THREE LANGUAGE POLICY
- The NEP 2020 continues with the three-language formula, originally introduced in the 1968 NEP. However, a key distinction is that while the earlier policy mandated Hindi as a compulsory language nationwide, NEP 2020 adopts a more flexible approach.
- Under the 1968 policy, Hindi-speaking states were required to teach Hindi, English, and a modern Indian language—preferably one from southern India—whereas non-Hindi-speaking states had to include their regional language, Hindi, and English in their curriculum.
- In contrast, the NEP 2020 does not impose any particular language on states. Instead, it allows states, regions, and students to choose their three languages, provided that at least two of them are Indian languages.
- This implies that while students must learn their state’s language, the additional Indian language does not have to be Hindi. The policy also highlights the importance of bilingual education, particularly in the home language or mother tongue alongside English.
- Additionally, Sanskrit is given notable emphasis as an optional choice within the three-language framework
The Three-Language Formula is an educational policy in India designed to promote multilingualism and linguistic harmony in a country with immense linguistic diversity. It was first proposed by the Kothari Commission in 1968 and has since been adopted by many states, with variations based on regional needs. The formula aims to balance the learning of regional, national, and international languages to foster unity, cultural preservation, and global competitiveness.
Key Objectives of the Three-Language Formula:
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Promote National Integration:
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By encouraging the study of Hindi (the official language of the Union) and English (an associate official language), the formula seeks to bridge communication gaps between states and promote national unity.
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It also respects regional languages, ensuring that local cultures and identities are preserved.
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Preserve Linguistic Diversity:
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India is home to hundreds of languages and dialects. The formula ensures that students learn their mother tongue or regional language, helping to sustain linguistic heritage.
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Enhance Global Competence:
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The inclusion of English, a global lingua franca, prepares students for higher education and professional opportunities in an increasingly interconnected world.
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Facilitate Communication:
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The formula aims to equip students with proficiency in multiple languages, enabling them to communicate effectively across different regions and cultures within India.
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Structure of the Three-Language Formula:
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First Language: The mother tongue or regional language of the state.
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Second Language: Hindi (in non-Hindi-speaking states) or another Indian language (in Hindi-speaking states).
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Third Language: English or a modern Indian language (depending on the state's policy)
- Tamil Nadu has historically opposed the imposition of Hindi. In 1937, when the C. Rajagopalachari-led government in Madras sought to make Hindi a compulsory subject in secondary schools, the Justice Party strongly resisted the move.
- During the protests, two young activists, Thalamuthu and Natarajan, lost their lives and became symbols of the anti-Hindi movement. Following widespread opposition, Rajaji resigned, and the British administration repealed the order.
- In 1965, as the deadline for making Hindi the sole official language of India approached, large-scale protests erupted in Tamil Nadu, resulting in the deaths of at least 70 people due to police action or self-immolation.
- The issue resurfaced when Parliament passed the Official Languages (Amendment) Act, 1967, and the Official Language Resolution, 1968, which mandated Hindi instruction under the three-language formula.
- In response, the C.N. Annadurai-led DMK government passed a resolution in January 1968, advocating for the abolition of the three-language policy and the removal of Hindi from Tamil Nadu's school curriculum.
- Since then, the state has consistently adhered to a two-language system, offering instruction only in Tamil and English. Both the ruling DMK and the opposition AIADMK have steadfastly resisted any attempts to modify this approach. In 2019, widespread opposition led the Kasturirangan Committee to drop the mandatory Hindi clause from the draft National Education Policy (NEP
- Political parties and activists in Tamil Nadu perceive the three-language policy as a covert attempt to introduce Hindi under the guise of linguistic diversity. They argue that, in reality, implementing this policy would inevitably result in Hindi being taught, as there are limited resources available for recruiting teachers and developing learning materials for other languages.
- Additionally, the Union Government and key BJP leaders have consistently advocated for the expansion of Hindi. In 2019, the Union Budget allocated ₹50 crore for hiring Hindi teachers in non-Hindi-speaking states.
- Critics argue that the Centre’s actions contradict its stated commitment to promoting regional languages, pointing to the insufficient recruitment of regional language teachers in Kendriya Vidyalayas and the lack of efforts to introduce South Indian languages in schools north of the Vindhyas
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For Prelims: NEP 2020, National Curriculum Framework, Sustainable Development Goals, University Grants Commission, Kothari Commission, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan,
For Mains:
1. Discuss the key provisions and objectives of the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020. How does it aim to transform the Indian education system, and what are its implications for inclusive development? (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2018)
1. As per the Right to Education (RTE) Act, to be eligible for appointment as a teacher in a State, a person would be required to possess the minimum qualification laid down by the State Council of Teacher Education concerned.
