microgrids can power agricultural activities, improve healthcare services, and facilitate education in rural communities
  • Investing in solar energy encourages research and development in renewable energy technologies. This innovation can lead to improvements in efficiency, storage, and overall performance, making solar energy more viable and competitive
  • India has committed to international agreements and initiatives aimed at reducing carbon emissions and transitioning to cleaner energy sources. Expanding solar energy aligns with these global commitments, positioning India as a responsible and sustainable energy player on the international stage
  • The cost of solar energy has been decreasing over the years, making it increasingly competitive with traditional sources of energy. As technology advances and economies of scale are realized, solar power becomes a cost-effective option for meeting India's growing energy demand
  • Distributed solar power generation can enhance grid stability by reducing transmission and distribution losses and providing local sources of electricity. This decentralized approach can contribute to a more resilient and robust energy infrastructure
 
4.Electricity (Rights of Consumers) Rules, 2020
 
  • The Electricity (Rights of Consumers) Rules, 2020 are a crucial piece of legislation in India that significantly empowers electricity consumers across the country
  • A set of regulations introduced by the Indian Government to protect the rights of electricity consumers and ensure a high standard of service from distribution companies (DISCOMs).
  • The rules provide a framework for consumer rights, obligations of distribution licensees, and mechanisms to address grievances

Key Rights Guaranteed by the Rules:

  • Reliable Electricity Supply: Consumers have the right to 24x7 power supply, subject to reasonable technical constraints.
  • New Connections: DISCOMs must provide new electricity connections within a specified timeline (7 days in metro cities, 15 days in municipal areas, 30 days in rural areas).
  • Transparent Billing: Consumers have the right to receive accurate and timely bills with clear information on consumption and charges.
  • Metering: Consumers have the right to have meters installed and tested regularly. They can also request meter testing if they have doubts about its accuracy.
  • Grievance Redressal: The rules provide a clear mechanism for consumers to lodge complaints, with timelines for resolution by DISCOMs and consumer grievance redressal forums.
  • Compensation: Consumers are entitled to compensation from DISCOMs for violations of service standards.
  • Prosumers: The rules recognize the rights of "prosumers" – consumers who can generate their own electricity (like through rooftop solar) and feed excess back into the grid
5. Amendments to Electricity (Rights of Consumers) Rules, 2020
 
  • The amendments, announced on February 22, have relaxed regulations regarding the necessity of a technical feasibility report for rooftop solar projects. They also permit residential societies to choose between individual connections or a unified single-point connection through a democratic vote.
  • Additionally, electricity distribution companies (DISCOMs) are now obligated to install an extra meter to address consumer complaints about inaccurate meter readings.
  • Furthermore, these amendments have shortened the duration required for obtaining a new electricity connection and mandate DISCOMs to furnish a separate connection for an electric vehicle (EV) charging point upon consumer request. These modifications constitute the fourth amendment since the issuance of the 2020 notification.
  • Previously, DISCOMs had to conduct a feasibility study for rooftop solar projects within 20 days of receiving an application and communicate the results to the applicant. A technical feasibility study assesses whether a property is financially and physically suitable for solar panel installation.
  • The recent amendments have reduced this period to 15 days. Additionally, if the study is not concluded within this timeframe, it will be assumed that the proposal is technically feasible.
  • In essence, the expenses associated with fortifying distribution infrastructure for rooftop solar projects with a capacity of up to 5 kilowatts will be covered by DISCOMs, and this can be offset through their operations.
  • The power ministry highlighted in a press release, "Furthermore, it is now mandated that the distribution system strengthening required for rooftop solar PV systems up to 5 kW capacity will be undertaken by the distribution company at its own expense." Lastly, the interval between the installation and commissioning of rooftop solar projects has been reduced from 30 days to 15 days
6.Way Forward
 
Electric Vehicles have been mentioned for the first time in the rules. DISCOMs are required to provide a separate connection for the supply of electricity to an EV charging point if requested by a consumer and within the revised period as mentioned above
 
 
For Prelims: Economic and Social Development
For Mains:  General Studies III: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways etc
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2016)
 
1. The International Solar Alliance was launched at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in 2015.
2. The Alliance includes all the member countries of the United Nations.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 Only
B. 2 Only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 Nor 2
Answer (A)
Source: Indianexpress
 

MARITIME RED SEA ROUTE

1. Context

Congestion at Singapore’s container port is at its worst since the COVID-19 pandemic, a sign of how prolonged vessel re-routing to avoid Red Sea attacks has disrupted global ocean shipping—with bottlenecks also appearing in other Asian and European ports.

