ASSOCIATION FOR DEMOCRATIC REFORMS (ADR)
- ADR works towards increasing transparency in the functioning of political parties, candidates, and the government.
- It does this by collecting and disseminating information related to the financial aspects of elections, such as campaign expenditures and sources of political funding
- ADR advocates for electoral reforms to improve the electoral process in India.
- This includes advocating for stricter regulations on campaign financing, promoting inner-party democracy, and enhancing the disclosure of criminal records and assets of candidates
- ADR aims to empower voters by providing them with information about the criminal backgrounds, financial status, and other relevant details of candidates contesting elections. This helps voters make informed decisions when casting their ballots
- The organization conducts extensive research and analysis on various aspects of Indian elections and politics. They publish reports and studies that shed light on the state of democracy in India and propose reforms
- ADR has been involved in legal cases related to electoral and political reforms. They have filed public interest litigations (PILs) in courts to push for greater transparency and accountability in the political sphere
Hate speech can take many forms, including but not limited to:
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Verbal Attacks: Expressing hatred, prejudice, or discriminatory beliefs through spoken words or public speeches.
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Written Content: Publishing or distributing written material, such as pamphlets, flyers, or online posts, that promote hatred or discrimination.
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Symbolic Expressions: Using symbols, gestures, or other non-verbal means to convey hateful or discriminatory messages.
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Online Hate Speech: Posting offensive or discriminatory content on social media platforms, websites, or online forums.
- Free speech encompasses the freedom of expression, which includes spoken and written words, artistic creations, symbolic acts, and various forms of communication. It allows individuals to convey their thoughts and ideas through various mediums.
- The principle of free speech primarily protects individuals from government censorship or suppression of their speech. It ensures that the government cannot prohibit or punish individuals for expressing their opinions, even if those opinions are unpopular or controversial.
- Free speech is vital for the functioning of a democratic society. It enables citizens to engage in open and robust public debate, criticize government actions, advocate for change, and hold those in power accountable
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For Prelims: Indian Polity and Governance-Constitution, Political System, Panchayati Raj, Public Policy, Rights Issues, etc
For Mains: General Studies II: Development processes and the development industry the role of NGOs, SHGs, various groups and associations, donors, charities, institutional and other stakeholders
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Previous Year Questions
Article 19(1) of the Constitution of India, as it stands amended, includes which of the following? (UPSC CDS I 2022)
1. Freedom of speech and expression
2. Assemble peaceably and without arms
3. To acquire and dispose property
4. To move freely throughout the territory of India
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A.1 and 2 only
B.1, 2, 3 and 4
C.4 only
D.1, 2 and 4 only
Answer (D)
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EUROPEAN FREE TRADE ASSOCIATION (EFTA)
The European Free Trade Association (EFTA) is an intergovernmental organization that aims to facilitate free trade and economic cooperation among its member states. EFTA was established on May 3, 1960, as an alternative trade bloc to the European Economic Community (EEC), which later evolved into the European Union (EU). The founding members of EFTA were Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.
The key aspects of EFTA
EFTA comprises four member countries: Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland. The organization has experienced changes in membership over the years, with some countries joining or leaving.
- EFTA's primary objectives include promoting free trade and economic cooperation among its member states. It aims to facilitate the reduction or elimination of barriers to trade in goods and services, enhance economic relations, and foster mutual understanding and collaboration in various economic sectors.
- While EFTA is a distinct organization, its member states often have close economic ties with the European Union. EFTA countries have developed various agreements and arrangements with the EU to facilitate trade and economic cooperation. However, EFTA member states are not part of the EU Customs Union or the EU Single Market.
- EFTA has engaged in numerous free trade agreements (FTAs) with countries and regions around the world. These agreements aim to reduce or eliminate tariffs and other trade barriers, promoting the flow of goods and services. EFTA countries have FTAs with countries in Europe, Asia, Africa, and South America.
- The EFTA Surveillance Authority oversees the application of EFTA's rules in its member states. It monitors compliance with agreements, including ensuring that competition rules and other regulations are adhered to by member countries.
- The EFTA Court serves as the judicial body for the EFTA states. It handles disputes related to the interpretation and application of EFTA law. The court's decisions contribute to the legal framework of EFTA's trade and economic agreements.
- Over the years, EFTA has seen changes in its membership. Some countries have joined, while others have left. Accession to EFTA involves negotiations and the fulfillment of certain criteria, reflecting the organization's commitment to free trade and economic cooperation.
- EFTA member countries have diverse and developed economies. They are known for their high living standards, economic stability, and competitiveness. The organization provides a platform for these countries to collaborate and engage in trade with partners around the world.
- While trade is a central focus, EFTA member states also collaborate in other areas, including research and development, innovation, and cultural exchanges. The organization serves as a forum for discussing and addressing various economic and policy issues.
Main Goals of EFTA
- To promote free trade and economic integration among its member states.
