The recent India-Maldives controversy stemmed from offensive comments made by three Maldivian ministers on social media about Prime Minister Narendra Modi's visit to the Lakshadweep islands in early January 2024. 

The Incident

• Maldivian Deputy Minister of Youth Empowerment Mariyam Shiuna posted a mocking and disrespectful remark about PM Modi on social media. Two other ministers, Malsha Shareef and Abdulla Mahzoom Majid, also made disparaging comments.
• India summoned the Maldivian envoy and expressed strong disapproval of the derogatory remarks.
• The Maldivian government suspended the three ministers and distanced itself from their statements. President Mohamed Muizzu also affirmed the importance of close ties with India.
• The episode coincides with Maldivian President Ibrahim Mohamed Solih's maiden visit to China, raising speculation about China's possible role in influencing the ministers' remarks.

3. India-Maldives

India-Maldives relations have historically been close, marked by vibrant cultural ties, strong economic partnerships, and strategic cooperation. However, the relationship has encountered some challenges in recent years, highlighting the need for renewed focus and strategic adjustments.

Historical Ties

• Both nations share Buddhist and Hindu influences, with Maldivians speaking Dhivehi, which belongs to the Indo-Aryan language family.
• India has been a significant trading partner for Maldives, exporting food, and manufactured goods, and providing tourism services.
• India has played a crucial role in ensuring the Maldives' security, assisting in the 1988 coup attempt, the 2004 tsunami, and the 2014 water crisis.

Strategic Interests

• The Maldives occupies a strategic position in the Indian Ocean, making it crucial for India's maritime security interests.
• China's increasing economic and military presence in the region presents both challenges and opportunities for India-Maldives cooperation.
• Both countries share concerns about terrorism and have collaborated in intelligence sharing and capacity building.

Contemporary Challenges

• Despite close ties, the significant economic disparity between India and the Maldives can lead to imbalances and resentment.
• The Maldives has experienced political turmoil in recent years, which can impact relations with India.
• Both countries face challenges related to climate change and rising sea levels, requiring collaborative solutions.

• The recent diplomatic spat with the Maldives, triggered by offensive comments directed at Prime Minister Modi, might appear as a fleeting "storm in a teacup." However, a closer look reveals several critical dimensions with far-reaching implications for India's maritime security landscape, offering valuable lessons for the future.
• The Maldives archipelago stretches across the southern Indian Ocean, forming a vital piece of India's maritime security puzzle. Its 27 coral atolls dispersed over 900 km encompass an exclusive economic zone of nearly a million square kilometres. Despite the Indian Navy's acknowledgement of this strategic importance, India's overall security approach suffers from a persistent "continental fixation."
• The lack of a comprehensive national security strategy translates into sporadic and uncoordinated maritime initiatives. This shortcoming hinders India's ability to effectively maintain control over strategically crucial areas like the Maldives.
• As early as 1945, K.M. Panikkar, revered as India's "oracle of maritime wisdom," warned against the perils of a solely land-based defence strategy. He presciently declared that neglect of Indian interests in the Indian Ocean would render freedom inconsequential and accurately predicted China's burgeoning naval ambitions. Panikkar's foresight highlights the urgent need for India to prioritize its maritime security interests.
• The British presence on Gan Island, a Maldivian island, until 1976 underscores the strategic significance of the region. Additionally, China's expanding naval power and its proximity to the Indian Ocean raise concerns about potential strategic rivalries.

The recent diplomatic spat with the Maldives serves as a stark reminder of the need for India to re-evaluate its approach to the island nation and, perhaps, other neighbouring countries. While external factors like China's influence and Pakistan's religious incitement undoubtedly play a role, it's crucial to acknowledge and address any shortcomings within India's own diplomatic strategies.

Missed Warning Signs: The relationship with the Maldives started fraying as early as 2011, with the cancellation of the Male airport contract awarded to GMR. This should have triggered alarm bells within the Ministry of External Affairs (MEA). Did India receive any early warnings of this shift in sentiment from its representatives in Male? If so, were proactive measures taken to address the concerns and mend ties?

Beyond Big Brother: Maldives, with its small population and unique identity, is naturally sensitive to any perceived "big-brotherly" attitude. Anecdotal evidence suggests that some Indian diplomats' condescending demeanours, overemphasis on cultural dominance, and projection of a "viceroy" image can foster resentment. This, coupled with India's own internal struggles and occasional instances of unchecked communal tensions, paints an unappealing picture for neighbours.

Introspection and Recalibration: Addressing these concerns requires introspection and recalibration within India's diplomatic approach. Building stronger ties with the Maldives, and other neighbours, demands:

• Recognizing the sensitivities of smaller nations and engaging them with empathy and respect is crucial. This involves actively listening to their concerns, addressing them sincerely, and avoiding patronizing attitudes.
• Appreciation for the Maldives' unique cultural identity and traditions, along with fostering mutual understanding through cultural exchange programs and collaborative initiatives, can strengthen the bond between the two countries.
• Building strong economic partnerships, promoting mutually beneficial trade and development projects, and ensuring fair treatment of Maldivian workers in India can contribute to a more stable and prosperous relationship.
• Addressing domestic issues like communal tensions and hate speech, and upholding democratic principles, will project a more positive image of India as a reliable and trustworthy partner.

The "Security and Growth for All in the Region" (SAGAR) initiative, launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi in 2015, is India's vision for maritime cooperation in the Indian Ocean region. It aims to create a secure, stable, and prosperous environment for all nations through collaboration in various areas.

Key objectives of SAGAR

•  Promoting cooperation to combat piracy, terrorism, and other maritime threats; enhancing capacity building in coastal countries.
•  Encouraging trade and investment; developing port infrastructure and connectivity; promoting sustainable resource management.
• Providing training and expertise to partner nations in areas like maritime safety, search and rescue, and pollution control.
•  Assisting with preparedness, response, and recovery efforts during natural disasters in the region.
• Working together to conserve marine ecosystems and address pollution challenges.

Significance of SAGAR:

• SAGAR positions India as a leading maritime power in the Indian Ocean, fostering its strategic partnerships and influence.
•  In the face of China's growing presence in the region, SAGAR offers a cooperative alternative based on shared values and mutual benefit.
• The initiative's focus on development and capacity building caters to the needs of smaller island nations, strengthening regional stability.
• SAGAR encourages collaboration between countries on shared challenges, fostering trust and mutual understanding.

