• Optical fibres, composed of thin cylindrical strands of glass, have transformed the world of communication. With diameters close to that of a human hair, these remarkable fibres carry information, including text, images, voices, videos, telephone calls, and anything that can be encoded into digital data, across vast distances at nearly the speed of light.
• Receiving text messages and making phone calls have become commonplace in our daily lives, often taken for granted. However, optical fibres play a crucial role in enabling these modern communication technologies. By transmitting massive amounts of data at incredible speeds, optical fibres form the backbone of the internet and telecommunications networks that connect us globally.
• Despite their delicate appearance, ultra-thin fibres, when manufactured correctly as long threads encased in protective layers, prove to be remarkably durable. They are strong, lightweight, and flexible, making them ideal for underground burial, underwater deployment, or coiling around spools.
• Nearly 60 years ago, physicist Charles Kao proposed that glass fibres could surpass copper wires as the primary medium for telecommunication. Initially met with scepticism, his prediction has become a reality, earning him a share of the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physics for his groundbreaking contributions to fibre optic communication.

• Light, an electromagnetic wave with a vast spectrum of frequencies, encompasses visible light, X-rays, radio waves, and even thermal radiation (heat).
• We perceive the world around us through sunlight, but it took us centuries to harness and guide light through fibre optic cables, also known as "light pipes," to send encoded signals over long distances.
• When a beam of light encounters a glass surface, it partially passes through while the rest is reflected.
• As the light enters the glass, its path bends due to the difference in the refractive index of air and glass.
• The refractive index is a property of a medium that determines how fast light travels through it.
• Interestingly, when the light beam travels in the reverse direction, from glass to air, it may not escape the glass altogether.
• Instead, it undergoes complete reflection, bouncing back within the glass. This phenomenon, known as total internal reflection, is the key to guiding light across long distances without significant loss of optical power.
• With precise adjustments, the light can be kept bouncing within the glass, with minimal escape to the outside environment.

3.1. The Mechanism of Optical Fiber Communication

Optical fibre communication systems consist of three main components

1. The transmitter encodes information into optical signals, typically in the form of rapidly blinking light pulses representing zeros and ones.
2. The optical fibre acts as the transmission medium, carrying the encoded signal to its destination.
3. The receiver decodes the information from the encoded signal, reproducing the original data.

3.2. Advantages of Optical Fiber Communication

Optical waves offer several advantages over traditional copper-based communication methods:

• Optical fibres can transmit massive amounts of data at incredible speeds, reaching up to several terabits per second in a single fibre.
• Unlike radio or copper-cable-based communication, fibre cables are immune to external electromagnetic interference, such as lightning strikes or bad weather conditions.
• Optical fibres are inherently more secure than electrical cables, as they are less susceptible to eavesdropping or signal tampering.

4. The development of fibre optic cables

• Jean-Daniel Colladon and Jacques Babinet demonstrated that light could be guided through curved glass rods.
• Clarence Hansell and John Logie Baird developed methods for transmitting images through glass fibres, while doctors began using fibre bundles for internal examinations and surgical illuminations.
•  Harold Hopkins and Narinder Singh Kapany successfully transmitted images through a bundle of over 10,000 optical fibres, and Lawrence E. Curtiss developed glass-clad fibres, paving the way for long-distance data transmission. Kapany also coined the term "fibre optics."
• Theodore Maiman's invention of the laser in 1960 boosted optical communication research. However, signal attenuation remained a major challenge, with fibres losing 99% of their power after a few meters.
•  Charles Kao and his colleagues discovered that signal attenuation was primarily caused by impurities in the glass, not light scattering. They proposed using high-purity fused silica to reduce attenuation below 20 decibels per kilometre (dB/km).
• Corning Glass Works successfully produced a cable with an attenuation of 20 dB/km, marking a significant milestone in fibre optic technology.
• Today, optical fibres are manufactured using the fibre-drawing technique, which involves heating a high-purity glass rod and drawing it into a thin, long fibre. The drawn fibre is then coated with a protective layer for enhanced strength and durability.