2. As per the RTE Act, for teaching primary classes, a candidate is required to pass a Teacher Eligibility Test conducted in accordance with the National Council of Teacher Education guidelines.
3. In India, more than 90% of teacher education institutions are directly under the State Governments.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 (d) 3 only
Answer: B
2. Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2016)
1. The Sustainable Development Goals were first proposed in 1972 by a global think tank called the 'Club of Rome'.
2. The Sustainable Development Goals have to be achieved by 2030.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A.1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: B
3. The objective(s) of Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyaan is/are: (UKSSSC Forest Guard 2021)
A. To provide quality based education to all children from 14 to 18 years
B. Universal standstill till the year 2020
C. To provide residential school for the students of remote areas
D. All of the above
Answer: D
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LINE OF ACTUAL CONTROL (LAC)
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The eastern sector which spans Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim,
The middle sector in Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh, and the western sector in Ladakh
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- The alignment of the LAC in the eastern sector is along the 1914 McMahon Line, and there are minor disputes about the positions on the ground as per the principle of the high Himalayan watershed
- This pertains to India’s international boundary as well, but for certain areas such as Longju and Asaphila
- The line in the middle sector is the least controversial but for the precise alignment to be followed in the Barahoti plains.
- The major disagreements are in the western sector where the LAC emerged from two letters written by Chinese Prime Minister Zhou Enlai to PM Jawaharlal Nehru in 1959, after he had first mentioned such a ‘line’ in 1956.
- In his letter, Zhou said the LAC consisted of “the so-called McMahon Line in the east and the line up to which each side exercises actual control in the west”
- After the 1962 War, the Chinese claimed they had withdrawn to 20 km behind the LAC of November 1959
- During the Doklam crisis in 2017, the Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesperson urged India to abide by the “1959 LAC”
- India rejected the concept of LAC in both 1959 and 1962. Even during the war, Nehru was unequivocal: “There is no sense or meaning in the Chinese offer to withdraw twenty kilometres from what they call ‘line of actual control’
- LAC was discussed during Chinese Premier Li Peng’s 1991 visit to India, where PM P V Narasimha Rao and Li reached an understanding to maintain peace and tranquillity at the LAC.
- India formally accepted the concept of the LAC when Rao paid a return visit to Beijing in 1993 and the two sides signed the Agreement to Maintain Peace and Tranquillity at the LAC
- The reference to the LAC was unqualified to make it clear that it was not referring to the LAC of 1959 or 1962 but to the LAC at the time when the agreement was signed
- To reconcile the differences about some areas, the two countries agreed that the Joint Working Group on the border issue would take up the task of clarifying the alignment of the LAC
The LoC emerged from the 1948 ceasefire line negotiated by the UN after the Kashmir War. It was designated as the LoC in 1972, following the Shimla Agreement between the two countries. It is delineated on a map signed by DGMOs of both armies and has the international sanctity of a legal agreement.
The LAC, in contrast, is only a concept – it is not agreed upon by the two countries, neither delineated on a map or demarcated on the ground.
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For Prelims: LAC, LOC For Mains: 1.What is this ‘line of control’? Is this the line China have created by aggression. Comment 2.What we know about the clash between Indian and Chinese soldiers in Arunachal Pradesh |
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Previous Year Questions 1.The Line of Actual Control (LAC) separates (Karnataka Civil Police Constable 2020) A.India and Pakistan B.India and Afghanistan C.India and Nepal D.India and China Answer (D) 2.LAC (Line of Actual Control) is an effective border between India and ______. (SSC CHSL 2020) A.Pakistan B.Bhutan C.Sri Lanka D.China Answer (D) |
SOUTHWEST MONSOON
- The southwest monsoon is a seasonal weather pattern that brings significant rainfall to large parts of South Asia, particularly India, between June and September
- The southwest monsoon typically begins in early June and lasts until late September. It starts with the arrival of the monsoon winds in the southern part of India, usually marked by the onset over the state of Kerala
- The southwest monsoon brings about 70-90% of India’s annual rainfall. The distribution of rainfall varies, with some regions receiving heavy rains, while others may experience scanty showers.
- The Western Ghats, the northeastern states, and the Himalayan foothills typically receive very heavy rainfall.