Challenges and Future Development

• While the vision is clear, a comprehensive document outlining specific action plans and operational strategies is needed.
• Implementing SAGAR initiatives effectively requires adequate resources both financially and in terms of personnel and expertise.
• Gaining the trust and active participation of all countries in the region is crucial for SAGAR's success.

The recent diplomatic discord with the Maldives highlights the need for India to shift its strategic focus in the Indo-Pacific beyond land borders and engage in larger geopolitical competition. Recognizing the crucial role of the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) and the distinct advantages of proximity, India must navigate the complex interplay between its own interests and the growing influence of China.

Geographic Advantage: Compared to China, India enjoys a clear geographic advantage in the IOR. With Male, the Maldivian capital, just 700 km from Kochi, India, compared to 6,000 km from the nearest Chinese port, India can respond to crises and offer assistance much faster. This was evident during the 1988 coup attempt, the 2004 tsunami, and the 2014 water crisis, where the Indian Navy swiftly provided crucial aid. This demonstrates the inherent value of having a reliable and responsive neighbour.

The Imperative of Securing Sea Lanes: As the world's largest trading nation, China's economic and industrial prosperity hinges on uninterrupted maritime trade. Its sea lanes in the IOR, therefore, become a critical "jugular vein" requiring protection. This has led China to develop strategic footholds like Hambantota in Sri Lanka and Gwadar in Pakistan, and even lease a military base in Djibouti. Securing allies like the Maldives becomes strategically vital for China to counterbalance India's geographic advantage.

Checkmating China: The Maldives presents a crucial strategic puzzle in this context. While India enjoys the inherent benefits of proximity and historical goodwill, China's economic clout and strategic ambitions pose a significant challenge. India must navigate this complex landscape by:

• Continuing to provide humanitarian assistance, disaster relief, and economic partnerships can solidify India's image as a trustworthy and beneficial partner.
• Strengthening cultural ties and fostering a deeper understanding of each other's perspectives can build trust and goodwill.
• Upholding democratic values and addressing issues like communal tensions can project a more positive image of India on the international stage.
• Collaborating with other IOR countries on regional issues like maritime security and environmental protection can showcase India's commitment to shared prosperity and cooperation.

• The untapped potential of maritime diplomacy in strengthening India's relationships with its maritime neighbours. While conventional diplomacy remains essential, embracing maritime diplomacy as a vital tool can offer significant benefits.
• India's Maritime Doctrine clearly outlines the "diplomatic role" as a crucial function of the Indian Navy. This role aims to "favourably shape the maritime environment" and support national interests in line with foreign policy and security goals.
• For years, India's response to requests for maritime assistance from neighbouring countries like Sri Lanka, Maldives, and Myanmar often fell short due to bureaucratic hurdles and funding limitations. This missed opportunities to build goodwill and foster stronger ties.
• In 2005-06, recognizing this gap, the Indian Navy took a proactive step by establishing a dedicated organization led by a two-star admiral to oversee foreign cooperation. This unit facilitated the transfer of patrol boats, aircraft, and helicopters from the Navy's own inventory to partner nations. This initiative exemplified the potential of maritime diplomacy in action.

The positive outcomes of this maritime cooperation are evident in India's strengthened relationships with Sri Lanka, Maldives, Myanmar, and other coastal neighbours. This successful model paves the way for further expansion:

•  Providing training, joint exercises, and equipment support to partner nations can build maritime security capabilities and foster trust.
• Rapidly deploying naval resources during natural disasters or emergencies showcases India's commitment to regional stability and builds goodwill.
• Collaborating on maritime infrastructure development, resource exploration, and sustainable fishing practices can create shared prosperity.

By prioritizing maritime diplomacy as a vital tool alongside conventional diplomacy, India can:

• A collaborative maritime environment fosters trust and cooperation, mitigating potential conflicts and ensuring safer seas for all.
• Proactive maritime engagement can strengthen India's position in the Indian Ocean and counterbalance China's strategic manoeuvres.
• By addressing their needs and demonstrating genuine commitment, India can cultivate lasting and mutually beneficial relationships with its maritime neighbours.

NUCLEAR WASTE 

 

 

2. About Nuclear Waste

• Nuclear waste refers to the radioactive byproducts generated during the operation of nuclear reactors. In a fission reactor, neutrons collide with the nuclei of specific elements, causing them to become unstable and split, releasing energy and producing different elements.
• For instance, when uranium-235 (U-235) absorbs a neutron, it can split into barium-144, krypton-89, and three neutrons. The non-fissile components, such as barium-144 and krypton-89, form part of the nuclear waste.
• One of the primary sources of nuclear waste is the spent fuel itself. "The spent fuel contains all the radioactive fission products generated during each nucleus's break-up to produce energy, along with the radioactive elements produced during the conversion of uranium into heavier elements after absorbing neutrons and undergoing radioactive decay,".
• Due to its high radioactivity, nuclear waste requires careful storage in specially designed facilities to prevent leaks or contamination of the surrounding environment.

 

 

 

3. Handling Nuclear Waste

• Spent Fuel Management: The main challenge in handling nuclear waste lies in managing spent fuel, which is both hot and highly radioactive. Typically, spent fuel is stored underwater for several decades to allow it to cool down. Once cooled, it can be transferred to dry casks for long-term storage. Countries with extensive nuclear power programs, such as the United States, Canada, and Russia, have accumulated significant amounts of spent fuel over the years.
• Storage Periods and Challenges: Depending on the level of radioactivity, the storage period for nuclear waste can extend to many millennia. This necessitates the need for secure storage facilities that can isolate the waste from human contact for durations longer than the existence of modern humans on Earth.
• Liquid Waste Treatment: Nuclear power plants are equipped with liquid waste treatment facilities to manage radioactive liquid waste. Small quantities of aqueous wastes containing short-lived radionuclides may be discharged into the environment after treatment. Other waste materials may be evaporated, chemically precipitated to form a sludge for storage, absorbed on solid matrices, or incinerated based on their hazard levels.
• High-Level Waste Management: Liquid high-level waste contains a majority of the fission products produced in nuclear fuel. To manage this waste, it is vitrified to form a stable glass that can be stored safely. However, certain challenges remain, especially in cases where reprocessing of spent fuel is involved, as some fission products cannot be used as fuel and must be stored as liquid waste, posing potential accident hazards.