5. The Future of Fiber Optic Cables

• Fibre optic technology, with its remarkable ability to transmit massive amounts of data at incredible speeds, has revolutionized communication, medicine, laser technology, and sensing. As we look towards the future, the possibilities of fibre optics continue to expand, reaching new horizons in quantum communication and beyond.
• Recognizing the immense potential of fibre optics, the Indian government has taken a proactive approach to foster its development. In the Union Budget of 2020, a national mission titled "National Mission on Quantum Technologies and Applications" was announced, with a proposed budget of Rs 8,000 crore over five years. This mission aims to secure communication networks, promote quantum science, and accelerate the adoption of fibre optic technologies across various sectors.
• Quantum optics, the intersection of quantum mechanics and optics, promises to transform fibre optic communication by enabling secure and encrypted data transmission. By harnessing the principles of quantum entanglement, scientists are developing quantum communication networks that are immune to eavesdropping and hacking.
• Fibre optics is poised to enter our homes, bringing with it a new era of connectivity and convenience. Fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) connections are rapidly expanding, offering ultra-high-speed internet access, seamless video streaming, and enhanced gaming experiences.
• Fibre optic communication, coupled with quantum optics, stands on the cusp of a new era, brimming with untapped potential. As research and development continue, we can anticipate advancements in quantum computing, ultra-secure communication networks, and even teleportation, all powered by the remarkable capabilities of fibre optics.

6. Conclusion

The future of fibre optic cables is bright and expansive. With its ability to deliver secure, high-speed data transmission, fibre optics is poised to revolutionize communication, science, and our everyday lives. As we embrace the possibilities of quantum optics and fibre-to-the-home technologies, we stand at the threshold of a new era of connectivity and innovation. 

GURU NANAK JAYANTI

• Nanak, born on April 15, 1469, into a Hindu family in the present-day city of Nankana Sahib in Pakistan, displayed an early fascination with profound inquiries regarding life's purpose and religious aspects.
• After an early marriage and becoming a parent, he revisited these contemplations. Working as an accountant in Sultanpur for a period, he later partnered with a Muslim minstrel named Mardana, as detailed in Khushwant Singh's book "A History of the Sikhs." Together, they engaged in nightly hymn singing and hospitably fed all visitors.
• Nanak adhered to a routine of bathing in the river before sunrise and attending to his duties in the durbar during the day. He is believed to have journeyed extensively, reaching places like Sri Lanka, Baghdad, and Central Asia to disseminate his teachings.
• His final travels included visits to Mecca and Madina, sacred in Islam, as well as revered sites in other religions—a series of journeys known as 'udaasis.'
• In one such instance, He was staying in a mosque and fell asleep with his feet towards the Kaba (a cube-shaped structure in Mecca that is considered holy). The act was considered of grave disrespect to the House of God
• When the mullah came to say his prayers, he shook Nanak rudely and said: “O servant of God, thou hast thy feet towards Kaba, the house of God; why hast thou done such a thing?” Nanak replied: “Then turn my feet towards some direction where there is no God nor the Kaba.’”
• Singh traces the word ‘Sikhs’, used for Nanak’s followers, to the Sanskrit words ‘sisya’ (meaning disciple) or ‘siksha’ (instruction or education), also found in the Pali language as sikkhii

Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, imparted several fundamental teachings that form the core principles of Sikh philosophy:

Oneness of God: Nanak preached the concept of Ik Onkar, emphasizing the belief in a single, formless, and all-pervasive God. He taught that God exists in everyone and everything.

Equality: He advocated for equality among all human beings, irrespective of caste, creed, gender, or social status. Nanak denounced the caste system and believed in the inherent dignity and equality of all individuals.

Service and Compassion: Nanak emphasized the importance of selfless service (Seva) and compassion towards others. Sikhs are encouraged to engage in acts of kindness and service to humanity.

Honest Livelihood: He promoted the idea of earning an honest living through hard work and integrity. Nanak discouraged exploitation or deceit in earning wealth.

Naam Simran: Nanak stressed the significance of remembering God through meditation and repetition of the divine name (Naam Simran). This practice helps in connecting with the divine and maintaining spiritual consciousness.

Rejecting Rituals: He criticized empty rituals and formalities, instead emphasizing the importance of a sincere and loving relationship with God through devotion and righteous living.