2. About the ancient Red Sea trade route

  • For years, it was thought that Roman merchants were the only ones trading with India.
  • However, recent evidence shows that Indian merchants and shipowners were also involved in this trade.
  • The scale of this trade was massive. According to the latest estimates, custom taxes on the Red Sea trade with India, Persia, and Ethiopia may have generated as much as one-third of the income of the Roman exchequer.
  • The principal source for this figure is the Muziris Papyrus, a document that details the purchase of goods from an Indian merchant by an Egyptian financier.
  • The Papyrus gives precise details of one particular cargo sent to the Egyptian port of Berenike from Muziris on the coast of Kerala.
  • The total value of the goods was 131 talents, which is equivalent to the price of 2,400 acres of farmland in Egypt or a premium estate in central Italy.
Image Source: Wikipedia

3. Roman Empire earnings from this trade

  • According to the Muziris Papyrus, the import tax paid on the cargo of almost nine million sesterces was over two million sesterces.
  • Working up from these figures, it is estimated that Indian imports into Egypt were worth probably over a billion sesterces per annum, from which the tax authorities of the Roman Empire were creaming off no less than 270 million.
  • These vast revenues surpassed those of entire subject countries Julius Caesar imposed a tribute of 40 million sesterces after his conquests in Gaul while the vital Rhineland frontier was defended by eight legions at an annual cost of 88 million sesterces.

4. Goods Traded on the Ancient Red Sea Route

4.1. Roman Imports from India

Luxuries: The Roman Empire had a significant appetite for luxury items from India. This included products like malabathrum, a plant whose leaves were used to create perfume, as well as ivory, pearls, and precious gemstones. Notably, Pompeii contained a shop dedicated solely to ivory products, showcasing the demand for such exotic materials.

Wild Animals: There was a demand for "exotic" goods, including live animals like elephants and tigers from India.

Spices: Pepper was India's major export to Rome. Large quantities of pepper have been discovered in excavations at Berenike, often stored in torpedo-shaped pottery jars, each weighing more than 10 kg. By the end of the first century CE, Indian pepper had become readily available, although it remained an expensive treat. Pepper was a common ingredient in Roman cuisine, with approximately 80 per cent of the recipes in the Roman cookbook of Apicius including it.

4.2. Roman Exports to India

  • The flow of goods from Rome to India was more limited. Pliny the Elder noted that gold was a significant export to India, creating a trade imbalance that posed challenges for the Roman economy.
  • However, there are records indicating that Indians developed a taste for Roman wine.
  • Some limited trade also involved items like olive oil and Garum, an ancient Roman fermented fish paste, which could be likened to contemporary condiments like Tabasco or garam masala.

5. Trade on the Route Before the Common Era

  • Evidence of trade along this route dates back to ancient times, including during the time of Meluha, the Indus Valley Civilization (approximately 3300-1300 BCE).
  • However, this early trade appears to have been more localized and coastal, involving smaller quantities of goods.
  • In Roman times, this trade expanded significantly, with large cargo ships directly connecting the Indian subcontinent to the Roman Empire.
  • The Romans played a crucial role in "industrializing" this trade, driven by their economic capacity to purchase the luxury items that India offered.
  • The trade flourished, particularly in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, after the Romans conquered Egypt, which opened up the route to adventurous Roman merchants.

6. Organization of the Trade and Voyage Duration

  • The trade along the ancient Red Sea route was highly organized. Merchants in Kerala and shippers in Alexandria engaged in formal contracts.
  • Goods were transported in containers, similar to modern shipping practices, where a container would be booked and filled with specific products.
  • There are even references to insurance, highlighting the sophistication of this trade network.
  • Indian traders recognized the monsoon winds, which blew in different directions in winter and summer due to the heating of the Tibetan Plateau.
  • By timing their voyages correctly, they could take advantage of these winds. The journey from India to Egypt, or vice versa, could be completed in about six to eight weeks with the winds behind them.
  • However, travellers had to wait for a few months for the winds to change direction.

7. Roles of Indians in the Red Sea Trade

Interest in Seafaring: Indian dynasties displayed a keen interest in seafaring, evident in ancient artwork like the depictions of large double-masted ships in Ajanta caves. Additionally, ships were common symbols of early Indian coins, such as those from the Satavahanas dynasty.

Prominent Role of Indian Sailors: Indian sailors played a prominent role in the Red Sea trade. Graffiti left by Indian sailors, often Gujaratis from Barigaza (modern-day Bharuch), was discovered in the Hoq caves on Socotra Island, a vital stopover at the Gulf of Aden's mouth. These inscriptions, dating from the second to the fifth century CE, were primarily in the Indian Brahmi script, with names like "Vishnu, son of the merchant Ganja" and "Skandabhuti, the Sea Captain." They also featured images of ships, religious symbols, and prayers to deities like Krishna and Radha.

Ownership of Shipping: While historical records suggest that much of the shipping departing from Egyptian Red Sea ports may have been owned by Alexandrian businessmen, it's plausible that Indian merchants and ship owners also had a significant stake in this trade due to the substantial Indian presence in the maritime activities of the period.

8. Comparison with the Silk Road

Silk Road vs. Red Sea Route: The Red Sea trade route, connecting the Indian subcontinent with the Roman Empire through the Red Sea, differs significantly from the concept of the Silk Road. While the Silk Road has gained popularity in modern times, it was entirely unknown in ancient or medieval times. The term "Silk Road" was coined in the late 19th century by Baron von Richthofen, primarily for a proposed railway route.