- To strengthen member states' economies and improve their competitiveness on the global market.
- To cooperate with other countries and international organizations to further liberalize trade and promote economic development.
Institutional Structure
- The EFTA Council is the organization's highest governing body, consisting of representatives from each member state. It meets regularly to discuss and decide on important matters related to EFTA's objectives and activities.
- The EFTA Secretariat, based in Geneva, Switzerland, provides administrative support and facilitates communication among member states.
- EFTA actively engages in negotiations and establishes free trade agreements (FTAs) with various countries and regions outside the organization, contributing to the expansion of economic cooperation.
Current Status of EFTA
- Despite not being part of the EU, EFTA members maintain close economic ties with the EU through a series of bilateral agreements.
- They participate in the European Single Market and are part of the Schengen Area, allowing for the free movement of goods, services, capital, and people.
- EFTA remains an important economic player in Europe, with a combined GDP of over €1 trillion and a population of over 13 million.
Benefits of EFTA Membership
- EFTA's free trade agreements and common market have led to a significant increase in trade and investment between member states and their trading partners.
- EFTA's focus on free trade and economic cooperation has helped to stimulate economic growth in member states.
- By cooperating on research and development, innovation, and education, EFTA member states have become more competitive in the global market.
- EFTA membership has contributed to a higher standard of living and greater prosperity for the citizens of member states.
Challenges for EFTA
- The EU remains EFTA's largest trading partner, but it also poses a significant challenge. The EU's larger size and economic power give it an advantage in negotiations, and some EFTA businesses have expressed concerns about being at a disadvantage compared to their EU counterparts.
- With the ongoing integration of the EU, EFTA needs to ensure that it remains relevant and attractive to potential members and trading partners. The association needs to continue to find ways to differentiate itself from the EU and to offer unique benefits to its members.
- The global economy is constantly evolving, and EFTA needs to be able to adapt to these changes. The association needs to focus on emerging markets and new technologies to ensure that its members remain competitive in the long term.
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For Prelims: European Union, free trade, European Free Trade Association, European Economic Community
For Mains:
1. Examine the impact of Switzerland's policy on tariff-free entry for all industrial goods on India's potential gains from the ongoing India-EFTA Free Trade Agreement negotiations. (250 Words)
2. Discuss the strategies and opportunities for EFTA to remain relevant, differentiate itself, and adapt to the evolving global economy. (250 Words)
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COMPETITION COMMISSION OF INDIA
- The Competition Commission of India (CCI) is a regulatory authority established in India to promote and protect fair competition in the marketplace.
- It was established under the Competition Act, 2002, and became fully functional in 2009.
- The primary objective of the CCI is to prevent anti-competitive practices, ensure a level playing field for businesses, and promote consumer welfare
- The Competition Commission of India (within the Ministry of Corporate Affairs) has been established to enforce the competition law under the Competition Act, 2002.
- It should be noted that on the recommendations of Raghavan committee, the Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices Act, 1969 (MRTP Act) was repealed and replaced by the Competition Act, 2002
- The Commission consists of a Chairperson and not more than 6 Members appointed by the Central Government
- It is the statutory duty of the Commission to eliminate practices having an adverse effect on competition, promote and sustain competition, protect the interests of consumers and ensure freedom of trade carried on by other participants, in markets in India as provided in the Preamble as well as Section 18 of the Act.
- The Commission is also mandated to give its opinion on competition issues to government or statutory authority and to undertake competition advocacy for creating awareness of competition law.
- Advocacy is at the core of effective competition regulation. Competition Commission of India (CCI), which has been entrusted with implementation of law, has always believed in complementing robust enforcement with facilitative advocacy. It is a quasi-judicial body.
Here are some key functions and responsibilities of the Competition Commission of India:
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Competition Advocacy: The CCI engages in advocacy and education activities to promote competition awareness among businesses, government agencies, and the public.
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Antitrust Enforcement: The CCI investigates and takes action against anti-competitive agreements, abuse of dominance by companies, and anti-competitive mergers and acquisitions. It can impose penalties and remedies on entities found to be in violation of competition laws.
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Merger Control: The CCI reviews and approves or disapproves mergers, acquisitions, and combinations that may have an adverse impact on competition in the Indian market. It assesses whether these transactions are likely to cause a substantial lessening of competition.
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Market Studies and Research: The CCI conducts studies and research to understand market dynamics, competition issues, and emerging trends. This information helps in formulating policies and recommendations to improve competition.
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Competition Advocacy: The commission engages in advocacy efforts to promote competition principles and practices among businesses, government agencies, and the public.
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Consumer Protection: While primarily focused on promoting competition, the CCI also indirectly promotes consumer welfare by ensuring that markets remain competitive and that consumers have choices and access to fair prices.
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Regulation of Anti-Competitive Practices: The CCI addresses practices such as price-fixing, bid rigging, and abuse of market power that can harm competition and consumers.
