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DAILY CURRENT AFFAIRS, 12 APRIL 2024

OTHER BACKWARD CLASSES

1. Context

Union Home Minister Amit Shah said in Madhya Pradesh on Thursday that if the INDIA coalition comes to power at the Centre, the Other Backward Class (OBC) community will “suffer the biggest loss” as he accused the Congress of being an “anti-OBC” party

2. About the sub-categorization of OBCs

  • The concept of sub-categorization of OBCs involves creating sub-groups within the larger OBC category for reservation purposes.
  • Currently, OBCs are granted 27% reservation in jobs and education under the central government.
  • However, there has been a debate over the equitable distribution of these benefits among the various OBC communities.
  • Some argue that a few affluent communities within the Central List of OBCs have disproportionately secured the majority of the reservation benefits.
  • Creating sub-categories aims to ensure a fairer distribution of representation among all OBC communities.

3. The Rohini Commission's Brief

  1. To examine the extent of inequitable distribution of reservation benefits among the OBC castes or communities included in the Central List.
  2. To devise a scientific approach for sub-categorization within the OBCs, including defining the mechanism, criteria, norms, and parameters.
  3. To identify respective castes, communities, sub-castes, or synonyms in the Central List of OBCs and classify them into their respective sub-categories.
  4. To study the Central List of OBCs and rectify any repetitions, ambiguities, inconsistencies, and errors.
  • The Commission's progress has faced various challenges, including the absence of data on the population of different communities to compare their representation in jobs and education.
  • Initially, the Commission had requested an all-India survey to estimate the caste-wise population of OBCs but later decided against it.
  • Additionally, the government has remained silent on the collection of OBC data in the Census, despite demands from OBC groups.

4. The Extent of OBC Recruitment in Central Jobs

  • As part of its findings, the Commission analyzed data from the preceding five years on OBC quota-based central jobs and admissions to central higher education institutions.
  • It revealed that a disproportionate number of jobs and educational seats went to a small fraction of OBC sub-castes, with 37% of the total OBC communities having no representation in jobs and educational institutions.
  • Regarding OBC representation in central jobs, as of March 17, the data showed that 20.26% of Group A to Group C employees were OBCs.
  • However, the representation drops to 16.88% in Group A, where the reservation for OBCs is 27%.
Image Source: The Indian Express

5. The Way Forward

  • Despite the challenges faced, the Commission has made significant progress, including drafting a report on sub-categorization.
  • However, the final report is yet to be submitted. The extended tenure will provide the Commission with additional time to address the complexities of OBC sub-categorization and propose measures to achieve equitable distribution of reservation benefits among all OBC communities.
For Prelims: Rohini Commission, OBCs, Central List
For Mains: 
1. Discuss the role of the government in addressing the demand for the enumeration of OBCs in the Census and its potential impact on OBC representation and welfare." (250 Words)
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1. Who was appointed as the head of the OBC Sub-categorisation Commission?
(Maharashtra Talathi 2019) 
A. Justice Geeta Mittal
B. Justice Manjula Chellur
C. Justice Tahilramani
D. Justice G. Rohini
 
Answer: D
 
2. Which of the following pairs of list and contents is/are correctly matched? (UPSC CAPF 2019) 
1. State list                     Public health and sanitation
2. Union list                  Citizenship, naturalisation and aliens
3. Concurrent list          Legal, medical and other
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1 only             B. 1, 2 and 3          C.  2 and 3 only            D.  3 only
 
Answer: B
 
Source: The Indian Express
 

FOREST FIRES

 

1. Context

Close to 100 hectares of forest were destroyed in a fire in the Sulthan Bathery forest range under the Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala.The incident was reported around 10.30 a.m. at Karassery in the district . It later spread to Kumbram Kolly, Ezhekkar, Narikkolly and Kottanode areas of the forest under the sanctuary

2. What is a forest fire?

  • A forest fire is an uncontrolled fire occurring in vegetation more than 1.8 meters (6 feet) in height. These fires often reach the proportions of a major conflagration and are sometimes begun by combustion and heat from surface and ground fires.
  • A big forest fire may crown that is, spread rapidly through the topmost branches of the trees before involving undergrowth or the forest floor.
  • As a result, violent blowups are common in forest fires, and they may assume the characteristics of a firestorm.
  • Though forest fire is often seen as harmful, several forests are specifically fire-adapted; the species of plants and animals native to those ecosystems are enhanced by or dependent on the occurrence of fire to persist and reproduce.
  • Lightning strikes in a dry forest occur naturally, and fire can improve ecosystem health by reducing competition, fertilizing the soil with ash, and decreasing diseases and pests. some plant species even require fire for their seeds to germinate.
  • In many regions that have historically experienced forest fires, such as forested areas of the western united states, years of fire exclusion and suppression in the 19th and 20th centuries allowed fuels to accumulate, altering the vegetation communities present and leading to more extreme conflagrations when fires do occur.
  • The use of prescribed fire, in which areas are burned intentionally and under controlled conditions, can restore those ecosystems and promote the conditions that were present historically before the removal of wildfire.

3. Causes of Forest Fires

  • Natural causes like lightning can set fires on trees which may be spread by wind. Sometimes, High atmospheric temperatures and dryness (low humidity) offer favorable circumstances for a fire to start.
  • Man-made causes are usually the ones that become dangerous. Fire is caused when a source of fire like naked flame, cigarette, electric spark, or any source of ignition comes into contact with inflammable material.
  • Other human-led causes are land clearing and other agricultural activities, maintenance of grasslands for livestock management, extraction of non-wood forest products, industrial development, settlement, hunting, negligence, and arson.

4. Types of forest fires

  • Surface fire: Spread along the surface litter (leaves, twigs, dry grasses) on the forest floor.
  • Ground fire: Fires in the subsurface organic fuels, such as duff layers under forest stands, burn underneath and are often ignited by surface fires.
  • Crown fire: A Crown fire is one in which the crown of trees and shrubs burn, often sustained by surface fire.