Historical Accuracy of Silk Road: There is no ancient record, whether from Chinese or Western sources, that mentions the existence of the Silk Road. Even Marco Polo, often associated with this route, never mentions it. The idea of the Silk Road gained prominence only in the 1980s-90s, largely due to its romantic appeal.

Inaccuracy of Silk Road Focus: The Silk Road concept is mostly inaccurate for the Roman period. Instead, during this time, there is no evidence of direct contact or trade between China and Europe. Chinese silk, for example, likely reached Rome through ports in India, travelling overland through Kushana territory in northern India to reach Gujarat and the mouth of the Indus.

9. Emerging Understanding of Indo-Roman Trade

New Evidence and Underplayed History: The recent emergence of a deeper understanding of Indo-Roman trade is attributed in part to the discovery of new archaeological evidence in places like Muziris in Kerala and Berenike in Egypt. Additionally, India has sometimes underplayed its significance as a centre of trade and ideas in the early classical period.

The Significance of the 1st and 2nd Centuries CE: The 1st and 2nd centuries CE represent an intriguing period when India played a vital role in exporting its ideas and luxury goods to the Roman world. This era witnessed the spread of Buddhism to China and the provision of luxury items to Rome. While scholars like Himanshu Prabha Ray have made valuable contributions to this field, there is a need to make their findings more accessible to a wider audience.

10. The Way Forward

  • The recent revelations about India's central role in this ancient trade route have opened up numerous questions for exploration.
  • For instance, the influence of Buddhist monasticism in India on the development of Christian monasticism in the late Roman period remains a topic of investigation.
  • As more information comes to light, researchers can delve further into the connections and impacts of this extensive East-West trade network, shedding new light on the history of these two interconnected worlds.
 
For Prelims: India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor, G20, Roman Empire, Silk Road, ancient Red Sea trade route, Muziris Papyrus,  Indus Valley Civilization, Red Sea, Egypt, Tibetan Plateau, Ajanta caves, Satavahanas dynasty, Gulf of Aden, Buddhism, 
For Mains: 
1. Discuss the significance of the Maritime Red Sea Route in connecting the Indian subcontinent with the Roman Empire. How has recent evidence reshaped our understanding of this trade route compared to the Silk Road? (250 Words)
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1. With reference to the “G20 Common Framework”, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022)
1. It is an initiative endorsed by the G20 together with the Paris Club.
2. It is an initiative to support Low Income Countries with unsustainable debt.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only            (b) 2 only      (c) Both 1 and 2          (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: C
 
2. In which one of the following groups are all the four countries members of G20?
(UPSC 2020) 
A. Argentina, Mexico, South Africa and Turkey
B. Australia, Canada, Malaysia and New Zealand
C. Brazil, Iran, Saudi Arabia and Vietnam
D. Indonesia, Japan, Singapore and South Korea
 
Answer: A
 
3. Read the statements (A) and (R) and choose the correct option. (CTET 2022)
 Assertion (A): The Roman empire carried out trades with South India.
 Reason (R): Roman gold coins have been found in South India.
A. Both (A) and (R) are correct and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both (A) and (R) are correct and R is not the correct explanation of A.
C. (A) is true, but (R) is false.
D. (A) is false but (R) is true.
 
Answer: A
 
4. Who was the first emperor of the Roman Empire? (ACC 122 CGAT 2020) 
A. Tiberius     B. Mark Antony        C. William Shakespeare     D. Augustus
 
Answer: D
 
5. Comprehension (SSC CGL Tier 2 2020) 
Directions:
Read the passage and answer the questions that follow.
The Roman Empire covered a vast stretch of territory that included most of Europe as we know it today and a large part of the Fertile Crescent and North Africa. The Roman Empire embraced a wealth of local cultures and languages; that women had a stronger legal position then than they do in many countries today; but also that much of the economy was run on slave labour, denying freedom to substantial numbers of persons. From the fifth century onwards, the empire fell apart in the west but remained intact and exceptionally prosperous in its eastern half. Roman historians have a rich collection of sources to go on, which we can broadly divide into three groups: (a) texts, (b) documents and (c) material remains. Textual sources include letters, speeches, sermons, laws, and histories of the period written by contemporaries. These were usually called ‘Annals’ because the narrative was constructed on a year-by-year basis. Documentary sources include mainly inscriptions and papyri. Inscriptions were usually cut on stone, so a large number survive, in both Greek and Latin. The ‘papyrus’ was a reed-like plant that grew along the banks of the Nile in Egypt and was processed to produce sheets of writing material that was very widely used in everyday life. Thousands of contracts, accounts, letters and official documents survive ‘on papyrus’ and have been published by scholars who are called ‘papyrologists’. Material remains include a very wide assortment of items that mainly archaeologists discover (for example, through excavation and field survey), for example, buildings, monuments and other kinds of structures, pottery, coins, mosaics, even entire landscapes. Each of these sources can only tell us just so much about the past, and combining them can be a fruitful exercise, but how well this is done depends on the historian’s skill! Which of these statements is NOT true?
A. Archaeologists make discoveries through excavations.
B. Inscriptions were carved in Greek and Latin
C. The Roman empire flourished longer in the west.
D. Texts, documents and material remains were the main sources for the historians
 