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Legal Proceedings: The CCI has the authority to conduct investigations, hold hearings, and pass orders. Its decisions can be appealed to higher courts in India.
- The Competition Act, 2002, as amended by the Competition (Amendment) Act, 2007, follows the philosophy of modern competition laws.
- The Act prohibits anti-competitive agreements, and abuse of dominant position by enterprises and regulates combinations (acquisition, acquiring of control and M&A), which causes or likely to cause an appreciable adverse effect on competition within India
- In accordance with the provisions of the Amendment Act, the Competition Commission of India and the Competition Appellate Tribunal have been established
- The government of India replaced Competition Appellate Tribunal (COMPAT) with the National Company Law Appellate Tribunal (NCLAT) in 2017
- The provisions of the Competition Act relating to anti-competitive agreements and abuse of dominant position were notified on May 20, 2009
| Competition is the best means of ensuring that the ‘Common Man’ or ‘Aam Aadmi’ has access to the broadest range of goods and services at the most competitive prices. With increased competition, producers will have maximum incentive to innovate and specialize. This would result in reduced costs and wider choice to consumers. A fair competition in market is essential to achieve this objective. Our goal is to create and sustain fair competition in the economy that will provide a ‘level playing field’ to the producers and make the markets work for the welfare of the consumers |
The International Competition Network, which is a global body dedicated to enforcing competition law, has a simpler definition. The three common components of a cartel are:
- an agreement;
- between competitors;
- to restrict competition.
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For Prelims: Statutory board, Constitutional body
For Mains: 1.Discuss the role and functions of the Competition Commission of India (CCI) in promoting and ensuring fair competition in the Indian market
2.Examine the challenges and limitations faced by the Competition Commission of India (CCI) in effectively regulating and promoting competition in the digital economy
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Previous year Questions
1. Competition Commission of India is which kind of body? (RSMSSB Sanganak 2018)
A. Statutory body
B. Constitutional.
C. Single Member
D. Private
Answer (A)
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NATIONAL GREEN TRIBUNAL
1. Context
2. What is National Green Tribunal (NGT)?
- The National Green Tribunal (NGT) is a specialized judicial body established in India to handle cases related to environmental protection and conservation.
- It was established under the National Green Tribunal Act, of 2010, and its primary objective is to effectively and expeditiously address environmental disputes and promote sustainable development.
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With the establishment of the NGT, India became the third country in the world to set up a specialized environmental tribunal, only after Australia and New Zealand, and the first developing country to do so.
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NGT is mandated to make disposal of applications or appeals finally within 6 months of the filing of the same.
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The NGT has five places of sittings, New Delhi is the Principal place of sitting, and Bhopal, Pune, Kolkata and Chennai are the other four.
3. Structure of the National Green Tribunal (NGT)
- Chairperson: The NGT is headed by a full-time Chairperson who is a retired judge of the Supreme Court of India. The Chairperson is responsible for the overall administration and functioning of the tribunal.
- Judicial Members: The NGT consists of judicial members who are retired judges of either the Supreme Court or a High Court. These members have extensive legal knowledge and experience in handling environmental matters.
- Expert Members: The tribunal also includes expert members who possess expertise in areas such as environmental science, ecology, hydrology, and forestry. These members provide valuable technical insights and guidance in the resolution of environmental disputes.
- The NGT is organized into multiple benches located across different regions of India. These benches are responsible for hearing cases specific to their respective jurisdictions. Each bench is headed by a judicial member and consists of one or more expert members, as required.
4. What are the Important Landmark Judgements of NGT?
The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has delivered several landmark judgments that have had a significant impact on environmental protection and conservation in India. Here are some of the important landmark judgments delivered by the NGT:
- Vardhaman Kaushik v. Union of India (2013): This case dealt with the issue of groundwater depletion due to illegal extraction by industries in Uttar Pradesh. The NGT directed the closure of industries that were extracting groundwater without proper permissions and ordered the payment of compensation for environmental damage caused.
- Alembic Pharmaceuticals Ltd. v. Rohit Prajapati & Ors. (2014): In this case, the NGT ordered the closure of an industrial unit in Gujarat for releasing untreated effluents into a water body, causing pollution and harm to the environment and public health.
- M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (2014): The NGT issued a landmark judgment in this case regarding the pollution of the Yamuna River. It directed several measures to clean and rejuvenate the river, including the establishment of sewage treatment plants and the regulation of industries contributing to pollution.
- Subhash Chandra Sharma v. Union of India (2015): This case focused on the issue of air pollution caused by solid waste burning in open areas. The NGT imposed a ban on burning waste in open spaces and directed municipal authorities to take measures to manage waste effectively.
- Raghu Nath Sharma v. State of Himachal Pradesh (2016): The NGT ordered the closure of illegal hotels and structures in the eco-sensitive Rohtang Pass area of Himachal Pradesh to protect the fragile Himalayan ecosystem.