5. Forest fires in Odisha

  • A sudden jump in the incidents of fires across Odisha resulted in a massive loss of flora and fauna in the state's forests.
  • A prolonged dry spell since October 2022 and the accumulation of inflammable material such as dry leaves are some of the reasons that started these forest fires.
  • Some of the fires may have also been caused by human-made reasons. The tribal people set fire to forests for shifting cultivation, and collection of mahua flowers and kendu leaves.
  • Forests are set on fire to cultivate turmeric in the Baliguda forest division in the Kandhamal district.
  • Regeneration of the forests will be affected due to wildfires. The seeds which are supposed to germinate in the monsoon rain get burnt due to ground fires in the forest areas, affecting the forest growth.
  • Forest fires result in the loss of timber, fruit-bearing trees, and medicinal plants. They also pose a threat to wildlife and their habitat areas.
  • The forest department did not learn from the 2021 forest fires when a record 51,968 forest fire incidents occurred in the state. Massive fires had broken out in Similipal National Park in the Mayurbhanj district, which is one of the major biospheres of Asia.
Source: The Logical Indian

6. Mitigation measures by the Government

  • The incidence of forest fires in the country is on the increase and more area is razed each year.
  • The major cause of this failure is the slow and gradual approach to the problem.
  •  Both the national focus and the technical resources required for sustaining a systematic forest fire management program are lacking in the country. 
  • Important forest fire management elements like strategic fire centers, coordination among Ministers, funding, human resource development, fire research, fire management, and extension programs are missing.
  • Taking into consideration the serious nature of the problem, it is necessary to make some major improvements in the forest fire management strategy for the country.
  • The Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change has prepared a National Master plan for Forest Fire Control. The Forest Survey of India (FSI) monitors the incidence of wildfires.

Previous year Question

1. Consider the following States: (UPSC 2019)
1. Chhattisgarh
2. Madhya Pradesh
3. Maharashtra
4. Odisha
With reference to the State mentioned above, in terms of the percentage of forest cover to the total area of the State, which one of the following is the correct ascending order?
A. 2-3-1-4
B. 2-3-4-1
C. 3-2-4-1
D. 3-2-1-4
Answer: C
 
For Prelims & Mains
 
For Prelims: Forest fires, Forest Survey of India (FSI), Surface fire, Ground fire, Crown fire, High atmospheric temperatures, and dryness, Climate Change, Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change (MoEFCC), 
For Mains: 1. What are various reasons for forest fires? Discuss the consequences of fires and suggest some solutions to prevent them.
 
Source: Down to Earth
 

LARGE HADRON COLLIDER

 

1. Context 

The man, after whom the particle is named, Peter Higgs, died on Tuesday (April 9 2024) aged 94.An elementary particle like electrons, quark, photons or neutrinos, the Higgs boson, is known to impart mass to every other particle. Its existence was predicted in the 1960s, but it was found only in 2012 through elaborate experiments carried out at the Large Hadron Collider, located on the border of France and Switzerland

2. What is the Large Hadron Collider?

  • The Large Hadron Collider is an expansive and intricate apparatus constructed for the examination of particles, which are the smallest constituents known in nature.
  • Its physical structure entails a 27-kilometer-long circular track, situated 100 meters underground along the Swiss-French border. During operation, the collider propels two beams of protons, nearing the speed of light, in opposite directions within a ring of superconducting electromagnets.
  • The magnetic field generated by these superconducting electromagnets maintains the protons in a precise beam, guiding them through beam pipes until they ultimately collide. In preparation for collision, a different type of magnet is employed to compress the particles, enhancing the likelihood of collisions.
  • Described by the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), which oversees the particle accelerator complex housing the LHC, the challenge is likened to aligning two needles precisely 10 kilometers apart so that they meet midway.
  • To accommodate the substantial current carried by the LHC's powerful electromagnets, comparable to that of a lightning bolt, a cooling system using liquid helium is employed.
  • This distribution system keeps critical components ultra-cold at a temperature of minus 271.3 degrees Celsius, colder than interstellar space. Due to these stringent requirements, adjusting the temperature of the colossal machine is a challenging task
Large Hadron Collider to restart and hunt for a fifth force of nature | Large Hadron Collider | The Guardian

3. The functioning of the LHC

  • A hadron is a subatomic particle made up of smaller particles.
  • The LHC typically uses protons, which are made up of quarks and gluons.
  • It energises the protons by accelerating them through a narrow circular pipe that is 27 km long.
  • Simply put, this pipe encircles two D-shaped magnetic fields, created by almost 9,600 magnets. There is a proton at the 3 o'clock position.
  • It is made to move from there to the 9 o'clock position by turning on one hemisphere of magnets and turning on one hemisphere of magnets and turning off the other, such that the magnetic field acting on the proton causes it to move clockwise.
  • Once it reaches the 9 o'clock position, the magnetic polarity is reversed by turning off the first hemisphere and turning on the second.
  • This causes the proton to move in an anticlockwise direction, from the 9 o'clock position.
  • This way, by switching the direction of the magnetic field more and more rapidly, protons can be accelerated through the beam pipe.
  • There are also other components to help them along, focus the particles, and keep them from hitting the pipe's walls.
  • Eventually, the protons move at 99.999999 per cent of the speed of light.
  • In the process, they accrue a tremendous amount of energy according to the special theory of relativity.

4. The effects of a collision

  • When two antiparallel beams of energised particles collide head-on, the energy at the point of collision is equal to the sum of the energy carried by the two beams.
  • Thus far, the highest centre of mass collision energy the LHC has achieved is 13.6 TeV (teraelectronvolts).
  • This is less energy than what would be produced if you clapped your hands once.
  • The feat is that the energy is packed into a volume of space the size of a proton, which makes the energy density very high.
  • At the moment of collision, there is chaos. There is a lot of energy available, and parts of it coalesce into different subatomic particles under the guidance of the fundamental forces of nature.
  • Which particle takes shape depends on the amount and flavour of energy available and which other particles are being created or destroyed around it. 
  • Some particles are created very rarely. If a particle is created with a probability of 0.00001 per cent there will need to be at least 10 million collisions to observe it.
  • Some particles are quite massive and need a lot of the right kind of energy to be created (this was one of the challenges of discovering the Higgs boson).
  • Some particles are extremely shortlived and the detectors studying them need to record them in a similar timeframe or be alert to proxy effects.
  • The LHC's various components are built such that scientists can tweak all these parameters to study different particle interactions.