Social Justice: Nanak spoke out against social injustices and advocated for fairness, truthfulness, and standing up against oppression.

Universal Brotherhood: He envisioned a world where people of all backgrounds live harmoniously, respecting diversity while recognizing the unity of all humanity.

4. Guru Nanak Choosing his Disciple

• Nanak spent the last years of his life in Kartarpur and his disciples followed a particular routine under him. They arose before sunrise, bathed in cold water and gathered in the temple to recite the morning prayer and sang hymns.
• Service or sewa was also carried out. It exists to date as a system where people contribute their labour and help the needy through acts such as cooking food for them at the gurudwaras (what is known as ‘langar’).
• People could then attend to their own matters and congregate again in the evenings for hymn-singing. They would dine and pray again, and then leave for their homes
• This was followed in other gurudwaras, too. One such disciple was named Lehna. As the Guru’s sons were not inclined towards spirituality, Nanak chose Lehna as the guru after him, giving him the name Angad (meaning ‘of my own limb’). He also had a sizeable following of his own
• Guru Nanak died on September 22, 1539. A well-known incident from his life is how Hindus and Muslims sought to assert their own rituals

5. All the Gurus of Sikh religion

The Sikh religion, founded by Guru Nanak Dev Ji in the 15th century, spans over a line of ten spiritual leaders known as Gurus. Here is a list of all the Sikh Gurus:

Guru Nanak Dev Ji (1469–1539): The founder of Sikhism and the first of the Sikh Gurus. He preached the oneness of God and emphasized equality, compassion, and service to humanity.

Guru Angad Dev Ji (1504–1552): He succeeded Guru Nanak and further strengthened the Sikh community. Guru Angad Dev Ji introduced the Gurmukhi script and emphasized physical fitness through wrestling and other activities.

Guru Amar Das Ji (1479–1574): He expanded the institution of langar (community kitchen) and emphasized social equality and the role of women in spiritual matters. Guru Amar Das Ji also established Amritsar as a center for Sikhism.

Guru Ram Das Ji (1534–1581): He founded the city of Amritsar and initiated the construction of the Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple). Guru Ram Das Ji also composed hymns that are part of the Guru Granth Sahib.

Guru Arjan Dev Ji (1563–1606): He compiled the Adi Granth, the central religious scripture of Sikhism, and completed the construction of Harmandir Sahib. Guru Arjan Dev Ji was the first Sikh Guru to be martyred, as he refused to compromise Sikh principles.

Guru Hargobind Ji (1595–1644): He militarized the Sikhs to defend against persecution and oppression. Guru Hargobind Ji introduced the concept of Miri-Piri, emphasizing both spiritual and temporal power.

Guru Har Rai Ji (1630–1661): He was known for his compassion and love for nature. Guru Har Rai Ji further strengthened the Sikh community and promoted peaceful coexistence.

Guru Har Krishan Ji (1656–1664): He became the Guru at a very young age and is remembered for his wisdom and healing powers. Guru Har Krishan Ji provided spiritual guidance to the people during a smallpox epidemic.

Guru Tegh Bahadur Ji (1621–1675): He stood against religious persecution and sacrificed his life for the protection of religious freedom, refusing to convert to Islam under the orders of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.

Guru Gobind Singh Ji (1666–1708): He established the Khalsa, a community of initiated Sikhs, and initiated the practice of the Five Ks. Guru Gobind Singh Ji also declared the Guru Granth Sahib as the eternal Guru of the Sikhs before his passing.

 

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. With regard to Guru Nanak which of the following statements is NOT correct? (UGC NET 2019) When Nanak was sixteen, his parents arranged his marriage, later he became a merchant and a farmer B.Bhai Mardana joined Guru Nanak and they became lifelong friends. C. He travelled from Panipat to Assam, visiting Hindu and Sufi pilgrim countries. D.He went to Sri Lanka, but could not go to Kashmir despite his strong desire to go there. Answer (A)

 

Source: indianexpress

DOLLARISATION

 

 

1. Context

Javier Milei, the recent winner of Argentina’s presidential election, has drawn attention for his unconventional and worrying views, such as his opposition to abortion and his ambivalent attitude towards the torture and undemocratic excesses of Argentina’s military government.