- Yamuna Muktikaran Abhiyan v. Union of India (2017): This case dealt with the rejuvenation of the Yamuna River and led to the NGT issuing directions to clean and restore the river, including measures to prevent encroachments and pollution.
- M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (2017): The NGT banned the use of disposable plastic in Delhi and the National Capital Region (NCR) and directed authorities to take steps to prevent the use and sale of such plastic.
- Shailesh Singh v. Hotel Holiday Regency (2019): In this case, the NGT imposed heavy fines on a hotel in Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, for causing air pollution by running diesel generators without proper emission control measures.
- Subhash Chandran vs. Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board (2020): This judgment highlighted the importance of safeguarding coastal areas and wetlands from unauthorized construction and development activities, emphasizing the need for stringent environmental norms.
- In Re: Report by Comptroller and Auditor General of India (2021): The NGT directed the formulation of guidelines for the regulation of groundwater extraction and management to prevent overexploitation and depletion.
5. What is a dissolved oxygen level?
- Dissolved oxygen (DO) level refers to the concentration of oxygen gas (O2) that is dissolved in a liquid, typically water.
- It is a crucial parameter in aquatic ecosystems as it directly affects the survival and well-being of aquatic organisms.
- In natural water bodies like lakes, rivers, and oceans, oxygen dissolves from the atmosphere through processes such as diffusion and aeration.
- Aquatic plants, algae, and phytoplankton also contribute to the production of oxygen through photosynthesis. However, the level of dissolved oxygen can fluctuate based on various factors, including temperature, altitude, water flow, pollution, and organic matter decomposition.
- Dissolved oxygen is essential for aquatic organisms because they rely on it for their respiration process, similar to how animals breathe oxygen from the air.
- Insufficient levels of dissolved oxygen can lead to hypoxia, a condition where organisms are deprived of the oxygen they need to survive. This can result in stress, reduced growth, reproductive issues, and even mortality in aquatic species.
Different species of aquatic organisms have varying tolerance levels for dissolved oxygen. For example:
- Fish and other aquatic animals often require dissolved oxygen levels between 4 to 6 milligrams per liter (mg/L) to thrive.
- Some species of fish, insects, and other aquatic organisms can tolerate lower levels of dissolved oxygen, even below 2 mg/L, while others require higher concentrations.
6. What are chemical oxygen demand and biological oxygen demand?
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):
- COD is a measure of the amount of oxygen required to chemically oxidize and break down organic and inorganic substances present in water.
- It provides an indication of the total amount of pollutants that can be chemically oxidized by a strong oxidizing agent. COD is expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L) of oxygen consumed.
- COD is useful in assessing the overall pollution load in a water sample, including both biodegradable and non-biodegradable substances.
- It is commonly used for industrial wastewater monitoring, as it provides a rapid estimation of the organic content and potential pollution levels. However, COD does not differentiate between different types of pollutants or indicate the potential impact on aquatic life.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD):
- BOD measures the amount of dissolved oxygen consumed by microorganisms (bacteria) during the biological degradation of organic matter in water.
- It is a key indicator of the level of biodegradable organic pollutants present in water. BOD is expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L) of oxygen consumed over a specific time period, usually 5 days (BOD₅).
- BOD is particularly important in assessing the impact of organic pollution on aquatic ecosystems.
- High BOD levels indicate that a water body may have a significant amount of organic pollutants, which can lead to oxygen depletion as microorganisms break down the organic matter. This oxygen depletion, known as hypoxia, can harm aquatic organisms and disrupt the ecological balance of the water body.
Comparing BOD and COD:
- BOD primarily measures the biologically degradable organic matter and provides information about the potential impact on aquatic life.
- COD measures both biologically and chemically degradable pollutants, giving an indication of the overall pollution load and oxygen demand.
- BOD is a more specific and ecologically relevant parameter, but it takes longer to determine (5 days), while COD can be measured more quickly.
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For Prelims: National Green Tribunal (NGT), National Green Tribunal Act, of 2010, Dissolved oxygen (DO), Chemical Oxygen demand (COD), and Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD).
For Mains: 1. Discuss the significance of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) as critical indicators for assessing water pollution and quality. (250 Words)
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Previous year Question1. How is the National Green Tribunal (NGT) different from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)? (UPSC 2018)
1. The NGT has been established by an Act whereas the CPCB has been created by the executive order of the Government.
2. The NGT provides environmental justice and helps reduce the burden of litigation in the higher courts whereas the CPCB promotes cleanliness of streams and wells, and aims to improve the quality of air in the country.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: B
2. The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 was enacted in consonance with which of the following provisions of the Constitution of India? (UPSC 2012)
1. Right of a healthy environment, construed as a part of the Right to life under Article 21
2. Provision of grants for raising the level of administration in the Scheduled Areas for the welfare of Scheduled Tribes under Article 275(1)
3. Powers and functions of Gram Sabha as mentioned under Article 243(A)
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
A. 1 only
B. 2 and 3 only
C. 1 and 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: A
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WORLD TRADE ORGANISATION (WTO)
1. Context
2. What is WTO?
- The World Trade Organization is the only international organization that deals with the rules of trade between countries.