5. The findings of the LHC 

  • The LHC consists of nine detectors. Located over different points on the beam pipe, they study particle interactions in different ways.
  • Every year, the detectors generate 30, 000 TB of data worth storing and even more overall.
  • Physicists pore through this data with the help of computers to identify and analyse specific patterns.
  • This is how the ATLAS and CMS detectors helped discover the Higgs boson in 2012 and confirmed their findings in 2013.
  • The LHC specialises in accelerating a beam of hadronic particles to certain specifications and delivering it.
  • Scientists can choose to do different things with the beam. For example, they have used the LHC to energise and collide lead ions with each other and protons with lead ions.
  • Using the data from all those collisions,
  1. They have tested the predictions of the Standard Model of particle physics,'
  2. The reigning theory of subatomic particles;
  3. Observed exotic particles like pentaquarks and tetraquarks and checked if their properties are in line with theoretical expectations; and
  4. Pieced together information about extreme natural conditions like those that existed right after the Big Bang.

6. What lies ahead for the LHC

  • These successes strike a contrast with what the LHC has not been able to find "new physics", the collective name for particles or processes that can explain the nature of dark matter or why gravity is such a weak force, among other mysteries.
  • The LHC has tested some of the predictions of theories that try to explain what the Standard Model can't and caught them short.
  • This has left the physics community in a bind.
  • One way forward, which is already in the works, is to improve the LHC's luminosity (a measure of the machine's ability to produce particle interactions of interest) by 10x by 2027 through upgrades.
  • Another more controversial idea is to build a bigger version of the LHC, based on the hypothesis that such a machine will be able to find 'new physics' at even higher energies.
  • While both CERN and China have unveiled initial plans for bigger machines, physicists are divided on whether the billions of dollars they will cost can be used to build less expensive experiments, including other colliders, with guaranteed instead of speculative results.
For Prelims: Large Hadron Collider, European Organization for Nuclear Research, CERN, 
For Mains: 
1. What is the Large Hardon Collider? Discuss how it works and what lies ahead of the world's largest science experiment. (250 Words)
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1. Large Hadron Collider was in news recently for doing some scientific research to prove the presence of an elementary particle. The scientist who predicted this particle in 1964 has been awarded Nobel Prize in 2013. What is this discovery?  (UPSC CAPF 2014) 
A. Particles known as quarks having mass
B. Origin of Universe timings
C. Higg's Bosons or God Particles explaining mass
D. None of the above
 
Answer: C
 
Source: The Hindu
 

NATIONAL GREEN TRIBUNAL

 

1. Context

The National Green Tribunal has told Punjab to submit by May 5 its detailed plan to manage the 19.52 million tonnes of paddy stubble it is estimated to generate in 2024

2. What is National Green Tribunal (NGT)?

  • The National Green Tribunal (NGT) is a specialized judicial body established in India to handle cases related to environmental protection and conservation.
  • It was established under the National Green Tribunal Act, of  2010, and its primary objective is to effectively and expeditiously address environmental disputes and promote sustainable development.
  • With the establishment of the NGT, India became the third country in the world to set up a specialized environmental tribunal, only after Australia and New Zealand, and the first developing country to do so.
     
  • NGT is mandated to make disposal of applications or appeals finally within 6 months of the filing of the same.
  • The NGT has five places of sittings, New Delhi is the Principal place of sitting, and Bhopal, Pune, Kolkata and Chennai are the other four.

3. Structure of the National Green Tribunal (NGT)

  • Chairperson: The NGT is headed by a full-time Chairperson who is a retired judge of the Supreme Court of India. The Chairperson is responsible for the overall administration and functioning of the tribunal.
  • Judicial Members: The NGT consists of judicial members who are retired judges of either the Supreme Court or a High Court. These members have extensive legal knowledge and experience in handling environmental matters.
  • Expert Members: The tribunal also includes expert members who possess expertise in areas such as environmental science, ecology, hydrology, and forestry. These members provide valuable technical insights and guidance in the resolution of environmental disputes.
  • The NGT is organized into multiple benches located across different regions of India. These benches are responsible for hearing cases specific to their respective jurisdictions. Each bench is headed by a judicial member and consists of one or more expert members, as required.

4. What are the Important Landmark Judgements of NGT?

The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has delivered several landmark judgments that have had a significant impact on environmental protection and conservation in India. Here are some of the important landmark judgments delivered by the NGT:

  • Vardhaman Kaushik v. Union of India (2013): This case dealt with the issue of groundwater depletion due to illegal extraction by industries in Uttar Pradesh. The NGT directed the closure of industries that were extracting groundwater without proper permissions and ordered the payment of compensation for environmental damage caused.
  • Alembic Pharmaceuticals Ltd. v. Rohit Prajapati & Ors. (2014): In this case, the NGT ordered the closure of an industrial unit in Gujarat for releasing untreated effluents into a water body, causing pollution and harm to the environment and public health.
  • M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (2014): The NGT issued a landmark judgment in this case regarding the pollution of the Yamuna River. It directed several measures to clean and rejuvenate the river, including the establishment of sewage treatment plants and the regulation of industries contributing to pollution.
  • Subhash Chandra Sharma v. Union of India (2015): This case focused on the issue of air pollution caused by solid waste burning in open areas. The NGT imposed a ban on burning waste in open spaces and directed municipal authorities to take measures to manage waste effectively.
  • Raghu Nath Sharma v. State of Himachal Pradesh (2016): The NGT ordered the closure of illegal hotels and structures in the eco-sensitive Rohtang Pass area of Himachal Pradesh to protect the fragile Himalayan ecosystem.
  • Yamuna Muktikaran Abhiyan v. Union of India (2017): This case dealt with the rejuvenation of the Yamuna River and led to the NGT issuing directions to clean and restore the river, including measures to prevent encroachments and pollution.
  • M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (2017): The NGT banned the use of disposable plastic in Delhi and the National Capital Region (NCR) and directed authorities to take steps to prevent the use and sale of such plastic.
  • Shailesh Singh v. Hotel Holiday Regency (2019): In this case, the NGT imposed heavy fines on a hotel in Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, for causing air pollution by running diesel generators without proper emission control measures.
  • Subhash Chandran vs. Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board (2020): This judgment highlighted the importance of safeguarding coastal areas and wetlands from unauthorized construction and development activities, emphasizing the need for stringent environmental norms.
  • In Re: Report by Comptroller and Auditor General of India (2021): The NGT directed the formulation of guidelines for the regulation of groundwater extraction and management to prevent overexploitation and depletion.

5. What is a dissolved oxygen level?

  • Dissolved oxygen (DO) level refers to the concentration of oxygen gas (O2) that is dissolved in a liquid, typically water.
  • It is a crucial parameter in aquatic ecosystems as it directly affects the survival and well-being of aquatic organisms.
  • In natural water bodies like lakes, rivers, and oceans, oxygen dissolves from the atmosphere through processes such as diffusion and aeration.
  • Aquatic plants, algae, and phytoplankton also contribute to the production of oxygen through photosynthesis. However, the level of dissolved oxygen can fluctuate based on various factors, including temperature, altitude, water flow, pollution, and organic matter decomposition.
  • Dissolved oxygen is essential for aquatic organisms because they rely on it for their respiration process, similar to how animals breathe oxygen from the air.
  • Insufficient levels of dissolved oxygen can lead to hypoxia, a condition where organisms are deprived of the oxygen they need to survive. This can result in stress, reduced growth, reproductive issues, and even mortality in aquatic species.

Different species of aquatic organisms have varying tolerance levels for dissolved oxygen. For example:

  • Fish and other aquatic animals often require dissolved oxygen levels between 4 to 6 milligrams per liter (mg/L) to thrive.
  • Some species of fish, insects, and other aquatic organisms can tolerate lower levels of dissolved oxygen, even below 2 mg/L, while others require higher concentrations.

6. What are chemical oxygen demand and biological oxygen demand?

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):

  • COD is a measure of the amount of oxygen required to chemically oxidize and break down organic and inorganic substances present in water.
  • It provides an indication of the total amount of pollutants that can be chemically oxidized by a strong oxidizing agent. COD is expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L) of oxygen consumed.
  • COD is useful in assessing the overall pollution load in a water sample, including both biodegradable and non-biodegradable substances.
  • It is commonly used for industrial wastewater monitoring, as it provides a rapid estimation of the organic content and potential pollution levels. However, COD does not differentiate between different types of pollutants or indicate the potential impact on aquatic life.

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD):

  • BOD measures the amount of dissolved oxygen consumed by microorganisms (bacteria) during the biological degradation of organic matter in water.
  • It is a key indicator of the level of biodegradable organic pollutants present in water. BOD is expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L) of oxygen consumed over a specific time period, usually 5 days (BODâ‚…).
  • BOD is particularly important in assessing the impact of organic pollution on aquatic ecosystems.
  • High BOD levels indicate that a water body may have a significant amount of organic pollutants, which can lead to oxygen depletion as microorganisms break down the organic matter. This oxygen depletion, known as hypoxia, can harm aquatic organisms and disrupt the ecological balance of the water body.

Comparing BOD and COD:

  • BOD primarily measures the biologically degradable organic matter and provides information about the potential impact on aquatic life.
  • COD measures both biologically and chemically degradable pollutants, giving an indication of the overall pollution load and oxygen demand.
  • BOD is a more specific and ecologically relevant parameter, but it takes longer to determine (5 days), while COD can be measured more quickly.
For Prelims: National Green Tribunal (NGT), National Green Tribunal Act, of  2010, Dissolved oxygen (DO), Chemical Oxygen demand (COD), and Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD).
For Mains: 1. Discuss the significance of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) as critical indicators for assessing water pollution and quality. (250 Words)
 

Previous year Question

1. How is the National Green Tribunal (NGT) different from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)? (UPSC 2018)
1. The NGT has been established by an Act whereas the CPCB has been created by the executive order of the Government.
2. The NGT provides environmental justice and helps reduce the burden of litigation in the higher courts whereas the CPCB promotes cleanliness of streams and wells, and aims to improve the quality of air in the country.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: B
 
2. The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 was enacted in consonance with which of the following provisions of the Constitution of India? (UPSC 2012)
1. Right of a healthy environment, construed as a part of the Right to life under Article 21
2. Provision of grants for raising the level of administration in the Scheduled Areas for the welfare of Scheduled Tribes under Article 275(1)
3. Powers and functions of Gram Sabha as mentioned under Article 243(A)
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
A. 1 only
B. 2 and 3 only
C. 1 and 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: A
Source: The Indian Express
 

HEATWAVE

 

1. Context

2023 was the world’s warmest year on record and it has been 47 years since the Earth has had a colder-than-average year. 

2. What is a Heat Wave?

  • A heatwave is a period of abnormally high temperatures, a common phenomenon in India during the months of May-June and in some rare cases even extends till July.
  • Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) classifies heat waves according to regions and temperature ranges. As per IMD, the number of heatwave days in India has increased from 413 over 1981-1990 to 600 over 2011-2020.
  • This sharp rise in the number of heatwave days has resulted due to the increasing impact of climate change.
  • The last three years have been La Niña years, which has served as a precursor to 2023 likely being an El Niño year. (The El Niño is a complementary phenomenon in which warmer water spreads west­east across the equatorial Pacific Ocean.)
  • As we eagerly await the likely birth of an El Niño this year, we have already had a heat wave occur over northwest India.
  • Heat waves tend to be confined to north and northwest India in El Niño years.
 