- The monsoon is critical for the Kharif crop season in India, which includes crops like rice, maize, pulses, and cotton. Adequate and timely monsoon rains are essential for a good harvest
- The monsoon starts retreating from northwestern India in early September and completely withdraws from the Indian subcontinent by mid-October. This phase is also known as the retreating or northeast monsoon
Mechanism:
- High-Pressure Area: During the summer, intense heating of the landmass in the Indian subcontinent creates a low-pressure area over northern India and the Tibetan Plateau.
- Low-Pressure Area: The Indian Ocean remains relatively cooler, creating a high-pressure area.
- Wind Movement: Air moves from the high-pressure area over the ocean to the low-pressure area over the land, carrying moisture from the ocean and resulting in rainfall.
- Easterly and westerly winds refer to the direction from which the winds originate
- Easterly winds are winds that blow from the east towards the west
- Easterly winds can affect weather patterns, including the development of tropical storms and cyclones. For instance, easterly waves in the tropics can lead to the formation of tropical cyclones in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
Characteristics:
- Trade Winds: One of the most well-known examples of easterly winds are the trade winds. These winds blow from the east towards the west in the tropics, from the subtropical high-pressure areas toward the equatorial low-pressure areas.
- Tropical Regions: In the tropical regions, particularly between 30 degrees north and south of the equator, easterly winds are prevalent. These are crucial for the weather patterns and climatic conditions in these regions.
- Monsoon Winds: During certain seasons, such as the northeast monsoon in India, easterly winds play a significant role. These winds bring dry air from the land towards the ocean during the winter months.
- Westerly winds are winds that blow from the west towards the east
- Westerly winds play a significant role in the weather of temperate regions, influencing the climate and the movement of storm systems.
- They are also responsible for carrying warm and moist air from the oceans inland, affecting precipitation patterns in coastal and inland regions.
- The westerlies can affect transoceanic travel and weather prediction due to their influence on the movement of high and low-pressure systems
Characteristics:
- Prevailing Westerlies: These winds are predominant in the mid-latitudes (between 30 and 60 degrees north and south of the equator). They blow from the subtropical high-pressure belts towards the poles.
- Jet Streams: High-altitude westerly winds known as jet streams are important in influencing weather patterns and the movement of weather systems across the globe. They are fast flowing and occur in the upper levels of the atmosphere.
- Polar Front: In the mid-latitudes, the westerlies interact with polar easterlies near the polar front, leading to the development of extratropical cyclones and storms
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Monsoons in India occur due to seasonal changes in wind patterns and temperature differences between land and sea.
Here's a concise explanation of the process:
- Differential heating: During summer, the Indian landmass heats up more quickly than the surrounding Indian Ocean.
- Low pressure system: The heated land creates a low-pressure area over the Indian subcontinent.
- Wind direction shift: This low pressure draws in moisture-laden winds from the cooler Indian Ocean towards the land.
- Orographic lift: As these winds encounter geographical features like the Western Ghats or the Himalayas, they are forced to rise.
- Condensation and precipitation: The rising air cools, causing water vapor to condense and form clouds, leading to heavy rainfall.
- Duration: This pattern typically lasts from June to September, bringing the majority of India's annual rainfall.
- The primary driver is the temperature difference between the land and the surrounding sea. During summer, the land heats up faster than the ocean, creating a low-pressure area over the land and a high-pressure area over the ocean. This pressure difference leads to the movement of moist air from the ocean to the land
- Warm sea surface temperatures are crucial as they increase the evaporation rate, contributing to the formation of moist air masses that drive the monsoon rains.
- The monsoon winds, which are part of the larger atmospheric circulation, shift according to the seasonal temperature differences. The southwest monsoon, for instance, is driven by the southwest winds that carry moisture from the Indian Ocean to the Indian subcontinent.
- The geographical features, such as mountain ranges, play a significant role. For example, the Western Ghats in India force moist air to rise, cool, and condense, leading to heavy rainfall on the windward side
- The movement and strength of the high-pressure systems over the oceans and low-pressure systems over the land influence the intensity and timing of the monsoon.
- Phenomena such as El Niño and La Niña can affect the strength and timing of the monsoon. For example, El Niño can lead to weaker monsoons due to altered wind patterns and sea surface temperatures
- El Niño is generally associated with a weaker Indian monsoon. The warming of the central and eastern Pacific Ocean during El Niño tends to disrupt the normal atmospheric circulation patterns, leading to reduced rainfall over the Indian subcontinent.