 

4. Dealing with Nuclear Waste

• Dry-Cask Storage: Once spent fuel has sufficiently cooled in a spent-fuel pool for at least a year, it can be transferred to dry-cask storage. In this method, the fuel is placed inside large steel cylinders and surrounded by inert gas. These cylinders are then sealed shut and placed within larger steel or concrete chambers for additional protection.
• Geological Disposal: Some experts advocate for geological disposal, where the waste is sealed in special containers and buried underground in geological formations such as granite or clay. This approach offers long-term storage away from human activity. However, there are concerns about the potential risks of radioactive material exposure if the containers are disturbed, such as by nearby excavation activities.
• Reprocessing: Reprocessing involves technologies to separate fissile from non-fissile material in spent fuel. Through chemical treatment, fissile material is separated from the non-fissile components. Reprocessing facilities require specialized protection and personnel due to the hazardous nature of spent fuel. While reprocessing offers higher fuel efficiency, it is also an expensive process.
• Plutonium Management: An important aspect of reprocessing is the management of plutonium, which can be weapons-usable. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) strictly regulates facilities handling plutonium, specifying thresholds for plutonium concentration to ensure non-proliferation efforts are maintained.

 

5. Issues Associated with Nuclear Waste

• Environmental Contamination Concerns: One of the significant issues associated with nuclear waste is the potential for environmental contamination. Instances such as the Asse II salt mine in Germany, where nuclear waste storage led to concerns about groundwater contamination, highlight the challenges of managing and containing radioactive materials. Decontamination efforts can be extremely costly and time-consuming, as seen in the case of the Asse II mine.
• Operational Risks and Unknown Factors: The operational risks and uncertainties associated with nuclear waste facilities pose another set of challenges. For example, the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) in the U.S. initially served as a model for nuclear waste management. However, an accident in 2014 resulted in the release of radioactive materials, exposing serious maintenance failures and highlighting the unpredictable nature of such facilities.
• Liquid Waste Treatment Challenges: Treating liquid nuclear waste, particularly high-level and intermediate-level waste, presents specific challenges. Questions arise regarding the effectiveness of vitrification plants in reprocessing facilities and the amount of remaining liquid waste yet to be treated. These uncertainties add complexity to the overall management of nuclear waste.
• Repository Failures and Ethical Concerns: Many countries have faced challenges in successfully setting up repositories for nuclear waste. Failures in repository projects underscore the difficulty of finding suitable long-term storage solutions. Moreover, ethical concerns arise regarding the export of nuclear waste, highlighting issues of environmental justice and the responsibility of nations benefiting from nuclear power to bear the associated costs and risks.

   

6. Cost of Waste Handling in Nuclear Power

According to Dr Tsyplenkov's analysis in a 1993 feature, the cost of waste handling in nuclear power is significant and distributed across various stages of the fuel cycle and plant operation.

Stage of Waste Management	Percentage of Total Cost	Description
Front-End Waste Management	10%	Handling depleted uranium and front-end waste
Power Plant Operation	24%	Managing wastes generated during plant operation
Decommissioning	15%	Costs associated with power plant decommissioning
Back-End of Fuel Cycle	50%	Spent fuel management and disposal

Overall Cost Estimate

In total, waste management imposes a cost ranging from $1.6 to $7.1 per megawatt-hour (MWh) of nuclear energy generated, considering factors such as plant capacity, operational efficiency, and waste handling practices throughout the fuel cycle. These costs reflect the comprehensive efforts required to manage radioactive waste responsibly and safely in the nuclear power industry.

 

7. Nuclear Waste Management in India

India employs various strategies and facilities to handle nuclear waste generated from its nuclear power and research activities.

• Reprocessing Facilities: India has reprocessing plants located in Trombay, Tarapur, and Kalpakkam. These facilities play a crucial role in reprocessing spent nuclear fuel to extract plutonium for use in stage II reactors and nuclear weapons production. The Trombay facility processes 50 tonnes of heavy metal per year (tHM/y) from research reactors, while the Tarapur facilities handle 100 tHM/y each from pressurized heavy water reactors. The Kalpakkam facility also processes 100 tHM/y of spent fuel.
• On-Site Waste Management: According to statements made by government officials, nuclear waste generated during operations at nuclear power stations in India is categorized as low and intermediate-activity level waste. These wastes are managed on-site, treated, and stored within dedicated facilities located at the respective nuclear power stations. The surrounding areas are continuously monitored for radioactivity to ensure public safety.
• Challenges and Complications: There have been observations regarding delays and operational issues with certain facilities, such as the PFBR (Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor) in India. These delays suggest potential operational challenges and inefficiencies in managing nuclear waste. Additionally, the discharge of spent fuel from PFBR may introduce new complexities due to differences in the distribution of fission products and transuranic elements compared to other reactors.

 

8. The Way Forward

By implementing the measures, India can effectively address the challenges associated with nuclear waste management and ensure the safe and sustainable utilization of nuclear energy resources for the country's energy needs.

 

For Prelims: Nuclear Waste Management, Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor, uranium, plutonium For mains:  1. Discuss the challenges associated with nuclear waste management in the context of India's nuclear energy program. How can these challenges be addressed effectively? (250 Words) 2. Ethical considerations play a crucial role in nuclear waste management. Discuss the ethical concerns surrounding the potential for environmental injustice and the responsibility of nations in dealing with nuclear waste.(250 Words)

 

Previous Year Questions 1. To meet its rapidly growing energy demand, some opine that India should pursue research and development on thorium as the future fuel of nuclear energy. In this on text, what advantage, does thorium hold over uranium? (UPSC 2012) Thorium is far more abundant in nature than uranium. On the basis of per unit mass of mined mineral, thorium can generate more energy compared to natural uranium. Thorium produces less harmful waste compared to uranium. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only         (b) 2 and 3 only            (c) 1 and 3 only              (d) 1, 2 and 3 2. Which among the following has the world’s largest reserves of Uranium? (UPSC 2009) (a) Australia (b) Canada (c) Russian Federation (d) USA Answers: 1-D, 2-A

Source: The Hindu

CITIZENSHIP AMENDMENT ACT (CAA)

 

 

 

 

1. Context 

 

A Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Parsi or Christian from Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan, who entered India before December 31, 2014, can now seek Indian citizenship without producing a valid passport of these countries or a valid visa from India, according to the Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019, (CAA) rules notified on 11 March 2024.