Answer: C
 
6. In the first century AD, which among the following was not a major item of Indian exports to Rome? (CDS GK  2018) 
A. Pepper        B. Spikenard           C. Tortoiseshell         D. Nutmeg
 
Answer: D
 
7. Pepper was as valued in Roman Empire that as it was called (CTET  2013)
A. Black magic        B. Black charm         C. Black stone       D. Black gold
 
Answer: D
 
8. In the middle of the first century BC, under ________, a high-born military commander, the ‘Roman Empire’ was extended to present-day Britain and Germany. (SSC JE CE 2017)
A. Alexander       B. Julius Caesar        C. Xerxes     D. Caligula
 
Answer: B
 
9. Comprehension
Direction: Read the passage carefully and select the best answer to each question out of the given four alternatives.
The Silk Road was a network of trade routes which connected the East and West, and was central to the economic, cultural, political, and religious interactions between these regions from the 2nd century BCE to the 18th century. The Silk Road primarily refers to the land routes connecting East Asia and Southeast Asia with South Asia, Persia, the Arabian Peninsula, East Africa and Southern Europe. The Silk Road derives its name from the lucrative trade in silk carried out along its length, beginning in the Han dynasty in China. The Silk Road trade played a significant role in the development of the civilizations of China, Korea, Japan, the Indian subcontinent, Iran, Europe, the Horn of Africa and Arabia, opening long-distance political and economic relations between the civilizations. Though silk was the major trade item exported from China, many other goods and ideas were exchanged, including religions (especially Buddhism), syncretic philosophies, sciences, and technologies like paper and gunpowder. So, in addition to economic trade, the Silk Road was a route for cultural trade among the civilizations along its network. Diseases, most notably plague, also spread along the Silk Road. Some remnants of what was probably Chinese silk dating from 1070 BCE have been found in Ancient Egypt. The Great Oasis cities of Central Asia played a crucial role in the effective functioning of the Silk Road trade. The originating source seems sufficiently reliable, but silk degrades very rapidly, so it cannot be verified whether it was cultivated silk (which almost certainly came from China) or a type of wild silk, which might have come from the Mediterranean or Middle East. Archeological sites such as the Berel burial ground in Kazakhstan, confirmed that the nomadic Arimaspians were not only breeding horses for trade but also great craftsmen able to propagate exquisite art pieces along the Silk Road.
 
According to the passage, The Silk Road primarily refers to the land routes connecting to one another. Which routes were not linked by it? (DSSSB Junior Stenographer 2021) 
A. East Asia with Southern Europe
B. East Asia with South Asia
C. South America and South Africa
D. East Asia with Persia
 
Answer: C
 
10. The term “Silk Route” in the ancient period refers to (CTET 2022)
A. the travelling route of traders from China to other countries carrying silk.
B. Sea routes connecting countries in which silk traders sold their products.
C. roads connecting all the countries in which mulberry plants were cultivated.
D. road and sea routes in which silk products were traded.
 
Answer: A
 
11. Who started the ‘Silk-route’ (Marg) for Indians? (UKPSC RO/ARO 2016) 
A. Kanishka      B. Harshwardhan      C. Ashok       D. Fahien
 
Answer: A
 
12. With reference to ancient South India, Korkai, Poompuhar, and Muchiri were well-known as (UPSC 2023)
A. capital cities  B. ports  C. centres of iron-and-steel    D.  making shrines of Jain Tirthankaras
Answer: B
 
13. Two thousand years ago, a trader narrates that he has been to Gaza, Petra and Apologos. Which of the following trade routes has he travelled through? (CTET 2022)
A. Route controlled by Roman emperors
B. Route under the rulers of Persia
C. Route controlled by Kushanas
D. Route under the rulers of China
 
Answer: A
 
14. Red sea is an example of: (UPPSC Civil Service 2017)
A. Volcanic valley B.  Eroded valley      C.  Axial trough      D. U-shaped valley
 
Answer: C
 
15. In which Indian state was the ancient sea port 'Muziris' located? (UP Police SI 2017)
A. Kerala    B. Gujarat      C. Karnataka      D. Tamil Nadu
 
Answer: A
 
16. Regarding the Indus Valley Civilization, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2011)
1. It was predominantly a secular civilization and the religious element, though present, did not dominate the scene.
2. During this period, cotton was used for manufacturing textiles in India.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only       B.  2 only           C.  Both 1 and 2         D. Neither 1 nor 2
 
Answer: C
 
Source: The Indian Express
 

DEPUTY SPEAKER

 

1. Context

With the Opposition’s increased strength in Lok Sabha, its members are hoping to get the post of Deputy Speaker. There was no Deputy Speaker for the entire duration of the 17th Lok Sabha (2019-24). M Thambi Durai of the AIADMK, a BJP ally at the time, was Deputy Speaker of the 16th Lok Sabha (2014-19).