- The onset of the monsoon can be delayed, and the overall intensity of the rainfall during the monsoon season might be lower than usual
- El Niño often brings drier conditions to Southeast Asia and northern Australia, leading to droughts and reduced rainfall
- Eastern and southern Africa may experience drier conditions as well
- La Niña, characterized by cooler-than-average sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific Ocean, is typically associated with a stronger Indian monsoon. It often leads to increased rainfall over the Indian subcontinent
- The enhanced monsoon can lead to heavier rains and potentially more frequent and intense flooding
- La Niña tends to bring wetter conditions to Southeast Asia and northern Australia, potentially causing heavy rains and flooding
- La Niña can lead to wetter conditions in parts of northern South America
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For Prelims: Indian and World Geography
For Mains: GS-I, GS-III: Important Geophysical phenomena and environment
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Previous Year Questions
1.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2012)
1. The duration of the monsoon decreases from southern India to northern India.
2. The amount of annual rainfall in the northern plains of India decreases from east to west.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 Only
B. 2 Only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor
Answer (C)
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PREAMBLE
- The Preamble originally adopted on November 26, 1949, proclaimed India as a sovereign, democratic, republic. The framers of the Constitution deliberately excluded the term ‘socialist,’ believing that embedding a specific economic ideology in the Preamble was inappropriate. They felt it was better for future generations to determine the economic framework best suited to their times and circumstances.
- Indian secularism, meanwhile, differs significantly from its Western counterpart. In Western secularism, there is a strict separation between state and religion, with the government refraining from interference in religious matters.
- Conversely, Indian secularism allows the state to regulate the economic, financial, political, and non-religious aspects of religious practices.
- It also empowers the state to implement social welfare measures and reforms within religious traditions.
- The Constitution upholds secular principles through provisions guaranteeing the right to freely practice any religion and prohibiting discrimination based on religion in state affairs. Consequently, the Constituent Assembly chose not to include the term ‘secular’ in the Preamble initially.
- In the Berubari case (1960), the Supreme Court ruled that the Preamble was not part of the Constitution and held no substantive legal authority.
- However, in the landmark Kesavananda Bharati case (1973), the Court overturned this view, affirming that the Preamble is indeed part of the Constitution and must be interpreted in line with its vision.
- Additionally, it held that the Preamble, like any constitutional provision, could be amended by Parliament. This led to the inclusion of the words ‘Socialist,’ ‘Secular,’ and ‘Integrity’ in the Preamble through the 42nd Constitutional Amendment in 1976
- The Preamble declares that the authority of the Constitution is derived from the people of India, emphasizing the principle of popular sovereignty
- It describes India as a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, and Democratic Republic, defining its essential characteristics:
- Sovereign: India is independent and free to make its own decisions without external interference.
- Socialist: Aimed at achieving social and economic equality.
- Secular: The state treats all religions equally and upholds religious freedom.
- Democratic: Power rests with the people, exercised through a system of representation.
- Republic: The head of state is elected, not hereditary
- The Preamble sets out the goals to be achieved by the Constitution:
- Justice: Social, economic, and political.
- Liberty: Of thought, expression, belief, faith, and worship.
- Equality: Of status and opportunity.
- Fraternity: Promoting the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the nation.
- The Preamble is an integral part of the Constitution, as held by the Supreme Court in the Kesavananda Bharati case (1973). It can be amended but is subject to the basic structure doctrine, ensuring that its fundamental principles remain intact
- The Preamble acts as a prelude, encapsulating the fundamental values and guiding principles of the Constitution. It reflects the vision and aspirations of the people of India
- The Preamble was adopted on November 26, 1949, along with the rest of the Constitution, but came into effect on January 26, 1950
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Text of Preamble
WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, JUSTICE, social, economic and political; FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation; IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, |
- The Preamble of the Indian Constitution reflects the core philosophy and foundational principles upon which the Constitution is built, offering a concise overview of its essence.
- As the heart and essence of the Constitution, it acts as a guiding framework for interpreting and implementing its various provisions.
- It serves as a beacon for governance, providing moral direction to policymakers and legislators by emphasizing the overarching objectives of justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity that should guide their actions and decisions.
- The Preamble also celebrates India's unity in diversity, acknowledging the rich plurality of its people, encompassing varied languages, cultures, religions, and traditions.
- Furthermore, it inspires citizens by highlighting their rights, duties, and responsibilities toward the nation. It fosters a sense of patriotism, civic responsibility, and dedication to the ideals of justice, equality, and fraternity among all individuals
Berubari Union Case (1960)
- Context: The question was whether the Preamble is a part of the Constitution and can be used as a source of power for the government.