- The WTO officially commenced in 1995 under the Marrakesh Agreement signed by 124 nations, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).
- Currently, it has 164 members and 23 observer governments (like Iran, Iraq, Bhutan, Libya, etc).
- According to its rules, all decisions are taken through consensus and any member can exercise a veto.
- It aims to promote free trade, which is done through trade agreements that are discussed and signed by the member states.
- The WTO also provides a forum for countries to negotiate trade rules and settle economic disputes between them.
3. What is WTO's Ministerial Conference?
- The Ministerial Conference is the WTO’s top decision-making body and usually meets every two years.
- All members of the WTO are involved in the Ministerial Conference and they can take decisions on all matters covered under any multilateral trade agreements.
- The WTO’s 12th Ministerial Conference was held in Geneva from 12-17 June.
- It was supposed to end on 15 June, but with intensifying negotiations, the conference was extended by two days.
4. Key takeaways from the meeting
4.1 Curtailing harmful fishing subsidies
- The WTO passed a multilateral agreement that would curb ‘harmful’ subsidies on illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing for the next four years, to better protect global fish stocks.
- Since 2001, member states have been negotiating the banning of subsidies that promote overfishing.
- The current agreement, which establishes new trading rules, is the second multilateral agreement in WTO history.
- India and other developing countries were able to win some concessions in this agreement.
4.2 Global food security
- Members agreed to a binding decision to exempt food purchased by the UN's World Food Programme (WFP) for humanitarian purposes, from any export restrictions.
- In light of the global food shortages and rising prices caused by the war between Ukraine and Russia, the group's members issued a declaration on the importance of trade in global food security and that they would avoid bans on food exports.
- However, countries would be allowed to restrict food supplies to ensure domestic food security needs.
- India's key demand to allow it to export food from its public stockholdings to other countries will reportedly be discussed in the next Ministerial Conference in 2023.
4.3 E-Commerce transactions
- Members agreed to continue the long-standing moratorium on customs duties on e-commerce transmissions.
- It will be continued until the subsequent Ministerial Conference or until March 31, 2024, depending on whichever comes first.
4.4 Covid-19 vaccine production
- WTO members agreed to temporarily waive intellectual property patents on Covid19 vaccines without the consent of the patent holder for 5 years so that they can more easily manufacture them domestically.
- The current agreement is a watered-down version of the original proposal made by India and South Africa in 2020.
- They had wanted broader intellectual property waivers on vaccines, treatments, and tests.
- Rich pharmaceutical companies had strongly opposed this, arguing that IPs do not restrict access to Covid vaccines and that the removal of patent protections gives researchers that quickly produced life-saving vaccines, a negative message.
- The waiver agreed upon by the WTO was criticized by advocacy groups for being narrow in scope, as it did not cover all medical tools like diagnostics and treatments.
5. Significance of the Recent Agreements
- The fisheries agreement is of immense significance as it is the first time that members agreed with environmental sustainability at its heart.
- It will also help in the protection of the livelihoods of the 260 million people who depend directly or indirectly on marine fisheries. It is only the second multilateral agreement on global trade rules struck in its 27-year history.
- Second, the exemption of WFP's food from tariffs is vital for promoting global food security, especially in light of the global food shortages and rising prices caused by the war between Ukraine and Russia.
- Third, the temporary waiver will contribute to ongoing efforts to concentrate and diversify vaccine manufacturing capacity so that a crisis in one region does not leave others cut off.
6. Issues surrounding WTO
6.1 The burden for Poor countries
- The WTO rules include many Non-trade subjects as well. The subjects like environment, labor standards, fossil fuel subsidies, plastic pollution, and transparency in government procurement have been brought into the fold of the WTO.
- This is expected to raise costs for the poor and developing countries and impact the competitiveness of their goods.
- For instance, a poor country exporting cotton shirts must first meet high environmental standards at home. This will only raise costs and cut exports from poor countries.
6.2 Trade wars
- The US administration imposed steep tariffs in January 2018 on China alleging IP violations.
- In December 2019 the US also blocked the appointment of new nominees to WTO’s appellate body. This has paralyzed the WTO as a judge and enforcer of global trade rules.
6.3 Lack of consensus
- The developed nations’ game plan is to put the old obligations on the back burner and push the WTO to form rules on new areas like e-commerce.
- It is an area where the US firms have a clear edge.
- Most WTO member countries want them to first deliver on the agreed issues like reduction in agriculture subsidies.
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For Prelims: General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), Marrakesh Agreement, World Trade Organisation (WTO), 12th Ministerial Conference of WTO, and UN's World Food Programme (WFP).