2. What does the Constitution say about the Deputy Speaker?

  • Article 93 of the Constitution provides for the election of both the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker.
  • The constitutional office of the Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha is more symbolic of parliamentary democracy than some real authority.
  • There is no need to resign from their original party though as a Deputy Speaker, they have to remain impartial.

2.1 Roles and functions:

They act as the presiding officer in case of leave or absence caused by death or illness of the Speaker of the Lok Sabha.

2.2 Election:

Usually, the Deputy Speaker is elected in the first meeting of the Lok Sabha after the General elections from amongst the members of the Lok Sabha. It is by convention that position of Deputy Speaker is offered to opposition party in India.

2.3 Tenure and removal:

They hold office until either they cease to be a member of the Lok Sabha or they resign.
They can be removed from office by a resolution passed in the Lok Sabha by an effective majority of its members.

3. How soon must the Deputy Speaker be elected?

  • “As soon as may be”, say Articles 93 and 178. But they do not lay down a specific time frame.
  • In general, the practice in both Lok Sabha and the state Assemblies has been to elect the Speaker during the (mostly short) first session of the new House -usually on the third day after the oath-taking and affirmations over the first two days.
  • The election of the Deputy Speaker usually takes place in the second session and is generally not delayed further in the absence of genuine and unavoidable constraints.
  • Rule 8 of The Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Lok Sabha says the election of Deputy Speaker “shall be held on such date as the Speaker may fix”.
  • The Deputy Speaker is elected once a motion proposing his name is carried in the House.
    Once elected, the Deputy Speaker usually continues in office for the entire duration of the House.
  • Under Article 94 (Article 179 for state legislatures), the Speaker or Deputy Speaker “shall vacate his office if he ceases to be a member of the House”.
  • They may also resign to each other, or “may be removed from office by a resolution of the House of the People passed by a majority of all the then members of the House”. 

4. Do the powers of the Speaker extend to the Deputy Speaker as well?

  • Article 95(1) says: “While the office of Speaker is vacant, the duties of the office shall be performed by the Deputy Speaker”.
  • In general, the Deputy Speaker has the same powers as the Speaker when presiding over a sitting of the House.
  • All references to the Speaker in the Rules are deemed to be references to the Deputy Speaker when he presides.
  • It has been repeatedly held that no appeal lies to the Speaker against a ruling given by the Deputy Speaker or any person presiding over the House in the absence of the Speaker. 

5. Position of the Union government on the current vacancy in the post of Deputy Speaker

  • The Treasury benches have maintained there is no “immediate requirement” for a Deputy Speaker as “bills are being passed and discussions are being held” as normal in the House.
  • A Minister argued that “there is a panel of nine members senior, experienced, and selected from different parties who can act as chairpersons to assist the Speaker to run the House”.
  • This panel of nine has Rama Devi, Kirit P Solanki, and Rajendra Agrawal of the BJP; Kodikunnil Suresh of the Congress; A Raja of the DMK; P V Midhun Reddy (YSRCP); Bhartruhari Mahtab (BJD); N K Premachandran (RSP); and Kakoli Ghosh Dastidar (TMC).
  • Courts usually don’t intervene in the procedural conduct of Parliament. Article 122(1) says: “The validity of any proceedings in Parliament shall not be called in question on the ground of any alleged irregularity of procedure.” 
  • However, experts said that the courts do have jurisdiction to at least inquire into why there has been no election to the post of Deputy Speaker since the Constitution does envisage an election “as soon as may be”. 

For Prelims & Mains

For Prelims: Article 93, Deputy Speaker, Article 179, Article 95(1), Chief Justice of India, Speaker of Lok sabha.
For Mains:1. Discuss the constitutional provisions,powers and functions of the Deputy speaker of Lok sabha? (250 words)
 
Source: The Indian Express
 

CHANG'S MISSION

(FAR SIDE OF THE MOON)

 
 
1. Context:
 
China’s Chang’e-6 on 25/06/2024 became the first spacecraft to bring back samples from the far side of the Moon — the part that the Earth never gets to see.
 
 
2. What are the Chang’e missions? 
 
  • China's lunar missions are named Chang'e after the moon goddess in Chinese mythology. The Chinese National Space Administration (CNSA) started the Chinese Lunar Exploration Programme (CLEP) in 2003, with the first Chang'e mission launching in 2007. Chang'e 1 mapped the moon's surface.
  • With Chang'e 2, CLEP began phase I of its lunar missions, enhancing the orbiter with a more advanced camera. The images captured were instrumental in preparing for the Chang'e 3 mission's successful lander and rover deployment on December 14, 2013, marking the start of CLEP’s phase II missions.
  • In 2019, Chang'e 4 made history by carrying the first lander and rover to the moon's far side, allowing for exploration of this less understood area.
  • Phase III kicked off with the Chang'e 5 mission in late 2020, which landed on the moon's near side. This mission featured an ascender that collected lunar soil samples and launched into orbit, where an orbiter retrieved the samples and transferred them to a returner, which brought them back to Earth. Chang'e 6 aims to replicate this mission on the moon's far side to investigate the distinct differences between the far and near sides.
 