The self-confessed “anarcho-capitalist” pledged in his campaign to replace Argentina’s currency the peso with the dollar, to eliminate the Central Bank and to slash government

spending.

2. What is Dollarisation?

• Dollarization refers to the adoption of the United States dollar (USD) as the official currency or as a widely used medium of exchange in a country that typically has its own national currency. In dollarized economies, the local currency might still exist, but the US dollar is commonly used for transactions, savings, and as a unit of account
• Dollarization offers a potential remedy for hyperinflation by severing the connection between escalating prices and an expanding money supply.
• By substituting domestic currency with the US dollar, advocates argue that it becomes harder for political entities to manipulate money supply for their own agenda.
• This shift could temper the continual surge in prices as accessing currency becomes more challenging, curbing consumer demand.
• Additionally, dollarization can yield positive impacts on economic growth. In smaller economies, access to dollars primarily occurs through foreign trade or capital influxes, encouraging a focus on boosting exports and creating friendlier conditions for foreign investment.
• This stability in the dollar's value enables both local and foreign economic players to devise long-term strategies for economic activities, which would otherwise be impractical with a rapidly depreciating currency

3. Impacts of Dollarisation on the Economy

• It can bring stability to an economy facing high inflation or currency volatility by introducing a more stable currency. This stability can attract foreign investment and potentially reduce borrowing costs.
• Adopting the US dollar means relinquishing control over monetary policy. The country loses the ability to adjust interest rates or influence the money supply, which can limit its flexibility in responding to economic challenges.
• The government loses the ability to earn seigniorage (profits from issuing currency) when using a foreign currency like the dollar. This could impact government revenue.
• Dollarization allows for better long-term economic planning due to the stability of the dollar. Businesses and individuals can make more reliable forecasts and investments
• The economy becomes highly dependent on the US economy and its monetary policy. Economic shocks or policy changes in the US can significantly affect the dollarized country
• Dollarization can lead to income distribution issues. Those with USD-denominated income or savings might benefit, while others relying on local currency might face challenges if the local currency depreciates against the dollar
• Dollarization can potentially simplify international trade and investment, as the dollar is widely accepted globally. However, it might also affect the competitiveness of exports due to changes in exchange rates
• Dollarization can create challenges for financial inclusion, as some segments of the population might find it harder to access or utilize a foreign currency
• There are some potential problems. The adoption of dollars as a currency implies that economies lose an important source of policy leverage, with monetary policy now unable to control money supply.
• On the foreign trade front, countries would no longer be able to take recourse to depreciation to boost exports, focusing only on export promotion to stave off downturns.
• Some proponents of dollarisation see this as a positive outcome, since it would ensure the government resorts to productivity-boosting methods to combat recessions, instead of changing exchange rates

4. Examples of Dollarisation in Economies

Some prominent cases include:

Ecuador: One of the most notable examples of dollarization. In 2000, Ecuador officially adopted the US dollar as its official currency after a severe financial crisis. The switch to the dollar helped stabilize the economy, brought down inflation, and restored confidence in the monetary system.

Zimbabwe: During a period of hyperinflation, Zimbabweans started using foreign currencies, especially the US dollar, due to the collapse of their own currency. While not an official dollarization, the USD became the de facto currency for everyday transactions.

El Salvador: In 2001, El Salvador replaced its national currency with the US dollar to stabilize its economy and attract foreign investment. This move was accompanied by various challenges and adjustments.

Panama: Though not technically dollarized, Panama uses the US dollar alongside its national currency, the Balboa, which is pegged at a 1:1 exchange rate with the US dollar. This system has contributed to stability in the country's economy.

Montenegro and Kosovo: Both countries unilaterally adopted the euro as their official currency without being part of the Eurozone. While not using the dollar, they illustrate a similar process of adopting a foreign currency as a means of stabilizing their economies.

5. Way forward

Dollarisation, therefore, is not a silver bullet, but if used well in conjunction with nimble domestic policy, can offer a route to success. But with a president-elect who brandishes a chainsaw to indicate his desire to slash government spending, and who has asserted that he will abolish the Central Bank, policy in Argentina might find its sphere reduced under the Milei administration. The world awaits the results of yet another macroeconomic gamble played out on the backs of a suffering populace

 

 

Source: The Hindu

CULTURAL PROPERTY AGREEMENT

1. Context

India is close to signing an agreement with the United States under which the process for the return of stolen antiquities will be hugely simplified.