Image Source:News18

3. How do Heat waves Occur?

  • Heat waves are formed for one of two reasons warmer air is flowing in from elsewhere or it is being produced locally.
  • It is a local phenomenon when the air is warmed by higher land surface temperature or because the air sinking down from above is compressed along the way, producing hot air near the surface.
  • First of all, in spring, India typically has air flowing in from the west­northwest. This direction of air­flow is bad news for India for several reasons.
  • Likewise, air flowing in from the northwest rolls in over the mountains of Afghanistan and Pakistan, so some of the compression also happens on the leeward side of these mountains, entering India with a bristling warmth.
  • While air flowing over the oceans is expected to bring cooler air, the Arabian Sea is warming faster than most other ocean regions.
  • Next, the strong upper atmospheric westerly winds, from the Atlantic Ocean to India during spring, control the near-surface winds.
  • Any time winds flow from the west to the east, we need to remember that the winds are blowing faster than the planet which also rotates from west to east.
  • The energy to run past the earth near the surface, against surface friction, can only come from above. This descending air compresses and warms up to generate some heat waves.

4. Impacts of heat waves in India

  • The frequent occurrence of heat waves also adversely affects different sectors of the economy.
  • For instance, the livelihood of poor and marginal farmers is negatively impacted due to the loss of working days.
  • Heatwaves also have an adverse impact on daily wage workers' productivity, impacting the economy.
  • Crop yields suffer when temperatures exceed the ideal range.
  • Farmers in Haryana, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh have reported losses in their wheat crop in the past rabi season. Across India, wheat production could be down 6-7% due to heat waves.
  • Mortality due to heat waves occurs because of rising temperatures, lack of public awareness programs, and inadequate long-term mitigation measures.
  • According to a 2019 report by the Tata Center for Development and the University of Chicago, by 2100 annually, more than 1.5 million people will be likely to die due to extreme heat caused by climate change.
  • The increased heat wave will lead to an increase in diseases like diabetes, circulatory and respiratory conditions, as well as mental health challenges.
  • The concurrence of heat and drought events is causing crop production losses and tree mortality. The risks to health and food production will be made more severe by the sudden food production losses exacerbated by heat-induced labor productivity losses.
    These interacting impacts will increase food prices, reduce household incomes, and lead to malnutrition and climate-related deaths, especially in tropical regions.

5. How does air mass contribute to heat waves?

  • The other factors that affect the formation of heat waves are the age of the air mass and how far it has traveled.
  • The north northwestern heatwaves are typically formed with air masses that come from 800-1600 km away and are around two days old.
  • Heat waves over peninsular India on the other hand, arrive from the oceans, which are closer (around 200-400km) and are barely a day old. As a result, they are on average less intense.

6. Way ahead for Heat waves

  • Identifying heat hot spots through appropriate tracking of meteorological data and promoting timely development and implementation of local Heat Action Plans with strategic inter-agency coordination, and a response that targets the most vulnerable groups.
  • Review existing occupational health standards, labor laws, and sectoral regulations for worker safety in relation to climatic conditions.
  • Policy intervention and coordination across three sectors health, water, and power are necessary.
  • Promotion of traditional adaptation practices, such as staying indoors and wearing comfortable clothes.
  • Popularisation of simple design features such as shaded windows, underground water storage tanks, and insulating house materials.
  • Advance implementation of local Heat Action Plans, plus effective inter-agency coordination is a vital response that the government can deploy in order to protect vulnerable groups.

For Prelims & Mains

For Prelims: Heat Wave, India Meteorological Department (IMD), El Nino, Equatorial Pacific Ocean, La Nina, Malnutrition, Heat Action Plans.
For Mains: 1. Examine the various adverse impacts caused by heat waves and how India should deal with them.
 
Source: The Hindu
 

TIME STANDARD FOR THE MOON'S SURFACE

 
 
1. Context
The United States officially directed the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to create a time standard for the Moon, which different international bodies and private companies can use to coordinate their activities on the lunar surface
 
2. What is Greenwich Meridian?
 
The Greenwich Meridian, also known as the Prime Meridian, is an imaginary line that runs from the North Pole to the South Pole, dividing the Earth into the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. It serves as the reference point for measuring longitude, with 0 degrees longitude defined as the line passing through the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, London, UK. This line was internationally agreed upon in 1884 at the International Meridian Conference, making it the standard reference for timekeeping and navigation
 
3.Theory of General Relativity
 

The Theory of General Relativity, proposed by Albert Einstein in 1915, revolutionized our understanding of gravity and the nature of space and time. In essence, it describes how matter and energy curve the fabric of spacetime, and how this curvature influences the motion of objects.

Here are some key concepts of General Relativity:

  • Spacetime: Instead of treating space and time as separate entities, General Relativity combines them into a four-dimensional continuum known as spacetime. Objects with mass or energy cause spacetime to curve, similar to how a heavy object placed on a stretched rubber sheet causes it to deform.

  • Gravity: According to General Relativity, gravity is not a force in the traditional sense but rather a result of the curvature of spacetime caused by mass and energy. Objects move along paths dictated by this curvature, which we perceive as the force of gravity.

  • Curvature: Massive objects like stars and planets curve the surrounding spacetime. The amount of curvature depends on the mass and energy content of the objects. Light, for example, follows curved paths around massive objects like stars, causing phenomena like gravitational lensing.

  • Equivalence Principle: One of the foundational principles of General Relativity is the equivalence principle, which states that gravitational effects are locally indistinguishable from the effects of acceleration. This principle forms the basis for understanding phenomena such as gravitational time dilation.

  • Black Holes: General Relativity predicts the existence of black holes, regions of spacetime where the gravitational pull is so strong that nothing, not even light, can escape from within the event horizon.