3. What is the far side?
 
  • The moon is tidally locked to Earth, meaning the same lunar hemisphere always faces Earth while the opposite hemisphere, known as the far side, always faces away. The far side is characterized by rockier terrain and fewer smooth plains, making it more challenging for spacecraft to land there. Additionally, direct communication between Earth and a spacecraft on the far side is impossible due to the lack of a line of sight. To overcome this, a second spacecraft must be positioned to relay signals between Earth-based ground stations and the spacecraft on the moon's surface, adding complexity to the mission.
  • The far side of the moon is considered an ideal location for installing large telescopes, which would have an unobstructed view of the universe, free from Earth's interference. The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and scientists at the Raman Research Institute in Bengaluru are currently developing such a device, named PRATUSH.
 
4. What is the status of Chang’e 6? 
 
  • On May 3 (2024), the Chinese National Space Administration (CNSA) launched the Chang’e 6 orbiter-lander assembly, weighing 8.3 tonnes, which successfully entered lunar orbit by May 8. On May 30, the lander complex separated from the orbiter, descending towards a sizable crater named Apollo, a maneuver completed on June 1.
  • Scientists from the Chinese Lunar Exploration Programme (CLEP) managed this phase of the mission, collaborating with the Queqiao 2 relay satellite, launched by CNSA in February and positioned in an elliptical orbit around the moon. Upon reaching the Apollo crater, a drilling mechanism extracted approximately 2 kg of soil, which was then transferred to the ascender using a scoop. The ascender departed for lunar orbit on June 4, rendezvousing with the orbiter and delivering the samples to a capsule within the returner by June 6.
  • Anticipated to arrive on Earth by June 25 (2024), the returner is tasked with bringing the collected lunar samples back for further analysis.
 
5. What might the samples reveal?
 
  • Given that Chang’e 6 is a Chinese-led mission, the significance of the samples collected depends not only on the substance itself but also on the entity collecting them and the timing of the mission. Unlike some other lunar missions, the Chinese National Space Administration (CNSA) has not been providing regular and detailed updates.
  • After CNSA retrieves the capsule containing the lunar samples, Chinese scientists will have primary access for analysis before potentially allowing foreign research teams access based on submitted proposals. It remains uncertain whether any Indian research groups have submitted proposals for access.
  • From a scientific standpoint, the samples obtained from the far side of the moon are anticipated to provide valuable insights into the lunar formation process and planetary development. For instance, researchers speculate that the disparity in terrain between the moon's hemispheres may be attributed to the heat released by Earth during the moon's formation and the thermochemical properties near the lunar surface.
 
For Prelims: Gaganyaan programme, TV-D1 mission, Low Earth Orbit, Isro, LVM3, GSLV Mk III, 
For Mains: 
1. Discuss the key objectives of the TV-D1 mission within the Gaganyaan program. How does this mission contribute to astronaut safety and the overall success of Gaganyaan? (250 Words)
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1. With reference to India's satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2018)
1. PSLVs launch satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites.
2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth.
3. GSLV Mk III is a four-stage launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 and 3
C. 1 and 2
D. 3 only
Answer: A
 
2. India's first human space mission "Gaganyaan" will be launched in which year? (ESIC UDC 2022)
A. 2022          B. 2023          C. 2024          D. 2025      E.  2026
 
Answer: B
 
3. Find the incorrect statements, about the Gaganyaan Mission of India. (MPSC 2020)
1. Four pilots from Indian Air Force were shortlisted to be astronauts of Gaganyaan.
2. They will be trained at Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Centre in Russia.
3. This mission was announced by Prime Minister in 2014.
4. It is scheduled for 2022 with a team of 5 crew members and a month-long stay in space.
A. 1, 2, 3, 4     B.  2, 3, 4           C. 3, 4          D. 2, 3
 
Answer: C
 
4. ISRO is related to: (SSC JE EE 2020)
A. space research      B. agricultural research          C. seed research          D. marine research Answer: A
 

5.  Which of the following pairs is/are correctly matched? (UPSC 2014)

Spacecraft                                    Purpose

  1. Cassini-Huygens:                  Orbiting the Venus and transmitting data to the Earth
  2. Messenger:                             Mapping and investigating the Mercury
  3. Voyager 1 and 2:                    Exploring the outer solar system

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only         (b) 2 and 3 only          (c) 1 and 3 only          (d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: B

6. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2016)

The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO

1. is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission
2. made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA
3. made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit the Mars in its very first attempt

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only        (b) 2 and 3 only          (c) 1 and 3 only            (d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: C
Source: The Hindu
 

TOTAL FERTILITY RATE (TFR)

 
 
 
1. Context
 
The latest National Family Health Survey, 2019–20 (NFHS–5), conducted by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW), shows that many states have already attained a replacement level of fertility, and there is a steady decline in India’s total fertility rates (TFR). 
 