 

 

2. About the Citizenship Amendment Act 2019

The Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) of 2019 is a controversial piece of legislation enacted by the Government of India on December 12, 2019. The act amends the Citizenship Act of 1955 to provide a pathway to Indian citizenship for certain religious minorities from neighbouring countries.

Key features of the Citizenship Amendment Act include

• Eligibility Criteria: The CAA grants eligibility for Indian citizenship to Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Parsi, and Christian migrants who arrived in India from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Pakistan on or before December 31, 2014, and have faced religious persecution on their home countries.
• Exclusion of Muslims: Notably, the CAA excludes Muslims from its purview, leading to criticisms of religious discrimination and accusations of violating the secular principles enshrined in the Indian Constitution.
• Criticism and Protests: The Citizenship Amendment Act sparked widespread protests across India, with critics arguing that the act undermines the secular fabric of the nation and discriminates against Muslims. Protesters also raised concerns about the potential marginalisation of Muslim communities and the exclusionary nature of the legislation.
• Support from Government: The government defended the Citizenship Amendment Act, asserting that it aims to provide refuge and protection to persecuted religious minorities from neighbouring countries. The government argued that the act does not infringe upon the rights of Indian Muslims and is in line with the country's secular ethos.
• Legal Challenges: Several petitions challenging the constitutional validity of the Citizenship Amendment Act were filed in the Supreme Court of India. The court has heard arguments from both sides and is expected to deliver its judgment on the matter.

 

3. The current status of the Citizenship Amendment Act, of 2019

• The Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) on March 11 notified the Citizenship Amendment Rules, 2024 that would enable the implementation of the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) passed by the Parliament in 2019.
• Though the legislation facilitates citizenship to undocumented people belonging to Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Parsi, Christian and Jain communities from Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan, the rules state that the applicants will have to provide six types of documents and specify “date of entry” in India.

 

4. The concerns associated with the Citizenship Amendment Act, of 2019

The Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) of 2019 has sparked various concerns and criticisms, both domestically within India and internationally. 

• One of the primary concerns regarding the CAA is its exclusion of Muslims from the list of religious minorities eligible for citizenship under the act. Critics argue that this selective approach based on religion goes against the secular principles enshrined in India's constitution and promotes religious discrimination.
• The CAA's focus on granting citizenship based on religious identity raises concerns about the secular nature of India's democracy. Critics argue that the act undermines the inclusive and pluralistic ethos of the country by favouring specific religious communities.
• Opponents of the CAA fear that the act, coupled with other proposed policies like the National Register of Citizens (NRC) and National Population Register (NPR), could have implications for the demographic composition of India. They raise concerns about the marginalisation and exclusion of certain communities, particularly Muslims, and the potential for statelessness among vulnerable populations.
• The constitutionality of the Citizenship Amendment Act has been challenged in the Supreme Court of India. Critics argue that the act violates the fundamental rights guaranteed by the Indian Constitution, including the right to equality and non-discrimination.
• The implementation of the CAA has led to social and political polarization within India. The act has become a contentious issue, leading to protests, debates, and divisions along religious and ideological lines.
• The CAA has also attracted international attention and scrutiny, with concerns raised by human rights organizations and foreign governments regarding religious freedom, minority rights, and the potential impact on vulnerable communities.

 

5. The Indian ideas and rules of citizenship in the Constitution before the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA), 2019

Before the enactment of the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) in 2019, the principles and rules of citizenship in India were primarily governed by the Constitution of India, which came into effect on January 26, 1950. The Constitution lays down the framework for citizenship and enshrines certain fundamental rights and principles related to citizenship. 

• Citizenship by Birth: According to Article 5 of the Indian Constitution, any person born in India on or after January 26, 1950, but before July 1, 1987, was automatically considered a citizen of India by birth, regardless of the nationality of their parents.
• Citizenship by Descent: Individuals born outside India on or after January 26, 1950, but before July 1, 1987, were eligible for Indian citizenship if either of their parents was a citizen of India at the time of their birth.
• Citizenship by Registration: The Constitution provides provisions for certain categories of persons to acquire Indian citizenship through registration. This includes persons of Indian origin who have resided in India for a specified period and meet other criteria prescribed by law.
• Citizenship by Naturalization: Foreigners who have resided in India for a specified period and fulfilled other conditions prescribed by law were eligible to apply for Indian citizenship through naturalization.
• Citizenship by Incorporation of Territory: Any territory that became part of India through accession or merger automatically conferred Indian citizenship on its inhabitants as per the provisions of the Constitution.
• Fundamental Rights: The Constitution guarantees certain fundamental rights to all citizens of India, regardless of their religion, ethnicity, or place of birth. These rights include the right to equality, freedom of speech and expression, freedom of religion, and the right to life and personal liberty.

• Citizenship Act, 1955: This act, enacted based on the Constitution's provisions, outlined ways to acquire Indian citizenship. Here are the main routes:

  • Birth: Being born in India (with some limitations) granted citizenship.
  • Descent: Children born to Indian parents abroad could become citizens.
  • Registration: People of Indian origin residing in India for seven years could register.
  • Naturalization: Foreigners meeting specific residency requirements could apply for naturalization.

The Indian Constitution before the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) of 2019 outlined principles of citizenship that were based on inclusivity, equality, and non-discrimination, with provisions for acquiring citizenship through birth, descent, registration, naturalization, and territorial incorporation. The CAA introduced amendments to these principles, particularly regarding eligibility for citizenship based on religious identity.

 

6. Section 6A of the Citizenship Act

Section 6A is a special provision inserted into the Indian Citizenship Act, 1955, in 1985, as part of the Assam Accord. It deals with the citizenship of people who migrated to Assam from Bangladesh:

• It applies to people who entered Assam on or after January 1, 1966, but before March 25, 1971.
• It grants citizenship to these people if they can prove that they were "ordinarily resident" in Assam on March 24, 1971.
• People who claim citizenship under Section 6A must apply to a Foreigners Tribunal. The Tribunal will then decide whether or not to grant them citizenship based on the evidence they provide.