- Judgment: The Supreme Court held that the Preamble is not a part of the Constitution and does not confer any substantive power. It was viewed only as a guiding principle for the Constitution's provisions.
- Significance: This case initially limited the scope of the Preamble’s role in interpreting the Constitution.
Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973)
- Context: The case challenged Parliament's power to amend the Constitution, including the Preamble.
- Judgment: The Supreme Court reversed its earlier opinion, ruling that the Preamble is an integral part of the Constitution and can be used to interpret its provisions. However, it does not confer any enforceable rights.
- Significance: The Court introduced the basic structure doctrine, stating that Parliament can amend the Constitution, but the basic structure, as reflected in the Preamble, cannot be altered
Minerva Mills Case (1980)
- Context: The case dealt with the scope of Parliament's power to amend the Constitution under Article 368.
- Judgment: The Supreme Court reaffirmed the basic structure doctrine and emphasized the Preamble’s significance. It ruled that the harmony between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles, as envisioned in the Preamble, is a part of the Constitution's basic structure.
- Significance: This case highlighted the importance of the Preamble as a guiding light for achieving justice, liberty, and equality.
SR Bommai Case (1994)
- Context: The case dealt with the dismissal of state governments under Article 356 and the secular nature of the Constitution.
- Judgment: The Supreme Court ruled that secularism, as mentioned in the Preamble, is part of the Constitution's basic structure. Any state action violating secular principles would be unconstitutional.
- Significance: It underscored the Preamble’s role in ensuring adherence to fundamental constitutional values, especially secularism
Union of India v. Naveen Jindal (2004)
- Context: The case addressed the fundamental right to fly the national flag.
- Judgment: The Supreme Court held that the Preamble symbolizes the aspirations of the people and can be referred to when interpreting constitutional rights.
- Significance: The Preamble was used to reinforce the idea of patriotism and unity, as reflected in the Constitution
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For Prelims: Constitutional amendment, Simple Majority, Special Majority, Constitutional Conventions, Anti-defection law, National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC), Reservation for Economically Weaker Sections (EWSs), Goods and Services Tax (GST).
For Mains: 1. Discuss the significance and challenges associated with the process of amending the Constitution of India. (250 Words).
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Previous year Question1. Consider the following statements (2013) 1. An amendment to the Constitution of India can be initiated by an introduction of a bill in the Lok Sabha only.
2. If such an amendment seeks to make changes in the federal character of the Constitution, the amendment also requires to be ratified by the legislature of all the States of India.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: d 2. The Parliament of India acquires the power to legislate on any item in the State List in the national interest if a resolution to that effect is passed by the (UPSC 2016) A. Lok Sabha by a simple majority of its total membership B. Lok Sabha by a majority of not less than two-thirds of its total membership C. Rajya Sabha by a simple majority of its total membership D. Rajya Sabha by a simple majority of not less than two-thirds of its members present and voting Answer: D |
ELECTION COMMISSION OF INDIA (ECI)
- The Election Commission of India (ECI) is a permanent and independent constitutional body tasked with ensuring the conduct of free and fair elections across the Union and States of India.
- The ECI has the authority to supervise, direct, and manage elections to the Parliament, state legislatures, and the offices of the President and Vice President of India. However, since the ECI does not manage elections for state-level urban bodies such as municipalities and panchayats, a separate State Election Commission exists for this purpose.
- Notably, based on Dr. B. R. Ambedkar's guidance at the Constituent Assembly, a committee tasked with addressing Fundamental Rights suggested that the independence of elections and the protection from executive interference in legislative elections should be considered a fundamental right and included in the chapter on Fundamental Rights.
- While the idea was generally accepted, some members proposed that it be placed in a different section of the Constitution. Consequently, the Drafting Committee, following the House's decision, moved this provision from the Fundamental Rights chapter to another part of the Constitution
The Constitution includes a series of articles (Articles 324–329) that grant powers to the Election Commission and outline its possible roles and responsibilities.
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Article 324: Grants the authority for overseeing, directing, and controlling the preparation of electoral rolls and the conduct of all elections to Parliament, state legislatures, and the offices of the President and Vice-President.
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Article 325: Prohibits exclusion from electoral rolls based on religion, race, caste, sex, or any of these factors.
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Article 326: Establishes adult suffrage as the foundation for elections to the House of the People and State Legislative Assemblies.