2. About the Total Fertility Rate (TFR)

The Total Fertility Rate (TFR) is a key demographic indicator that helps us understand the average number of children a woman in a specific population will have during her lifetime, assuming current birth patterns persist. It's different from the crude birth rate, which simply measures the number of births per 1,000 people in a population in a given year. 

What it measures

  • The average number of children a woman will have throughout her reproductive lifespan.
  • It considers age-specific fertility rates, which means it takes into account the different birth rates at different ages within the population.
  • Provides a longer-term perspective on population dynamics compared to the crude birth rate.

Significance

  • Helps assess population growth trends and predict future population size.
  • Informs policy decisions related to education, healthcare, social security, and economic development.
  • Understanding TFR is crucial for analyzing the potential demographic dividend, which refers to the economic and social benefits that can arise from a large working-age population due to declining fertility rates.

Calculation

  • Summing the age-specific fertility rates (ASFRs) for all fertile age groups (typically 15-49 years) and multiplying by five.
  • ASFRs represent the average number of births per 1,000 women in a specific age group.

Key TFR levels

  • Replacement fertility rate: Around 2.1 children per woman, ensures population stability without growth or decline due to births and deaths (excluding migration).
  • TFR below replacement: Indicates a declining population, with potential implications for workforce size and economic growth.
  • TFR above replacement: Leads to population growth, requiring investments in infrastructure and resources to support the growing population.
 

3. What does the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) of 2.0 mean?

A Total Fertility Rate (TFR) of 2.0 means that, on average, each woman in the population is expected to give birth to two children over her reproductive lifetime. This value represents the replacement level of fertility, where each generation replaces itself in the population. When the TFR is around 2.0, it indicates that the population is stable, with births balancing deaths over time.

A Total Fertility Rate (TFR) of 2.0 indicates several key things

  • Average Children per Woman: In that specific population, on average, a woman will have two children during her lifetime, assuming current birth patterns remain unchanged. This means that each generation of women is replacing itself, without population growth or decline due solely to births and deaths (excluding migration).
  • Replacement Fertility Rate: A TFR of 2.0 is often referred to as the replacement fertility rate. This is because it signifies the level of fertility needed to maintain a stable population size over time, considering only births and deaths. However, it's important to note that the exact replacement level can vary slightly depending on mortality rates, particularly child mortality.
  • Demographic Transition: A TFR of 2.0 suggests that the population is likely in the later stages of the demographic transition. This transition involves a shift from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates. In this stage, populations typically experience a decline in fertility, followed by a decline in mortality, leading to a stabilization of population size.
  • Global Context: While 2.0 is the replacement fertility rate, the global average TFR is currently around 2.3, indicating slight population growth. However, many developed countries have TFRs below replacement level, which can lead to an ageing population and potential challenges for social security systems and workforce size.
  • Policy Implications: Understanding the TFR is crucial for policymakers in various areas like education, healthcare, social security, and economic development. A TFR below replacement may necessitate policies encouraging childbirth or attracting immigration to address potential workforce shortages. Conversely, a high TFR might require investments in infrastructure and resources to support a growing population.

 

4. What is the Replacement Fertility Rate?

The Replacement Fertility Rate (RFR) is the level of fertility required to maintain a stable population size in a given area, considering only births and deaths (excluding migration). This means that each generation of women has just enough daughters to replace themselves and their mothers in the population.

Key Points about RFR

  • Typically around 2.1 children per woman This number varies slightly depending on a country's mortality rates, especially child mortality rates. Higher child mortality necessitates slightly higher fertility to ensure replacement.
  • When the TFR matches the RFR, the population neither grows nor declines due to births and deaths.
  • Reaching RFR suggests a population in the later stages of the demographic transition, characterized by declining birth and death rates.
  • Though the global average TFR is 2.3 (slightly above RFR), many developed countries have TFRs below RFR, leading to ageing populations.

Significance of RFR

  • Understanding RFR helps policymakers formulate effective policies in areas like education, healthcare, social security, and economic development.
  • TFR below RFR may require policies to encourage childbirth or attract immigration to address potential workforce shortages and support ageing populations. Conversely, a high TFR might necessitate investments in infrastructure and resources to sustain a growing population.
  • Analyzing TFR about RFR offers insights into potential population growth or decline, aiding in planning and resource allocation.

 

5. How is the Total Fertility Rate calculated?

The Total Fertility Rate (TFR) is calculated by considering the age-specific fertility rates (ASFRs) of a population. 

  1. Age-specific fertility Rates (ASFRs) represent the average number of births per 1,000 women within a specific age group. Typically, ASFRs are calculated for five-year age groups ranging from 15-49 years, covering the typical childbearing years for women. Data for calculating ASFRs usually comes from population censuses or demographic surveys.
  2. Once you have the ASFRs for each age group, you need to sum them all up. This gives you the total number of births expected per 1,000 women across all fertile age groups.
  3. Since age groups may have different sizes, simply summing ASFRs wouldn't be entirely accurate. To account for this, the sum is multiplied by the average number of women in each age group. This ensures the TFR reflects the fertility rates across all age groups proportionally.
  4. Often, instead of using the actual number of women in each age group, a standard factor of "5" is used for convenience. This assumes that each age group has roughly the same number of women, which is a reasonable approximation for many populations.