  • Gravitational Waves: Einstein's equations also predict the existence of gravitational waves, ripples in spacetime that propagate at the speed of light. These waves are generated by accelerating masses and were directly observed for the first time in 2015, confirming a key prediction of General Relativity.

4.What is Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)?
 

Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) is the primary time standard used worldwide for regulating clocks and timekeeping. It serves as the basis for civil timekeeping across the globe. UTC is based on atomic time and is maintained using highly precise atomic clocks.

Key points about UTC:

  • UTC is based on International Atomic Time (TAI), which is calculated by more than 400 highly precise atomic clocks located in various national laboratories around the world. These atomic clocks use the vibrations of atoms to measure time extremely accurately
  •  While atomic time is incredibly stable, the Earth's rotation is subject to slight variations due to factors such as tidal forces and the movement of the Earth's crust. As a result, UTC occasionally needs to be adjusted to match the Earth's rotational time. This adjustment is made by adding or subtracting leap seconds as necessary to keep UTC in sync with the Earth's rotation
  • UTC is widely used as the standard time reference across the world. It is the time standard used in many computer systems, international air traffic control, telecommunications networks, and other critical infrastructure
  • While UTC serves as a reference time, local times around the world are typically expressed as offsets from UTC. For example, Eastern Standard Time (EST) in the United States is UTC-5, meaning it is five hours behind UTC. During daylight saving time, some regions adjust their local time, but UTC remains constant
  • The abbreviation "UTC" stands for "Coordinated Universal Time." This name reflects the idea of coordinating timekeeping across the globe using atomic time standards
 
5. Why do we need a time standard for the Moon?
 
  • "Time behaves differently on the Moon compared to Earth, making the use of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) impractical for lunar timekeeping. According to Einstein's theory of general relativity, which explains how gravity warps space and time, time moves slightly faster on the Moon than on Earth.
  • Consequently, Earth-based clocks on the Moon would appear to lose approximately 58.7 microseconds per Earth day, with additional variations over time. This discrepancy in time standards poses challenges for spacecraft operations, including docking, data transfer, navigation, and communication.
  • For instance, coordination among multiple spacecraft during missions such as NASA's Artemis program, as well as planned missions by China and India, could encounter difficulties.
  • To address this issue, a 2023 report in the journal Nature suggests placing at least three atomic clocks on the lunar surface. These clocks would operate at the Moon's natural pace and their outputs would be combined using an algorithm to create a more accurate virtual timekeeper.
  • To account for minor variations caused by the Moon's rotation and local mass concentrations beneath its surface, the clocks would need to be positioned at different locations.
  • Despite these complexities, synthesizing the output from these clocks would enable the establishment of an independent lunar time system, which could be synchronized with UTC for seamless coordination with operations on Earth
6. What are atomic clocks?
 

Atomic clocks are highly precise timekeeping devices that measure the passage of time based on the vibrations of atoms. They are the most accurate timekeeping instruments available today, capable of maintaining time to within a few billionths of a second per day.

Here's how atomic clocks work:

  • Atomic Resonance: Atomic clocks typically use the vibrations or oscillations of atoms as a reference for timekeeping. One common method involves using atoms of cesium or rubidium. These atoms are excited to a higher energy state using microwave radiation, and then they emit energy as they return to their original state. The frequency of this emitted energy is extremely stable and can be used to measure time with great precision.

  • Microwave or Optical Clocks: There are two main types of atomic clocks: microwave clocks, which use microwave frequencies to measure the transitions in atoms (such as cesium clocks), and optical clocks, which use much higher frequencies in the optical range of the electromagnetic spectrum (such as clocks using strontium or ytterbium atoms). Optical clocks are even more accurate than microwave clocks and are currently the focus of research for further improving timekeeping accuracy.

  • Counter and Comparator: Atomic clocks count the number of vibrations or oscillations of atoms over a specific period of time. By comparing this count to a known standard, such as the frequency of cesium or rubidium atoms defined by international agreements, the atomic clock can accurately measure time.

  • Applications: Atomic clocks are used in various applications where precise timekeeping is essential, including global navigation satellite systems (such as GPS), telecommunications networks, financial transactions, scientific research, and synchronization of computer networks. They also serve as the basis for Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), the standard for civil timekeeping worldwide

6.Way Forward
 
Even on Earth, atomic clocks have been placed at different locations or rather latitudes. These clocks tick at different rates due to changes in Earth’s rotational speed varying from the Equator to the poles, which also affects time. The planet rotates faster at the Equator than it does at the poles as it is wider at the Equator
 
 
For Prelims: Science and technology
For Mains: GS III: Science and Technology- developments and their applications and effects in everyday life
Source: Indianexpress

GOD PARTICLE

 
 
 
1. Context
 

The man, after whom the particle is named, Peter Higgs, died recently at aged 94. An elementary particle like electrons, quarks, photons or neutrinos, the Higgs boson, is known to impart mass to every other particle. Its existence was predicted in the 1960s, but it was found only in 2012 through elaborate experiments carried out at the Large Hadron Collider, located on the border of France and Switzerland.

 

2. About Higgs boson

 

  • The Higgs boson is a subatomic particle that plays a crucial role in the fundamental theory of particle physics known as the Standard Model. It was first theorised in the 1960s by several physicists, including Peter Higgs, and its existence was confirmed in experiments conducted at CERN's Large Hadron Collider (LHC) in 2012.
  • According to the Standard Model, particles acquire their mass by interacting with a field called the Higgs field, which permeates the universe. The Higgs boson is the quantum excitation of this field. Its discovery was significant because it provided experimental evidence for the existence of the Higgs field and helped to complete the Standard Model of particle physics.
  • The Higgs boson has a very short lifespan and quickly decays into other particles after being produced in high-energy collisions. Its discovery has opened up new avenues for research in particle physics and has provided insights into the origin of mass and the fundamental forces that govern the universe.