 

7. What does NRC mean?

• NRC stands for the National Register of Citizens. It is a register maintained by the Government of India containing names and certain relevant information for the identification of Indian citizens in the state of Assam.
• The purpose of the NRC is to create a list of genuine Indian citizens residing in Assam and identify individuals who are not legal residents of the state.
• The NRC process in Assam has its origins in the Assam Accord of 1985, which aimed to address the issue of illegal immigration from Bangladesh and determine the citizenship status of individuals living in Assam.
• The NRC process requires individuals to provide documentary evidence to prove their citizenship based on criteria set by the government.
• The NRC process involves extensive documentation and verification to establish citizenship status, and it has been a contentious issue due to its impact on individuals' rights and concerns about exclusion and discrimination.
• The implementation of the NRC in Assam has led to debates, legal challenges, and social tensions regarding citizenship and immigration issues in India.

 

8. What is NPR?

• NPR stands for the National Population Register. It is a register of usual residents of India, which includes both citizens and non-citizens who have resided in a local area for at least six months or intend to stay for the next six months or more.
• The NPR is prepared at the local, sub-district, district, state, and national levels under the provisions of the Citizenship Act, 1955, and the Citizenship (Registration of Citizens and Issue of National Identity Cards) Rules, 2003.
• The main purpose of the NPR is to create a comprehensive identity database of residents in India. It collects demographic and biometric information to establish the identity of individuals and households.
• The data collected in the NPR includes details such as name, age, gender, marital status, occupation, educational qualification, address, and other relevant information.
• The NPR process involves house-to-house enumeration and collection of data by government officials or designated enumerators. The data collected is used for various purposes, including government planning, policy formulation, and social welfare schemes.
• It's important to note that the NPR is distinct from the National Register of Citizens (NRC). While the NPR focuses on creating a comprehensive database of residents, the NRC specifically deals with determining the citizenship status of individuals, particularly in the state of Assam, based on documentary evidence.
• The NPR has been a topic of discussion and debate in India, with concerns raised about privacy, data security, and potential misuse of information.

 

9. The difference between the NRC, NPR and CAA 

 

Term	Description	Purpose	Focus
NRC (National Register of Citizens)	Register of Indian citizens in Assam	Identify legal residents and non-citizens	Citizenship status in Assam
NPR (National Population Register)	Register of usual residents (citizens and non-citizens)	Create a comprehensive identity database	Residents of India for planning purposes
CAA (Citizenship Amendment Act)	Law providing path to citizenship for religious minorities	Grant citizenship based on religion and persecution	Specific religious minorities facing persecution

 

10. Is NPR connected to NRC?

The NPR (National Population Register) is connected to the NRC (National Register of Citizens) in the sense that the data collected during the NPR exercise can be used as a basis for the NRC verification process, especially in the context of Assam.

1. Data Collection: The NPR involves collecting demographic and biometric information about residents of India, including both citizens and non-citizens who have lived in a local area for at least six months or intend to stay for the next six months or more. This data includes details such as name, age, gender, address, marital status, educational qualification, occupation, etc.

2. Verification: The data collected during the NPR process can be used as a basis for verifying citizenship during the NRC process, particularly in Assam. In Assam, the NRC process requires individuals to provide documentary evidence to prove their citizenship based on certain criteria. The data from NPR can be cross-referenced during this verification process.

3. Identification: The NPR data can help identify individuals who are considered genuine Indian citizens and those who may be considered doubtful citizens or non-citizens. This identification is crucial for the NRC process, especially in states like Assam where illegal immigration has been a longstanding issue.

While the NPR data can be used as a tool for verification during the NRC process, it's important to note that the NPR itself is not the same as the NRC. The NPR focuses on creating a comprehensive population database for administrative and planning purposes, while the NRC specifically deals with determining citizenship status, particularly in Assam, based on documentary evidence and verification.

 

11. Who are ‘Citizens’?

In general terms, citizens are individuals who hold citizenship in a particular country. Citizenship is a legal status that grants individuals certain rights, privileges, and responsibilities within the nation-state to which they belong. The concept of citizenship varies across different countries, but some common characteristics of citizenship include.

1. Legal Recognition: Citizens are legally recognized members of a country or state. They are entitled to the protection of the state and have access to its legal system.
2. Rights and Privileges: Citizens typically enjoy certain rights and privileges that non-citizens may not have, such as the right to vote, the right to work and reside in the country, access to social services, and the right to participate in the political process.
3. Responsibilities: Along with rights and privileges, citizenship also entails certain responsibilities, such as obeying the laws of the country, paying taxes, serving on juries if called upon, and sometimes participating in military service.
4. National Identity: Citizenship often involves a sense of national identity and belonging to a particular community or nation. This can include shared cultural, historical, and linguistic ties that bind citizens together.
5. Acquisition and Loss: Citizenship can be acquired through birth (jus soli or jus sanguinis), naturalization, or descent from a citizen parent. It can also be lost or renounced voluntarily or involuntarily, depending on the laws of the country.

 

12. The Way Forward

 

By adopting the strategies, stakeholders can work towards addressing concerns related to the Citizenship Amendment Act, promoting inclusivity, protecting minority rights, and upholding democratic values in India's citizenship policies and practices.

 

 

For Prelims: Citizenship Amendment Act, Minorities, Secularism, NPR, NRC,  For Mains:  1. The Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) of 2019 has sparked significant controversy in India. Critically examine the Act's provisions, highlighting the key concerns and potential implications. In your opinion, does the CAA violate the secular principles enshrined in the Indian Constitution? (250 words) 2. Considering the debates surrounding the CAA, critically analyze the concept of citizenship in India. How has the concept evolved, and what are the challenges in defining and managing citizenship in a diverse democracy like India? (250 words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions Consider the following statements: (2018) 1. Aadhaar card can be used as a proof of citizenship or domicile. 2. Once issued, the Aadhaar number cannot be deactivated or omitted by the Issuing Authority. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only       (b) 2 only          (c) Both 1 and 2           (d) Neither 1 nor 2   2. What is the position of the Right to Property in India? (UPSC  2021) (a) Legal right available to citizens only (b) Legal right available to any person (c) Fundamental Rights available to citizens only (d) Neither Fundamental Right nor legal right   3.  With reference to the Delimitation Commission, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2012) 1. The orders of the Delimitation Commission cannot be challenged in a Court of Law. 2. When the orders of the Delimitation Commission are laid before the Lok Sabha or State Legislative Assembly, they cannot effect any modifications in the orders. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?  A. 1 only             B. 2 only           C. Both 1 and 2               D. Neither 1 nor 2     4. Barak Valley in Assam is famous for which among the following? (MSTET 2019) A.  Bamboo Industry B. Petroleum Production C. Cottage Industries D. Tea Cultivation     5. Which one of the following is an important crop of the Barak Valley? (Karnataka Civil Police Constable 2019) A. Sugarcane           B.  Jute            C. Tea                    D. Cotton     6. Under Assam Accord of 1985, foreigners who had entered Assam before March 25, _____ were to be given citizenship.  (DSSSB JE & Section Officer 2022) A. 1954           B. 1971         C.  1981           D. 1966   Answers: 1-D, 2-B, 3-C, 4-D, 5-B, 6-B