Therefore, the TFR formula becomes: TFR = (Sum of ASFRs across all age groups) * 5

Example:

Imagine a hypothetical population with the following ASFRs:

  • 15-19 years: 30 births per 1,000 women
  • 20-24 years: 80 births per 1,000 women
  • 25-29 years: 120 births per 1,000 women
  • 30-34 years: 90 births per 1,000 women
  • 35-39 years: 50 births per 1,000 women
  • 40-44 years: 20 births per 1,000 women
  • 45-49 years: 10 births per 1,000 women

Using the formula:

  • TFR = (30 + 80 + 120 + 90 + 50 + 20 + 10) * 5
  • TFR = 400 * 5
  • TFR = 2000 births per 1,000 women

Therefore, in this example, the TFR is 2.0, indicating that on average, a woman in this population would have 2 children during her lifetime based on the current age-specific fertility rates.

 

6. The difference between birth rate and Total Fertility Rate (TFR)

While both birth rate and Total Fertility Rate (TFR) measure fertility within a population, they have key differences that offer distinct insights:

Features Birth Rate Total Fertility Rate (TFR)
Definition Number of births per 1,000 people in a year Average number of children per woman throughout her life
Focus Current fertility level Long-term fertility pattern
Data Requires population size and number of births Requires age-specific fertility rates
Calculation Simple division Summing and adjusting age-specific fertility rates
Advantages Easy to understand, tracks short-term trends Considers age structure, reflects future potential, informs policy
Limitations Ignores age structure, limited future insight, misleading in fluctuating populations
 

Requires complex data, less intuitive, may not perfectly predict future
 
 

7. About demographic dividend

A demographic dividend refers to the potential economic and social benefits that can arise when a large share of the population is in the working-age (typically 15-64 years) compared to the dependent populations (children and elderly). This shift in population structure is often caused by a decline in fertility rates without a corresponding decline in mortality rates, leading to a "bulge" in the working-age population.

Key Features

  • A larger working-age population translates to a larger pool of available labour, potentially boosting economic growth and productivity.
  • The ratio of dependents (children and elderly) to the working-age population decreases, leading to increased savings and investment as fewer resources are needed to support dependents.
  • The potential for increased investments in education and healthcare due to a smaller dependent population, leading to a more skilled and healthy workforce.

Conditions for a Dividend

  • A significant and sustained decline in fertility rates is crucial for the demographic dividend to occur.
  • The benefits of a demographic dividend can only be realized if the working-age population is adequately educated, skilled, and healthy.
  • Expanding job opportunities is essential to absorb the growing workforce and prevent unemployment.

Challenges and Considerations

  • The demographic dividend may not be evenly distributed across regions or social groups, potentially leading to inequalities.
  • Governments and businesses need to adapt policies and infrastructure to accommodate the changing population structure.
  • Ensuring social security and healthcare for the ageing population is crucial to sustain the benefits of the dividend.

Examples

  • Several East Asian countries, like China and South Korea, experienced significant economic growth due to their demographic dividends in the latter half of the 20th century.
  • India is currently experiencing a demographic transition with a declining fertility rate, creating the potential for a future dividend. However, realizing this potential requires investments in education, healthcare, and job creation.
 
8. The Way Forward
 
Understanding the TFR and its implications is crucial for India's future development. By analyzing population dynamics and formulating data-driven policies, the country can harness the potential of its demographic transition and achieve the Viksit Bharat goals sustainably and inclusively.
 
 
For Prelims: Viksit Bharat, Population control goal, Total Fertility Rate, Replacement Fertility Rate
 
For Mains: 
1. Critically analyze the significance of Total Fertility Rate (TFR) in understanding population dynamics and formulating development policies in India. Discuss the potential challenges and opportunities associated with India's projected demographic transition. (250 Words)
2. What are the potential security implications of India's changing population structure? How can these be addressed through proactive policy measures? (250 Words)
3. Imagine you are part of the committee formed by the Finance Minister to study India's population growth. What key recommendations would you propose, considering both demographic trends and the aspirations of a Vikasit Bharat? (250 Words)
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1. The total fertility rate is: (HPPSC GS 2018) (MPSC 2015)
 
A. The birth of women divided by the total female population
B. The number of births divided by the total population
C. The number of children a woman will likely bear in her lifetime
D. The births to women of a given age divided by the total number of women at that age
Answer: C
 
Mains
 
1. "Empowering women is the key to control the population growth.’’ Discuss. (UPSC 2019)
2. Critically examine the effect of globalization on the aged population in India. (UPSC 2013)
3. Discuss the main objectives of Population Education and point out the measures to achieve them in India in detail. (UPSC 2021)
4. Define potential GDP and explain its determinants. What are the factors that have been inhibiting India from realizing its potential GDP? (UPSC 2020)
 
 Source: The Indian Express
 
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