 

3. Large Hadron Collider

 

The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the world's largest and most powerful particle accelerator. Located at CERN (the European Organization for Nuclear Research) near Geneva, Switzerland, it spans a circumference of approximately 27 kilometres (17 miles) underground.

The primary purpose of the LHC is to accelerate particles, typically protons, to nearly the speed of light and then collide them together. These collisions recreate conditions similar to those just after the Big Bang, allowing scientists to study fundamental particles and the forces that govern them.

Key components of the LHC include

  • Accelerator Rings: The LHC consists of two main accelerator rings, each carrying beams of protons in opposite directions. These beams are accelerated using powerful superconducting magnets to achieve extremely high energies.
  • Detectors: The LHC is equipped with several large detectors placed at various points along its circumference. These detectors, such as ATLAS and CMS, are designed to capture and analyse the particles produced by collisions. They provide valuable data for understanding the fundamental properties of particles and the laws of physics.
  • Experiments: The collisions generated by the LHC allow scientists to conduct a wide range of experiments to explore fundamental questions in particle physics. These experiments include studying the properties of known particles, searching for new particles such as the Higgs boson, and investigating phenomena such as dark matter and antimatter.
  • International Collaboration: The LHC is a testament to international collaboration, with thousands of scientists and engineers from around the world working together to design, build, and operate the accelerator and its experiments. This collaboration fosters the exchange of ideas and expertise, pushing the boundaries of our understanding of the universe.
 

4. Concepts of Higgs field and Higgs particle

 

The concepts of the Higgs field and the Higgs particle are fundamental to the Standard Model of particle physics and play a crucial role in explaining the origin of mass in the universe.

Higgs Field

  • The Higgs field is a theoretical field that permeates all of space. According to the Standard Model, it is through interactions with this field that particles acquire mass.
  • Unlike other fundamental fields, which have a zero value in their lowest energy state (vacuum), the Higgs field has a non-zero value. This means that particles passing through the Higgs field experience resistance, akin to moving through a viscous medium, which gives them mass.
  • The Higgs field is hypothesised to have been created shortly after the Big Bang during a phase transition, filling the universe with the Higgs field and endowing particles with mass.

Higgs Particle (Higgs Boson)

  • The Higgs particle, also known as the Higgs boson, is the quantum excitation of the Higgs field. It is an elementary particle predicted by the Standard Model.
  • The Higgs boson is unique in that it is associated with the mechanism by which particles acquire mass. Its discovery was announced in 2012 by experiments conducted at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN.
  • The Higgs boson has a very short lifespan and quickly decays into other particles after being produced in high-energy collisions. Its detection provided experimental confirmation of the Higgs mechanism and completed the Standard Model of particle physics.

 

5. What is God’s particle?

 

  • The term "God particle" is a popular nickname for the Higgs boson, a fundamental particle in particle physics. The term was coined by Nobel Prize-winning physicist Leon Lederman in his 1993 book "The God Particle: If the Universe is the Answer, What is the Question?"
  • The nickname "God particle" was not meant to imply any religious connotations but rather to convey the elusive and fundamental nature of the Higgs boson. Lederman reportedly wanted to call it the "Goddamn Particle" because of its elusive nature, but his publisher objected, and the term "God particle" was used instead.
  • The Higgs boson, or the "God particle," plays a crucial role in the Standard Model of particle physics by endowing other particles with mass through its interactions with the Higgs field. Its discovery was announced in 2012 by experiments conducted at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN, providing experimental confirmation of its existence and completing the Standard Model.
  • Despite its nickname, the term "God particle" is not used by scientists in the field of particle physics, as it can be misleading and does not accurately reflect the scientific significance of the Higgs boson. Instead, scientists refer to it simply as the Higgs boson.

 

 

6. The Way Forward

 

The legacy of Peter Higgs and the discovery of the Higgs boson serve as catalysts for ongoing exploration and innovation in particle physics. By building upon these foundations and embracing collaborative, interdisciplinary approaches, the scientific community can continue to unravel the mysteries of the universe and inspire generations to come.

 

For Prelims: Peter Higgs, God Particle
 
For Mains: 
1. Explain the concept of the Higgs field and Higgs boson, and their role in the Standard Model of particle physics. Discuss the significance of the discovery of the Higgs boson at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). (250 words)

 

Previous Year Questions

1. The efforts to detect the existence of Higgs boson particles have become frequent news in the recent past. What is/are the importance/importances of discovering this particle? (UPSC 2013)

1. It will enable us to understand as to why elementary particles have mass.
2. It will enable us in the near future to develop the technology of transferring matter from one point to another without traversing the physical space between them.
3. It will enable us to create better fuels for nuclear fission. Select the correct answer using the codes given below.

A. 1 only        B. 2 and 3 only            C. 1 and 3 only         D. 1, 2 and 3


2. Higgs Boson are also known as (Jharkhand Civil Service 2021)

A. Proton        B.  Neutrons        C. God Particles           D. Electron

Answers: 1-A, 2-C

Source: The Indian Express

PSLV ORBITAL EXPERIMENTAL MODULE-3 (POEM-3)

 
 
 
1. Context
 
 
ISRO's PSLV-C58/XPoSat mission has achieved a significant milestone by virtually eliminating debris in Earth's orbit. The space agency detailed its approach, revealing that the final stage of the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) underwent a transformative process, becoming what is termed the PSLV Orbital Experimental Module-3 (POEM-3). Instead of lingering in orbit post-mission, it was repurposed into an orbital station. Once the primary objective of deploying all satellites into their designated orbits was fulfilled, ISRO converted the fourth stage of the PSLV into POEM-3. Subsequently, it was de-orbited from 650 km to 350 km, enhancing its susceptibility to atmospheric re-entry. ISRO ensured further safety measures by "passivating the stage," effectively purging its fuel to prevent any potential explosion that could generate debris.
 
 
2. About POEM

POEM, developed by the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), serves as a cost-effective space platform leveraging the spent fourth stage of a PSLV rocket. Initially introduced during the PSLV-C53 mission in June 2022, POEM orbits the Earth, conducting in-orbit scientific experiments with various payloads onboard.