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Article 327: Allows Parliament to pass laws, in accordance with the Constitution, regarding all matters related to elections to Parliament and State Legislative Assemblies.
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Article 328: Empowers state legislatures to enact laws concerning all matters related to elections to the state's legislative bodies.
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Article 329: Prevents courts from interfering in electoral matters
The responsibilities and functions of the Election Commission of India (ECI) can be categorized into advisory, quasi-judicial, and administrative roles.
- Advisory: The Constitution grants the ECI the authority to advise on the post-election disqualification of sitting members of Parliament and State Legislatures. The ECI is also consulted in cases where individuals are found guilty of corrupt practices during elections, as brought before the Supreme Court and High Courts, to decide if they should be disqualified from contesting future elections and for how long. In such matters, the President or, where applicable, the Governor, is required to follow the ECI's advice.
- Quasi-Judicial: The ECI has the power to disqualify a candidate who fails to submit their election expense accounts within the legally required timeframe and format. It also has the authority to remove or reduce other legal disqualifications. Additionally, the ECI resolves disputes related to the recognition of political parties and the allocation of election symbols. The commission sets a model code of conduct and ensures compliance by all candidates and political parties during elections.
- Administrative: The ECI's administrative duties include delimiting electoral constituencies and managing the registration of eligible voters, as well as regularly updating electoral rolls. The commission is responsible for announcing election schedules and dates, reviewing nomination documents, recognizing political parties, and assigning them election symbols. The ECI can also nullify voting in cases of violence, booth capturing, tampering, or other irregularities. It oversees the financial expenditure of political parties on candidates' campaigns impartially.
The ECI also designates specific roles to register political parties for elections and grants them the status of national or state parties based on their performance in the polls. These roles include the person in charge of elections, the District Election Officer, and the Election Registration and Returning Officer
5. Composition of Election Commission of India
- Since its inception in 1950, the Chief Electoral Commissioner (CEC) was the sole member of the Election Commission of India (ECI). However, after the voting age was lowered from 21 to 18 in 1989, a large influx of new voters was added. To manage this increased workload, two additional commissioners were appointed, expanding the ECI to include three commissioners.
- In January 1990, some changes were made to the structure of the ECI, but it was soon reverted to its original form. Following discussions and debates in the political sphere, the President ultimately reconstituted the commission in 1993, adding two more commissioners, establishing the current structure of the ECI.
- The Chief Election Commissioner and the other election commissioners are appointed by the President, who also determines their terms of office and service conditions. All commissioners, including the CEC, receive the same salary, benefits, and powers as judges of the Supreme Court.
- If there is a disagreement among the three members, decisions are made by a majority vote. Commissioners serve a term of up to six years or until they reach the age of 65, whichever comes first. They hold a status equivalent to that of Supreme Court justices in India.
- The Chief Election Commissioner can only be removed from office through the same process used to remove a Supreme Court judge. This involves the President dismissing the CEC based on a resolution supported by a special majority in both Houses of Parliament, on grounds of proven misconduct or incapacity.
- In conclusion, as outlined by the Constitution, the ECI is responsible for supervising, directing, and conducting elections for the offices of President, Vice President, state legislatures, and Parliament.
- For elections to state-level urban bodies like municipalities and panchayats, a separate State Election Commission exists. The ECI plays a crucial role in upholding the democratic process by ensuring free and fair elections for key political positions in the country
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For Prelims: Election Commission of India, Chief Election Commissioner, Election Commission (Conditions of Service of Election Commissioners and Transaction of Business) Act, 1991, State Election Commission, Article 324, Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) and Voter Verified Paper Audit Trails (VVPATs).
For Mains: 1. Discuss the powers and functions of the Election Commission of India. How does the Election Commission ensure the conduct of free and fair elections in the Country? (250 words).
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Previous year Question1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2017)
1. The Election Commission of India is a five-member body.
2. Union Ministry of Home Affairs decides the election schedule for the conduct of both general elections and bye-elections.
3. Election Commission resolves the disputes relating to splits/mergers of recognized political parties.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only
B. 2 only
C. 2 and 3 only
D. 3 only
Answer: D
2. Consider the following statements : (UPSC 2021)
1. In India, there is no law restricting the candidates from contesting in one Lok Sabha election from three constituencies.