 

Source: The Indian Express

BALLISTIC MISSILE

 

 

 

1. Context

The name Agni(Agni-5) originates from Sanskrit word for fire and is taken in the context of Agni being one five primary elements or Panch Mahabhutas. Others being Prithvi (Earth), Aapa (Water), Wayu (Air), Akash (Space). Of these names, Prithvi and Akash have been given to missiles developed by the DRDO

 

 

2.What is ballistic missile?

 

• A ballistic missile is a guided missile that follows a specific trajectory, or flight path, influenced primarily by gravity. The term "ballistic" refers to the physics of motion under the influence of gravity, and ballistic missiles are designed to reach their target through a free-fall trajectory.
• These missiles are powered during the initial phase of their flight, called the boost phase, where rocket engines or other propulsion systems propel them into space or a high altitude. After reaching the peak of their trajectory, the warhead or payload separates from the missile body and follows a ballistic trajectory back to Earth, guided by gravity. The descent phase is typically unpowered, relying on the missile's momentum gained during the boost phase
• Ballistic missiles are often associated with military applications, including strategic nuclear missiles, but they can also be conventionally armed for various purposes such as precision strikes, deterrence, and other strategic objectives. The development and deployment of ballistic missiles have been significant factors in the field of arms control and international security

Ballistic missiles can be categorized based on their range and intended targets: Short-Range Ballistic Missiles (SRBMs): Typically have a range of up to 1,000 kilometers. Medium-Range Ballistic Missiles (MRBMs): Have a range between 1,000 and 3,000 kilometers. Intermediate-Range Ballistic Missiles (IRBMs): Have a range between 3,000 and 5,500 kilometers. Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs): Have a range greater than 5,500 kilometers, allowing them to cross continents.

 

 

3. What is the difference between a missile and a ballistic missile?

 

Missile	Ballistic Missile
A missile is a generic term for a guided projectile that is designed to be launched and directed toward a specific target	A ballistic missile is a specific subtype of missile that follows a particular trajectory, primarily influenced by gravity
Missiles can come in various types and may have different propulsion systems, guidance mechanisms, and intended purposes	Ballistic missiles are powered during the boost phase, where rocket engines or other propulsion systems propel them into space or a high altitude
Missiles can be categorized into different types, such as cruise missiles, surface-to-air missiles, air-to-air missiles, anti-ship missiles, and more	After reaching the peak of their trajectory, the warhead or payload separates from the missile body, and the payload follows a free-fall trajectory back to Earth, guided by gravity
Unlike ballistic missiles, which follow a specific trajectory influenced by gravity, the term "missile" does not inherently imply a specific flight path; it simply refers to a guided projectile	The descent phase of a ballistic missile is typically unpowered, relying on the missile's momentum gained during the boost phase. Ballistic missiles are often associated with long-range and strategic capabilities, including nuclear and conventional warheads.
Examples: Tomahawk cruise missile, AIM-120 AMRAAM (air-to-air), etc.	Examples: Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM), Medium-Range Ballistic Missile (MRBM), etc.

 

 

4.Cruise Missiles and Ballistic Missiles-How Are They Different?

 

Cruise Missile	Ballistic Missile
Low-altitude, level flight path within the Earth's atmosphere	Specific trajectory influenced by gravity, with a boost and ballistic descent phase
Flies at low altitudes, just above the Earth's surface	Reaches high altitudes during the boost phase, followed by a descending trajectory
Typically powered by jet engines or sustained propulsion systems	Powered during the boost phase, unpowered descent phase relying on momentum
Uses onboard navigation systems, sensors, and GPS for precision	Guided during the boost phase; may have additional guidance for accuracy during descent.
Operates at lower altitudes for shorter to medium ranges	Can achieve high altitudes; designed for short, medium, intermediate, and long ranges
Often used for precision strikes against specific targets	Various purposes, including strategic nuclear deterrence, precision strikes, and more

 

 

5. What is the history of missile technology in India?

 

India's history of missile technology development is marked by significant achievements and milestones. The country has made substantial progress in the field of missiles for both civilian and military purposes. Here is an overview of the key developments in India's missile technology:

• 1960s - 1980s: Initial Developments:

  • India's missile program started in the 1960s with the establishment of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and the Defense Research and Development Organisation (DRDO).
  • In the 1970s, India began developing short-range surface-to-surface missiles (SSMs), such as the Prithvi series.

• 1983: Prithvi Missile Test:

  • India conducted its first successful test of the Prithvi missile, a short-range ballistic missile (SRBM), in 1983.
  • Prithvi was designed for battlefield use and later evolved into different variants with varying ranges.

• 1989: Agni Missile Program Begins:

  • The Agni missile program was initiated in the late 1980s to develop intermediate-range ballistic missiles (IRBMs).
  • Agni-I, with a range of around 700 km, was the first missile developed under this program.

• 1998: Pokhran-II Nuclear Tests:

  • India conducted a series of nuclear tests in May 1998 at Pokhran, including the testing of nuclear-capable missiles like Agni-II and Prithvi.
  • These tests marked India's declaration of its nuclear capabilities.

• 2003: Agni-II and Agni-III Tests:

  • India successfully tested the Agni-II and Agni-III missiles with extended ranges.
  • Agni-II had a range of over 2,000 km, while Agni-III had a range exceeding 3,000 km.

• 2008: Operationalization of Agni-I and Agni-II:

  • Agni-I and Agni-II were officially inducted into the Indian Armed Forces, enhancing India's strategic capabilities.

• 2012: Agni-V Test:

  • India successfully tested the Agni-V, an intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) with a range of over 5,000 km.
  • Agni-V marked a significant milestone in India's missile capabilities, providing a credible deterrent.