Key Features

  • Utilizes solar panels mounted on the fuel tank of the rocket's fourth stage and a lithium-ion battery.
  • Ensures altitude stabilisation and includes helium control thrusters. Equipped with four Sun sensors, a magnetometer, and gyroscopes, the NGC system communicates with ISRO's NavIC satellite constellation for navigation.
  • Facilitates communication with ground stations.

ISRO's pioneering reuse of the spent fourth stage of its rocket was demonstrated during the PSLV C44 mission in 2019. Following the successful deployment of satellites into their designated orbits, the fourth stage, carrying the student payload Kalamsat-V2, was manoeuvred to a higher circular orbit of 443 km. It remained there, catering to the payload's operational needs.

 
3. Achievements of POEM-3
 

ISRO launched the PSLV C-58 mission from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota on January 1.

  • Following the successful deployment of the XPoSat satellite into its designated orbit of 650 km, the fourth stage of the rocket was repurposed into POEM-3 and manoeuvred to a circular orbit 350 km above Earth's surface. Lower orbits entail increased atmospheric drag, demanding higher energy consumption to maintain orbit.
  • POEM-3 carried nine payloads, including contributions from various organisations such as VSSC, Bellatrix Aerospace Pvt Ltd, and several startups and educational institutions. By its 25th day, completing 400 orbits, the payloads were activated for experimentation. Notably, ARKA200, RUDRA, and LEAP-TD finalized their experiments, while data from other payloads were collected after each orbit for subsequent ground analysis. Additionally, fuel cells from VSSC demonstrated their power generation capabilities.
  • over two months, POEM-3 underwent preparations for re-entry while being tracked by ISRO's Telemetry, Tracking, and Command Network stations across various locations. The Multi-Object Tracking Radar (MOTR) at Sriharikota was also utilised for tracking purposes.

 

4. Significance of Minimizing Space Debris

 

As the number of satellites orbiting Earth continues to rise, the issue of space debris has become increasingly critical. Space debris, predominantly found in the low Earth orbit (LEO), encompasses fragments of spacecraft, rockets, defunct satellites, and remnants from anti-satellite missile tests. With velocities reaching up to 27,000 km/hr, these debris pose a significant threat to various space assets due to their mass and momentum.

  • The LEO, spanning from 100 km to 2000 km above the Earth's surface, hosts satellites crucial for intelligence gathering, encrypted communication, and navigation. According to ISRO's Space Situational Assessment Report 2022, the global space community launched 2,533 objects into space through 179 launches in 2022. Additionally, while space debris exists in smaller quantities in the geosynchronous orbit (GEO) at 36,000 km altitude, it still poses risks to operational satellites.
  • Presently, around 7,000 operational satellites orbit Earth at various altitudes, alongside millions of space debris pieces. Tracking and cataloguing efforts, led by entities like the U.S. Space Command, focus on debris larger than 10 centimetres in LEO and larger than 0.3-1 meters in GEO.
  • ISRO's successful implementation of the PSLV-C58/XPoSat mission, particularly the utilization of POEM-3 to minimize space debris, marks a significant step in addressing this pressing issue. By repurposing the final stage of the PSLV rocket into an orbital platform and subsequently de-orbiting it, ISRO has demonstrated a proactive approach towards mitigating space debris accumulation. This achievement not only ensures the safety of existing space assets but also sets a precedent for responsible space exploration and satellite deployment practices.

 

5. Approaches to Addressing Space Debris

 

The latest incident involving space debris occurred on March 8, highlighting the growing concern over its impact. A discarded battery pallet from the International Space Station caused damage to a house in Florida.

  • With the launch of more communication satellites/constellations and the conduct of anti-satellite tests, instances of on-orbit breakup and collisions are on the rise. These events generate smaller debris fragments, contributing to the overall debris population. ISRO estimates that the number of space objects larger than 10 cm in size in LEO could reach approximately 60,000 by 2030. Additionally, the accumulation of debris in certain regions of orbit can create unusable zones, potentially leading to a cascading effect of collisions and further debris generation.
  • Currently, there are no specific international space laws governing LEO debris. However, most spacefaring nations adhere to the Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines 2002 established by the Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC), which the U.N. endorsed in 2007. These guidelines serve as a framework for mitigating the generation of space debris and minimizing its impact on space operations.

Key Strategies

  • Active Debris Removal (ADR): Several agencies and organizations are researching and developing technologies for actively removing debris from orbit. ADR methods include capturing debris with nets, harpoons, or robotic arms, and then either de-orbiting it or moving it to a graveyard orbit.
  • Space Traffic Management (STM): Efforts are underway to improve tracking and monitoring of space objects to minimize the risk of collisions. STM involves enhancing communication and coordination among satellite operators and space agencies to mitigate the risk of collisions and avoid generating additional debris.
  • Design for Demise: Satellite manufacturers are exploring ways to design satellites and rocket stages to safely re-enter Earth's atmosphere at the end of their operational lives, ensuring they burn up completely and minimize the generation of debris.
 
6. The Way Forward
 
The continued research and development in debris mitigation technologies, along with enhanced coordination and cooperation among stakeholders, will be imperative to effectively manage space debris and maintain a safe and sustainable space environment for future generations.
 
 
For Prelims: ISRO, PSLV-C58, XPoSat mission, Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines 2002, Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee 
 
For Mains: 
1. Examine the challenges posed by space debris in Earth's orbit and the potential risks it poses to space assets. Evaluate ISRO's approach in minimizing space debris through the utilization of POEM-3, and discuss its implications for future space exploration endeavors. (250 Words)
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1. With reference to India's satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2018)
1. PSLVs launch satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites.
2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth.
3. GSLV Mk III is a four-stage launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors, and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 and 3
C. 1 and 2
D. 3 only
 
Answer: A
Source: The Hindu
 
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