2. What is Cultural Property?

Cultural property refers to tangible and intangible expressions of a society's cultural heritage. It encompasses a wide range of objects, including archaeological artefacts, works of art, monuments, historical sites, manuscripts, books, traditional crafts, and oral traditions. Cultural property is considered a valuable asset that reflects the unique identity and history of a community or nation.

Types of Cultural Property

1. Tangible Cultural Property includes physical objects that can be seen and touched, such as archaeological artefacts, works of art, monuments, historical sites, and manuscripts. These objects are often housed in museums, libraries, and archives.
2. Intangible Cultural Property encompasses non-physical expressions of culture, such as traditional music, dance, theatre, oral traditions, rituals, and knowledge systems. Intangible cultural property is often passed down through generations and is essential for maintaining a community's cultural identity.

3. About the Cultural Property Agreement

The Cultural Property Agreement (CPA) between India and the United States aims to safeguard cultural heritage and combat the illicit trafficking of art objects. 

• Once the CPA is finalized, the US will automatically repatriate any cultural objects identified as belonging to India, eliminating the need for India to provide additional proof of ownership.
• The CPA imposes import restrictions to prevent looted and stolen cultural property from entering the US. This helps to protect India's cultural heritage from illegal trade and ensures that these objects remain in the country to which they belong.
• The CPA encourages the legal sharing of cultural objects for scientific, cultural, and educational purposes. This facilitates collaboration between experts and institutions in both countries, promoting knowledge exchange and cultural understanding.
• Under the agreement, the US will intercept smuggled cultural objects at the border and return them expeditiously to India. This swift action helps to prevent the illegal circulation of these objects and ensures their return to their rightful place.
• The CPA fosters cooperation between the US and India in combating the illicit trafficking of art objects. This collaboration helps to protect cultural heritage globally and promotes responsible practices in the art market.

4. About an antiquity and its Provenance

• Antiquity is any object that is at least 100 years old and has archaeological, historical, literary, artistic, or scientific value.
• It can be a coin, sculpture, painting, epigraph, or other work of art or craftsmanship.
• It can also be an article, object, or thing detached from a building or cave, or any article, object, or thing illustrative of science, art, crafts, literature, religion, customs, morals, or politics in bygone ages.
• Provenance includes the list of all owners from the time the object left its maker’s possession to the time it was acquired by the current owner.
• It establishes the object's origin, authenticity, and any significant changes it has undergone over time.
• A well-documented provenance enhances the value and credibility of antiquity, demonstrating its legitimacy and providing insights into its historical context.
• The UNESCO 1970 declaration states that “The requesting Party shall furnish, at its expense, the documentation and other evidence necessary to establish its claim for recovery and return.”
• The first thing to prove the ownership is the complaint (FIR) filed with the police.
• In India, the problem with missing antiquities is that in many cases, there is no FIR. But other proof, like details mentioned by reputed scholars in research papers etc., also work.

5. International conventions

• The UNESCO 1970 Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property defines “cultural property” as the property designated by countries having “importance for archaeology, prehistory, history, literature, art or science.”
• The Declaration further states that “the illicit import, export and transfer of ownership of cultural property is one of the main causes of the impoverishment of the cultural heritage of the countries of origin of such property and that international co-operation constitutes one of the most efficient means of protecting each country’s cultural property.”

6. Indian laws 

• Item 67 of the Union List, Item 12 of the State List, and Item 40 of the Concurrent List of the Constitution deal with the country’s heritage.
• In India, The Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972 (AATA), implemented on April 1, 1976, deals with antiquities and art treasures.
• The AATA states that it is not lawful for any person to export any antiquity or art treasure without a license from the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
• Under section 14(3) of the AATA, “Every person who owns, controls or is in possession of any antiquity” shall register such antiquity before the registering officer “and obtain a certificate in token of such registration.”