For Mains: 1. What have been the recent issue related to dispute settlement at WTO? Have the policies at WTO worked against the interest of emerging economies like India?(250 Words)
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Previous year Questions1. In the context of which of the following do you sometimes find the terms 'amber box, blue box, and green box' in the news? (UPSC 2016)
A. WTO affairs
B. SAARC affairs
C. UNFCCC affairs
D. India-EU negotiations on FTA
Answer: A
2. In the context of the affairs which of the following is the phrase "Special Safeguard Mechanisms" mentioned in the news frequently? (UPSC 2010)
A. United Nations Environment Program
B. World Trade Organization Agreement
C. ASEAN-India Free Trade
D. G-20 Summits
Answer: B
3. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2017)
1. India has ratified the Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA) of the WTO.
2. TFA is a part of WTO's Bali Ministerial Package of 2013.
3. TFA came into force in January 2016
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only
B. 1 and 3 only
C. 2 and 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: A
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UNIVERSITY RANKINGS
Over the past two decades, global university ranking systems have become paramount in the realm of higher education worldwide. Countries such as China, Japan, and Russia have invested significant resources into enhancing the prestige of their universities to attain "world-class" status according to these rankings. This pursuit not only carries academic significance but also political weight. Despite this fervour, some universities have opted out of participating in rankings due to concerns regarding the inherent incentives and their alignment with institutional goals.
Amidst these debates, two critical issues regarding the conduct of the companies behind these ranking systems often remain overshadowed: conflicts of interest and data rights.
- The primary objective of ranking systems is to assess and compare higher education institutions based on their achievements across various domains such as teaching quality, research output, reputation, industry engagement, and collaborative initiatives.
- Notably, ranking systems like Times Higher Education (THE), Quacquarelli Symonds (QS), Academic Ranking of World Universities (commonly known as the 'Shanghai Ranking'), and U.S. News & World Report hold significant influence globally, shaping educational policies and priorities in numerous countries.
- Ranking systems employ complex methodologies to evaluate institutions, considering diverse factors. These include teaching excellence, research productivity, institutional reputation, industry partnerships, and collaborative endeavours.
- Despite the intricacies of each aspect, ranking systems condense institutional performance into composite indicators, which are then aggregated to generate a comprehensive score.
3. Imperfections of Ranking Systems
- Despite their widespread use and influence, ranking systems are not without flaws. Various criticisms have been raised, highlighting the limitations and shortcomings of these methodologies.
- Similar to the critique of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as the sole measure of a country's prosperity, Elizabeth Gadd of Loughborough University equates the pursuit of higher rankings by universities to the flawed reliance on GDP. She argues that like GDP, ranking systems oversimplify the multifaceted roles that universities play in society, reducing them to a single, unidimensional score.
- Studies have indicated that top-ranked universities tend to be old, large, wealthy, research-intensive, science-focused, English-speaking, and located in the Global North. This bias towards certain characteristics may overlook the diverse contributions and strengths of institutions worldwide.
- Ranking systems often heavily weigh factors such as citations and reputation in assessing research excellence. However, the reliance on citations, which can be influenced by individual researchers or even manipulated, may distort an institution's overall performance.
- For instance, the significant jump in rankings for Bielefeld University in 2020 was attributed to the prolific output of a single scholar, highlighting the disproportionate impact of individual contributions.
- Reports have surfaced suggesting instances of manipulation and bias in ranking outcomes. Cases such as Saveetha Dental College allegedly manipulating citations to improve their ranking position raise concerns about the integrity and reliability of these systems.
- Furthermore, analyses by experts like Richard Holmes have pointed out potential biases in regional rankings, indicating that certain universities may benefit from hosting influential ranking-related events or through adjustments in citation counting methodologies.
5. Data Security Concerns
Participating in ranking exercises raises significant data security concerns for universities and institutes, as they provide ranking agencies with unrestricted access to their sensitive data.
Terms and Conditions
For instance, in order to utilize THE platform and related services, universities must agree to additional terms and conditions. These terms grant THE extensive rights over the data provided by universities. Specifically, universities grant THE a perpetual, irrevocable, and non-exclusive license to use, reproduce, modify, and distribute their data worldwide without seeking further permission. This includes details of institutional finances, industry partnerships, research incomes, and patents. Such broad grants of rights raise alarms, particularly for public universities, as they relinquish control over their data without adequate safeguards.
UN University's Statement
The UN University has raised concerns about the negative consequences of global university rankings, noting that while they may spur improvements in some areas, they also incentivize harmful behaviours and yield systemic long-term negative effects. This highlights the broader implications of data security compromises associated with participation in ranking exercises.
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For Prelims: University Rankings, Times Higher Education, Quacquarelli Symonds, Academic Ranking of World Universities
For Mains:
1. Discuss the role of global university ranking systems in shaping higher education policies and priorities worldwide. Highlight the significance of these rankings beyond academic realms. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. When and with whose efforts was Indian Institute of Science established in Bangalore?