• 2019: ASAT Test - Mission Shakti:

  • India conducted an Anti-Satellite (ASAT) test, known as Mission Shakti, demonstrating its ability to destroy satellites in low Earth orbit.

 

6.What kind of missiles does India have?

 

India has developed and deployed a variety of missiles across different categories, including strategic missiles, tactical missiles, cruise missiles, and anti-ballistic missiles. Here are some of the key types of missiles in India's arsenal:

• Agni Series:

  • Agni-I: A short-range ballistic missile (SRBM) with a range of around 700 km.
  • Agni-II: An intermediate-range ballistic missile (IRBM) with a range of over 2,000 km.
  • Agni-III: An intermediate-range ballistic missile with a range exceeding 3,000 km.
  • Agni-IV: An intermediate-range ballistic missile with an extended range compared to Agni-III.
  • Agni-V: An intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) with a range of over 5,000 km.

• Prithvi Series:

  • Prithvi-I: A short-range ballistic missile (SRBM) with a range of around 150 km.
  • Prithvi-II: A tactical surface-to-surface missile with a range of around 350 km.
  • Prithvi-III: An intermediate-range ballistic missile with a range of over 300 km.

• BrahMos Missile:

  • A supersonic cruise missile developed in collaboration with Russia, featuring both land-attack and anti-ship capabilities. It has a range of around 300 to 500 km.

• Nirbhay Cruise Missile:

  • A subsonic cruise missile designed for long-range land-attack missions. It is an all-weather, low-flying missile with a range of around 1,000 km.

• Akash Missile:

  • A medium-range surface-to-air missile (SAM) designed for air defense against aircraft and drones. It has a range of around 25 km.

• Barak Missile:

  • A medium-range surface-to-air missile designed for defense against aircraft, helicopters, and anti-ship missiles.

• Prahaar Missile:

  • A solid-fueled tactical ballistic missile designed for quick deployment with a range of around 150 km.

• Dhanush Missile:

  • A naval variant of the Prithvi missile, designed for ship-based deployment with a range of around 350 km.

• Nag Missile:

  • An anti-tank guided missile (ATGM) designed for use by infantry and helicopter platforms.

• Sagarika Missile (K-15):

  • A submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM) with a range of around 750 km.

• A-SAT Missile (Mission Shakti):

  • An anti-satellite missile system, showcasing India's capability to destroy satellites in low Earth orbit.

7.What about hypersonic technology?

 

 

Hypersonic technology involves vehicles and systems that can travel at speeds significantly faster than the speed of sound, typically exceeding Mach 5 (five times the speed of sound) or approximately 6,174 kilometers per hour (3,836 miles per hour). These hypersonic speeds present unique challenges and advantages in terms of military applications, space exploration, and transportation. As of my last knowledge update in January 2022, India has also been actively working on developing hypersonic technology. Here are some key points related to India's efforts in hypersonic technology:

• Hypersonic Technology Demonstrator Vehicle (HSTDV):

  • India has been working on the Hypersonic Technology Demonstrator Vehicle (HSTDV), a project aimed at developing and testing indigenous hypersonic technology.
  • HSTDV is designed to operate at hypersonic speeds and serve as a testbed for various technologies associated with hypersonic flight.

• Successful Test Flights:

  • India conducted successful test flights of the HSTDV. In September 2020, the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) announced that the HSTDV had completed its first successful flight.
  • During the test, the HSTDV demonstrated sustained flight at hypersonic speeds for a certain duration.

• Applications:

  • Hypersonic technology has potential applications in both military and civilian domains. In the military context, hypersonic missiles and vehicles can provide advantages in terms of rapid response, increased maneuverability, and the ability to penetrate advanced defense systems.
  • Civilian applications may include high-speed transportation and space exploration, leveraging the capability to reach orbit or travel between distant locations in a fraction of the time compared to conventional methods.

• International Context:

  • Hypersonic technology has gained global attention, with several countries investing in research and development to harness its strategic and technological advantages.
  • The United States, Russia, China, and other technologically advanced nations are also actively pursuing hypersonic capabilities

 

8.Way Forward

 

The acquisition of MIRV technology by India was keenly awaited after China developed it in the last decade. With Pakistan also claiming to have tested a missile with this technology, integrating this in Agni missiles had become an imperative. The next generation Agni-6 missile, currently under development, is also expected to be equipped with MIRV

 

 

For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance. For Mains: General Studies III: Achievements of Indians in science & technology; indigenization of technology and developing new technology

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Consider the following statements :(UPSC CSE 2023)   1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their flights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight. 2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A.1 only B.2 only C.Both 1 and 2 D.Neither 1 nor 2 Answer (D)

Source: Indianexpress

MARATHAS

 

 

1. Context

 

The political conflict over whether the Marathas are a “backward” community or not has been raging since the early 1980s. Historians have long agreed that the term ‘Maratha’ as a category or caste is an amalgamation of families from several different castes, most of whom occupied the lower strata of the caste hierarchy such as the Kunbi, Lohar, Sutar, Bhandari, Thakar and Dhangar

 

2.The history of the emergence of Marathas as a distinct caste

 

• The narrative of the Marathas originates in the 14th century amid the Muslim invasions of Maharashtra. The initial incursion into the Deccan occurred in the late 13th century led by Alauddin Khilji. Subsequently, a period of intense conflict unfolded in the Deccan until the 1350s, culminating in the establishment of the Bahmani Sultanate.
• The Muslim dynasties that maintained authority in the Deccan for the following 350 years played a pivotal role in shaping social mobility in the region.
• From the 14th century onwards, the term increasingly denoted a new elite—the Maratha chiefs—who brought followers to serve the military of the Bahmani kingdom and its successor Sultanates.
• The Maratha category encompassed various castes, yet what united them was their martial tradition, of which they were proud, and the rights and privileges acquired through military service.
• The Maratha identity gained prominence with the rise of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, a member of the Bhonsle Maratha clan.
• Shivaji's father, Shahaji Bhonsle, served the Deccan Sultanate as a Maratha general. In the late 17th century, Shivaji established his independent Maratha Empire, extending its influence over significant portions of the Indian subcontinent throughout the 18th century. Shivaji's reign, particularly the Marathas' triumph over the Mughal army, served as historical justification for political dominance in the region.
• By the 19th century, the Maratha aristocracy ruled over most princely states, especially in Western Maharashtra, and became involved in the non-Brahmin movement

3.Marathas and the non-Brahmin movement

 

In the 19th century, the Marathas played a significant role in the non-Brahmin movement, which aimed to address issues related to social justice, caste discrimination, and political representation in the Indian subcontinent. The movement sought to challenge the dominance of the Brahmin caste in various aspects of society, including politics, education, and employment.