2. In the 1991 Lok Sabha Election, Shri Devi Lal contested from three Lok Sabha constituencies.
3. As per the- existing rules, if a candidate contests in one Lok Sabha election from many constituencies, his/her party should bear the cost of bye-elections to the constituencies vacated by him/her in the event of him/her winning in all the constituencies.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. 1 and 3
D. 2 and 3
Answer: B
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ARTICLE 370
1. Context
2. Article 370 of the Indian Constitution
Article 370 of the Indian Constitution is a provision that granted special autonomous status to the state of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K). It played a crucial role in shaping the relationship between the Indian government and the region but has also been a topic of intense debate and controversy. This article aims to provide an overview of Article 370, its historical context, key provisions, and the debates surrounding its revocation.
3. Historical Context
Article 370 was incorporated into the Indian Constitution in 1949, during the process of integrating the princely states into the newly independent India. At the time, Jammu and Kashmir was a princely state ruled by Maharaja Hari Singh. The article was introduced to accommodate the unique circumstances of the region and to respect the wishes of its people.
4. Key Provisions of Article 370:
- Autonomy: Article 370 granted Jammu and Kashmir a certain degree of autonomy, allowing it to have its own constitution, flag, and the power to legislate on matters other than defense, foreign affairs, and communications.
- Application of Central Laws: The central government had limited jurisdiction in the state, and its laws were only applicable if the state government specifically consented.
- Dual Citizenship: Residents of Jammu and Kashmir were considered citizens of both the state and India. This provision was meant to preserve the distinct identity of the region.
5. Contemporary Debates and Criticisms:
- Integration vs. Alienation: Critics of Article 370 argued that it perpetuated a sense of separatism and hindered the integration of Jammu and Kashmir with the rest of India. They claimed that the special status prevented the extension of progressive laws and policies to the region.
- Gender Inequality: Another point of contention was the discriminatory provision that denied property rights to women who married individuals from outside the state. This provision was seen as undermining the principles of gender equality and human rights.
- National Security Concerns: Some argued that the autonomous status provided by Article 370 hindered the Indian government's ability to effectively tackle security challenges in the region, particularly the cross-border militancy.
6. Revocation of Article 370
In August 2019, the Indian government, under the leadership of Prime Minister Narendra Modi, made the historic decision to revoke the special status of Jammu and Kashmir. The government argued that this move would facilitate the integration of the region and bring socio-economic development to its people. However, the revocation was met with mixed reactions, both within and outside of the region.
7. Way forward
Article 370 of the Indian Constitution was a unique provision that granted special autonomous status to the state of Jammu and Kashmir. While it aimed to respect the aspirations of the people of the region, it also sparked debates and controversies. The decision to revoke Article 370 in 2019 marked a significant shift in the relationship between the Indian government and Jammu and Kashmir. The consequences of this decision, both positive and negative, are still unfolding, and the future trajectory of the region remains uncertain.
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For Prelims: Article 370, Jammu and Kashmir (J&K), Maharaja Hari Singh, Central laws, Dual Citizenship, Gender inequality. For Mains: 1. Discuss the historical background and significance of Article 370 of the Indian Constitution. Analyze its provisions and their impact on the governance and autonomy of Jammu and Kashmir. (250 words). |
Previous year Question1. When did the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir come into force? (UPSC CAPF 2016) A.26th January 1957 B. 15th August 1947 C. 25th July 1956 D.14th November 1947 Answer: A 2. State Legislature of Jammu and Kashmir can confer special rights and privileges on permanent residents of J and K with respect to - (MPSC 2019) Find the correct options below. (a) Employment under State Government (b) Settlement in the state (c) Acquisition of immovable property (d) Right to Scholarship (e) Right to entry into heritage sites A. (a), (b), (c), (d), (e) B. (a), (b), (c), (d) C. (a), (b), (c) D. (a), (b) Answer: B |
SUSTAINABLE REPORT 2025
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The 2025 Sustainable Development Report (SDR) highlights that none of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are currently on course to be fully realized by 2030. Only 17% of the specific targets are advancing as intended. Factors such as conflicts, structural weaknesses, and limited fiscal capacity are hindering progress in many regions globally.
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For the first time, the report introduced a simplified SDG Index (SDGi), employing one primary indicator per goal — a total of 17 — to monitor overall progress. This streamlined approach aims to reduce statistical distortions caused by missing data across countries.
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A new metric — "Minimum dietary diversity among children aged 6 to 23 months" — has been added under SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), as noted in the SDR dataset.
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The report identifies SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities), SDG 14 (Life Below Water), SDG 15 (Life on Land), and SDG 16 (Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions) as especially lagging. These goals are marked in red on dashboards, reflecting minimal or no progress since 2015.