(RPSC RAS Prelims 2021)
A. 1917, Prafull Chand Rai
B. 1930, J. C. Bose
C. 1909, Jamshed ji Tata
D. 1911, Meghnad Saha
2. Which of the following statements is/are correct regarding National Innovation Foundation-India (NIF)? (UPSC 2015)
1. NIF is an autonomous body of the Department of Science and Technology under the Central Government.
2. NIF is an initiative to strengthen the highly advanced scientific research in India's premier scientific institutions in collaboration with highly advanced foreign scientific institutions. Select the correct answer using the code given below.
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answers: 1-C, 2-A
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PROTOTYPE FAST BREEDER REACTOR
2. Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) and India's Nuclear Power Programme
The PFBR is a crucial component of India's nuclear power programme, designed to generate more nuclear fuel than it consumes. Its recent core-loading event is being hailed as a significant milestone, marking the beginning of stage II in India's three-stage nuclear power strategy.
- In the initial stage, India utilized Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) and natural uranium-238 (U-238) as the fissile material. Neutrons released during nuclear fission reactions in PHWRs are slowed down by heavy water (deuterium) and captured by U-238 and U-235 nuclei, producing energy and plutonium-239 (Pu-239).
- Stage II involves the use of Pu-239, produced in stage I, along with U-238 in the PFBR to generate energy, U-233, and more Pu-239. The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) established Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam, Ltd. (BHAVINI) in 2003 to implement stage II.
- In the final stage, Pu-239 will be combined with thorium-232 (Th-232) in reactors to produce energy and U-233. This stage capitalizes on India's significant thorium reserves, making the country self-sufficient in nuclear energy. The three-stage programme, conceived by Homi J. Bhabha, aims to utilize India's abundant thorium resources effectively.
3. Reasons for Delay in PFBR Implementation
- The PFBR project in India has encountered significant delays, cost overruns, and criticism due to various factors.
- The FBTR, serving as a precursor to the PFBR, faced challenges due to sanctions imposed after India's nuclear tests. The use of mixed carbide fuel, instead of enriched uranium originally planned, affected power output and operational conditions, leading to alterations in the project's trajectory.
- The PFBR, designed by the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR), Kalpakkam, faced hurdles related to design complexities and technological advancements. Original projections for cost (₹3,492 crore) and completion (2010) were overshadowed by unforeseen technical difficulties and changing operational requirements.
- The project witnessed substantial cost escalations, with the initial estimate ballooning to ₹6,800 crore by 2019. The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) sought additional funds and extended deadlines multiple times, leading to concerns about financial mismanagement and lack of effective oversight.
- An audit by the Comptroller and Auditor General in 2014 revealed procurement inefficiencies, particularly in the reliance on the Nuclear Power Corporation of India, Ltd. (NPCIL) for PFBR components. Delays in procurement processes, with a median delay of 158 days per order, contributed to project setbacks.
- Technical challenges, including those related to reactor coolant, further hindered progress, necessitating adjustments and refinements in the project timeline.
4. Working Principle of the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR)
The PFBR operates on the principle of a fast breeder reactor, designed to generate more fissile material than it consumes.
Fissile Material Production
- Utilization of Pu-239: Pu-239, produced as a byproduct in Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs), is combined with additional U-238 to create a mixed oxide fuel.
- Breeder Blanket: The mixed oxide fuel is loaded into the reactor core along with a breeder blanket. This blanket is a material that reacts with the fission products in the core to produce more Pu-239.
- Fast Neutron Reactions: Unlike in thermal reactors where neutrons are slowed down, in a fast breeder reactor like PFBR, neutrons are not moderated. This allows them to trigger specific fission reactions more efficiently.
Coolant System
- Liquid Sodium Coolant: PFBR utilizes liquid sodium, a highly reactive substance, as a coolant in two circuits.
- Coolant Circulation: The first circuit carries coolant into the reactor core, where it absorbs heat and radioactivity. The heated coolant then flows through heat exchangers, transferring heat to the secondary coolant circuit.
- Electricity Generation: In the secondary circuit, heat from the coolant is utilized to generate electricity using generators.
Challenges and Real-world Issues
- Operational Challenges: Former IGCAR scientist R.D. Kale highlighted challenges in implementing the coolant system efficiently. For instance, preheating the reactor vessel took much longer than anticipated, posing operational hurdles.
5. Role of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs)
Amidst the delays and challenges faced by traditional nuclear reactor projects like the PFBR, Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) emerge as a potential solution offering several advantages.
- SMRs are characterized by their smaller size and modular design, with a maximum capacity of 300 MW. These reactors require less land and can incorporate advanced safety features, making them more adaptable to diverse geographical locations and operational requirements.
- Countries are exploring SMRs as complementary facilities to conventional reactors due to their ability to be installed at reduced cost and time. SMRs can leverage existing infrastructure in brownfield sites, facilitating their integration into existing energy networks more seamlessly.