It is the non-Brahmin movement of the late 19th century that really defines the Maratha identity in opposition to the Brahmins. In 1873, at a time when several social reform movements had blossomed across India, the Satyashodhak Samaj (truth-seeking society) was founded by Jyotirao Phule in Pune. Inspired by Western utilitarian philosophy and Christianity, Phule constructed a historical narrative suggesting that the Deccan society evolved from a community of Shudra peasants

Several factors contributed to the involvement of the Marathas in the non-Brahmin movement:

• By the 19th century, the Marathas had established their rule over many princely states, particularly in Western Maharashtra. As rulers of these regions, they recognized the need for social and political reforms to address the grievances of non-Brahmin communities
• The non-Brahmin movement aimed to dismantle the caste-based hierarchies and promote social equality. The Marathas, who belonged to diverse castes within their community, were motivated to address social issues within their own ranks and collaborate with other non-Brahmin communities
• The movement advocated for increased access to education for non-Brahmins. The Marathas recognized the importance of education in empowering their communities and breaking the traditional Brahmin monopoly on learning
• The non-Brahmin movement sought to ensure fair political representation for non-Brahmin communities. Maratha leaders actively participated in political discussions and movements to secure a more inclusive political system
• The movement aimed at economic upliftment of non-Brahmin communities. Marathas, as a socially diverse group, were interested in addressing economic disparities within their own community and fostering economic opportunities for all

 

4. Significance of Non Brahmin Movement

• It established a network of educational institutions, publications, and charity trusts independent of Brahmanical support in the provincial cities of the Deccan. Initially, leaders of the non-Brahmin movement opposed the Brahmin-dominated nationalist movement, viewing it as an attempt to replace British rule with Brahmin rule (Omvedt, 1966).
• Starting from the 1920s, the non-Brahmin movement introduced the Chhatrapati mela to celebrate the valor of Shivaji. 
• This led to a direct conflict between the non-Brahmins and the Chitpavan Brahmin Bal Gangadhar Tilak, who aimed to promote Shivaji as a symbol of regional Hindu identity while combining Hindu orthodoxy with nationalism.
• Although Tilak sought legitimacy and funding for the celebration of Shivaji from the Maharaja of Kolhapur, Shahu Maharaj, a direct descendant of Shivaji, the Maharaja did not respond. Shahu Maharaj, opposed to Tilak and the Pune Brahmins, instead supported the festival organized by the Satyashodhak Samaj. This competition in narratives contributed to the spread of the cult of Shivaji across the Bombay presidency.
• Since 1900, the non-Brahmin movement was led by Shahu Maharaj, who, under his leadership, defined the Marathas as a broader social category through the Satyashodhak Samaj. Although the Satyashodhak ceased to exist in the 1920s after Shahu left the organization, the impact of their mobilization was irreversible, solidifying Brahmins and Marathas as distinct collective identities.
• During the 20th century, as electoral democracy emerged, caste politics became a numbers game. The traditional caste identities based on practices of touch, food, and marriage were no longer useful in the electoral system with millions of voters.
• Larger networks of regional caste identities, including the Marathas, were mobilized for political purposes. By the end of the 1920s, a rural leadership had emerged based on the ability to express educational and economic demands of non-Brahmins, and being identified as a Maratha became increasingly attractive.
• It is evident that in the 1882 District Gazetteer of Thane, Kunbis, Agris, Kolis were identified as distinct caste groups, each with elite layers characterized as Marathas. However, by the 1931 Census, Marathas and Kunbis were lumped together into a single category, indicating the disappearance of Kunbi as a separate caste identity co-opted into the larger caste identity of the Marathas (Omvedt, 1966)

5. Maratha dominance in Maharashtra politics

 

• Following the demise of Shahu Maharaj, the non-Brahmin movement fell under the leadership of Keshavrao Jedhe and Dinkarrao Jawalkar. In 1923, another member of the group, Bhaskarrao Jadhav, established the Non-Brahmin Party.
• Throughout the 1920s, members of the Non-Brahmin Party assumed control over the local boards in various districts of Maharashtra, including Satara, Solapur, Nashik, and Buldhana.
• Jedhe and Jawalkar became outspoken critics of Tilak and Brahmins in politics. They advocated for the expulsion of all Brahmins from legislative councils, local bodies, and services. In 1926, they prohibited Brahmins from joining their party.
• When BR Ambedkar led a satyagraha in Mahad in 1927, Jedhe and Jawalkar insisted on excluding Brahmins from participation. Ambedkar rejected their condition, stating that he opposed Brahmanism but not Brahmins.
• By the 1930s, younger members of the Non-Brahmin Party began aligning with the Congress during its civil disobedience movement.
• Over time, the political influence wielded by the Marathas in rural districts became integrated into the nationalist movement, leading to the Brahmins' estrangement from the Congress party in Maharashtra.
• In the post-Independence period, two events contributed to the 'Maratha-isation' of the Congress party. First, the extension of universal adult franchise provided non-Brahmins and Marathas with a substantial potential mass base. Second, the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi by a Chitpavan Brahmin, Nathuram Godse, triggered resentment and violence against Brahmins in the region.
• In subsequent years, Marathas gained prominence in Maharashtra politics, whether in advocating for statehood or achieving electoral success.
• Since the formation of Maharashtra in 1960, 12 out of its 20 chief ministers, including the current incumbent Eknath Shinde, have been Marathas. According to Hansen, the political success of the Marathas in Maharashtra mirrors that of the non-Brahmin movement in Tamil Nadu or the Yadavs in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, with the distinction that the former has a more prolonged and deeply rooted historical process

6. Way Forward

 

Since the 1980s, when the Mandal commission report was tabled, the Marathas have been agitating for OBC reservation and demanding that they be identified as Kunbis. Over the years, consecutive Maharashtra chief ministers have been unable to satisfy the demands of the community. Hansen explains that the reservation issue is drawn from two sources — the seeming success of the Patels in Gujarat some years back to attain reservation and the fact that Maratha is no longer a unifying label of the same compelling value as it used to have earlier

 

Source: Indianexpress