7. Can India bring back antiquities?

• There are three categories to take note of: antiquities taken out of India pre-independence; those which were taken out since independence until March 1976, i.e. before the implementation of AATA; and antiquities taken out of the country since April 1976.
• For items in the first two categories, requests have to be raised bilaterally or on international fora.
• For instance, the Maharashtra government on November 10, 2022, announced it was working to bring back the sword of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj from London.
• This sword was given to Edward, the Prince of Wales (the later King Edward VII) by Shivaji IV in 1875-76.
• Several antiquities, from Vagdevi of Dhar (MP) to the Kohinoor diamond, to Amaravati marbles to the Sultanganj Buddha to antiquities related to Rani Laxmibai and Tipu Sultan, are currently abroad.
• Antiquities in the second and third categories can be retrieved easily by raising an issue bilaterally with proof of ownership and with the help of the UNESCO convention.
• The conviction of Subhash Kapoor has further given a chance to India to bring back smuggled antiquities.

8. The WayForward

The ongoing initiatives, coupled with the potential agreement with the United States, present a promising landscape for safeguarding India's cultural heritage. It necessitates continued vigilance, legal reforms, and international cooperation to ensure the return of antiquities and the perpetuation of India's rich cultural tapestry for generations to come.

 

For Prelims: Cultural Property Agreement, UNESCO,  India and the United States, Antiquity, Union List, State List, Concurrent List, The Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, Archaeological Survey of India For Mains:  1. Discuss the potential for strengthening international cooperation to combat the illicit trafficking of art objects and ensure the return of stolen cultural property to its rightful owners. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions 1. Recently, which one of the following was included in the UNESCO’s World Heritage list? (UPSC 2009) (a) Dilwara Temple (b) Kalka-Shimla Railway (c) Bhiterkanika Mangrove Area (d) Visakhapatnam to Araku valley railway line 2. UNESCO stands for _______. (MP Police SI 2016)  A. United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation B. United National Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation C. United Nations Educational Scientific and Commercial Organisation D. United Nations Economic Scientific and Cultural Organisation     3. Khajuraho, 'the City of the Gods' a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the name of which was first referred in the 11th century CE by (WBCS Prelims 2021) A. Ibn Battuta B. Ibn Sina C. Abu Rihan Alberuni D. Omar Khayyam     4. With reference to Indian history, who among the following is a future Buddha, yet to come to save the world? (UPSC 2018) A. Avalokiteshvara      B. Lokesvara       C. Maitreya      D.  Padmapani     5. The UNESCO World Heritage Site, “MahabodhiVihar” is situated in which Indian state? (SSC MTS 2017) A. Madhya Pradesh        B.  Himachal Pradesh           C. Bihar         D. Maharashtra     6. One of the heritage sites according to UNESCO is the_____.  (MP Police Constable 2017)  A. Kesavnath Temple at Ujjain        B. Bhojapur C. Jahaz Mahal at Mandu D. Khajuraho Monuments     7. Which one among these sites of Madhya Pradesh is NOT declared as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO? (MP Vyapam Sub-Engineer Electrical 2016) A. Chanderi, Ashoknagar                  B. Khajuraho Group of Monuments C. Buddhist Monuments, Sanchi       D. Rock Shelters, Bhimbetka     8. The Parliament of India acquires the power to legislate on any item in the State List in the national interest if a resolution to that effect is passed by the (a) Lok Sabha by a simple majority of its total membership (b) Lok Sabha by a majority of not less than two-thirds of its total membership (c) Rajya Sabha by a simple majority of its total membership (d) Rajya Sabha by a majority of not less than two-thirds of its members present and voting   9. As per Section 2 of the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972, 'Antiquities' include 'any manuscript, record or another document which is scientific, historical, literary or aesthetic value and which has been in existence for not less than _______ years'. (SSC MTS 2021) A. 125        B. 150         C. 50          D. 75 Answers:1-B, 2-A, 3-C, 4-C, 5-C, 6-D, 7-A, 8-D, 9-D Mains 1. Safeguarding the Indian Art Heritage is the need of the moment. Discuss. (UPSC 2018) 2. Indian Philosophy and tradition played a significant role in conceiving and shaping the monuments and their art in India. Discuss. (UPSC 2020)

 Source: The Indian Express