- SMRs offer the advantage of being compatible with low-enriched uranium, which can be imported by India from the U.S. through established agreements. This allows for greater flexibility in fuel procurement and reduces dependency on domestic uranium sources.
- Realizing the full potential of SMRs necessitates regulatory amendments to accommodate private sector participation under the oversight of the Atomic Energy Regulatory Body (AERB). This would entail ensuring compliance with international safeguards for nuclear fuel and waste management while maintaining control under the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE).
6. Value of Stage II in India's Nuclear Energy Program
Stage II of India's nuclear power program, marked by the implementation of Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs) such as the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR), holds significant value despite challenges and delays:
Capacity Expansion and Energy Security
The PFBR, with a capacity of 500 MWe, represents a crucial step towards expanding India's nuclear energy capacity. The proposed construction of four additional FBRs, each with a capacity of 600 MWe, underscores the importance of stage II in bolstering energy security and meeting growing electricity demands.
Commercial Viability and Economic Considerations
Despite delays and cost overruns, commercializing stage II technologies such as FBRs is imperative for ensuring the economic viability of nuclear power generation. While nuclear electricity currently costs around ₹4/kWh, advancements in stage II technologies aim to enhance cost-efficiency and competitiveness vis-à-vis alternative energy sources.
Environmental Sustainability and Decarbonization
The global push towards decarbonization and reducing reliance on fossil fuels underscores the relevance of nuclear power as a low-carbon energy source. With renewable energy sources gaining momentum, stage II technologies offer a viable complement to India's renewable energy sector, contributing to environmental sustainability and mitigating climate change impacts.
Geopolitical Imperatives and Energy Independence
India's efforts to diversify its energy mix and reduce dependence on imported fossil fuels align with geopolitical imperatives and national interests. By advancing stage II technologies, India aims to strengthen its energy independence and reduce vulnerability to international energy market fluctuations.
7. Challenges of Stage II in India's Nuclear Energy Program
While stage II of India's nuclear energy program holds promise, it also faces several significant challenges
Technological Complexity and Safety Concerns
Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs) pose unique technological challenges compared to other reactor designs. Their complex operations and handling requirements demand stringent safety measures. However, the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) has encountered criticism for its perceived heavy-handed response to safety concerns, leading to public scepticism and apprehension.
Regulatory Oversight and Independence
The current regulatory framework for India's civilian nuclear program, overseen by the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB), has faced criticism for lacking independence. The AERB's reporting structure ultimately leads back to the DAE secretary, raising concerns about conflicts of interest and transparency. Calls for establishing an independent statutory atomic regulator have been made, echoing recommendations by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in 2015.
Regulatory Reforms and Legislation
Efforts to reform the regulatory framework through initiatives like the Nuclear Safety Regulatory Authority (NSRA) Bill have faced challenges. While proposed as a replacement for the AERB, the NSRA Bill drew criticism for potentially granting excessive control to the Union government over the regulatory body's composition, undermining its independence and effectiveness.
Management of Radioactive Byproducts
The thorium fuel cycle, integral to stage II technologies, produces various radioactive isotopes such as caesium-137, actinium-227, radium-224, radium-228, and thorium-230. Managing and safely storing these radioactive byproducts pose significant technical and logistical challenges, requiring robust waste management protocols and infrastructure.
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For Prelims: Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor, Nuclear Safety Regulatory Authority, Atomic Energy Regulatory Board, International Atomic Energy Agency
For Mains:
1. Discuss the significance of the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) in India's nuclear power program. Highlight the challenges faced in its implementation and suggest measures to overcome them. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) is associated with the ban on which of the following? (Rajasthan PTET 2012)
A. Ban on certain organisations under UN laws
B. Ban on money laundering activities
C. Ban on nuclear tests for developing arsenals
D. Ban on terrorism
2. What is/are the consequence/consequences of a country becoming the member of the ‘Nuclear Suppliers Group’? (2018)
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
3. Consider the following countries: (UPSC 2015)
Which among the above are Nuclear Weapons States as recognized by the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, commonly known as Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1, 3, 4 and 5 only (c) 2, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
4. The Soviet Union broke down in the year _______. (SSC GD 2019) A. 1991 B. 1880 C. 2000 D. 1900
5. What is the code name of the first Nuclear test of India? (MP Police SI 2016) A. Chagai 1-1 B. Smiling Buddha C. Project 596 D. Shakti 1 – 1 Answers: 1-C, 2-A, 3-A, 4-A, 5-B Mains 1. In what ways would the ongoing U.S-Iran Nuclear Pact Controversy affect the national interest of India? How should India respond to this situation? (UPSC 2018) 2. With growing energy needs should India keep on expanding its nuclear energy programme? Discuss the facts and fears associated with nuclear energy. (UPSC 2018) 3. Give an account of the growth and development of nuclear science and technology in India. What is the advantage of a fast breeder reactor programme in India? (UPSC 2017) |