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The SDG Index is measured on a 0–100 scale, representing a country's proximity to achieving the SDGs. The gap between a nation’s score and 100 reflects the remaining distance to reach optimal performance.
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Finland ranks first on the 2025 Index with a score of 87. European countries dominate the top 20 positions, occupying 19 of them. India has entered the top 100 for the first time, securing the 99th position with a score of 67. The country's rank has shown consistent improvement over recent years — from 109 in 2024, 112 in 2023, 121 in 2022, and 120 in 2021.
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Regionally, India still lags behind some of its South Asian peers. Bhutan stands at 74th (70.5), Nepal at 85th (68.6), and the Maldives at 53rd. Sri Lanka is ranked 93rd, whereas Bangladesh and Pakistan are further behind at 114th and 140th respectively
| Rank 2025 | Country | Score 2025 |
| 1 | Finland | 87.0 |
| 2 | Sweden | 85.7 |
| 3 | Denmark | 85.3 |
| 4 | Germany | 83.7 |
| 5 | France | 83.1 |
| 98 | Belize | 67 |
| 99 | India | 67 |
| 100 | Mongolia | 66.7 |
| 159 | Niger | 50.3 |
| 158 | Madagascar | 51.0 |
- Sustainable development, as defined by the United Nations, refers to progress that addresses current needs without jeopardizing the ability of future generations to fulfill their own. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are an extension of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which were introduced in 2000 with a target year of 2015.
- In India, the SDG Index assesses the performance of states and Union Territories (UTs) across a range of indicators such as health, education, gender equality, economic development, institutional strength, environmental sustainability, and climate action. Since its initial release in December 2018, the SDG India Index has become the primary tool for tracking the country’s advancement toward these global goals.
- Scores on the SDG India Index fall within a 0–100 scale, with higher scores indicating greater progress toward meeting the targets. States and UTs are grouped into four categories based on their scores: aspirants (0–49), performers (50–64), front-runners (65–99), and achievers (100). As per the NITI Aayog’s 2023–24 SDG Index, India achieved a score of 71.
- The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, commonly referred to as Agenda 2030, is a global framework adopted by the United Nations. It comprises 17 SDGs that the international community aims to fulfill by the year 2030
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At the United Nations Summit of the Future held in September 2024, member nations reaffirmed their dedication to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and to strengthening multilateral cooperation. The Summit concluded with the unanimous adoption of three major agreements: the Pact for the Future, the Global Digital Compact, and the Declaration on Future Generations.
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The Summit of the Future (SoTF) was held on September 22–23, just prior to the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) in New York. Its central theme was “multilateral solutions for a better tomorrow.”
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UN Secretary-General António Guterres described the event as a “once-in-a-generation UN Summit,” emphasizing its historical significance as the UN marked its 80th anniversary in 2024.
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In the 2025 edition of the Index of Countries’ Support to UN-Based Multilateralism (UN-Mi), Barbados secured the top position with a score of 92, followed closely by Jamaica. India was placed 113th with a score of 63.8. This index specifically evaluates nations’ commitment to multilateralism rooted in the UN system and does not account for contributions through other international forums such as BRICS, G20, G7, or OECD.
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As noted in the Sustainable Development Report (SDR), the Pact for the Future outlines 56 action points focused on SDG implementation, global peace, and collective security. It also advocates for major reforms in the multilateral framework and the global financial system (United Nations, 2024).
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For Prelims: Agenda 2030, Sustainable Development Report (SDR) 2025, Millenium development goals
For Mains: GS II - International reports
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Previous Year Questions
1.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2016) 1. The Sustainable Development Goals were first proposed in 1972 by a global think tank called the ‘Club of Rome’. 2. The Sustainable Development Goals have to be achieved by 2030. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer (b) 2.Sustainable development is described as the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. In this perspective, inherently the concept of sustainable development is intertwined with which of the following concepts? (UPSC CSE 2010) (a) Social justice and empowerment (b) Inclusive Growth (c) Globalization (d) Carrying capacity Answer (d) |
PARLIAMENTARY ESTIMATE COMMITTEE
- Parliamentary committees serve as essential mechanisms to address the structural and technical challenges faced by large legislative bodies. Independent India adopted the committee system from the British Parliament and adapted it to suit the functioning of its own expansive legislature by introducing innovative methods to handle complex and voluminous tasks.
- The roots of India’s committee system can be traced back to the colonial period, with the establishment of the first parliamentary committee—the Public Accounts Committee (PAC)—in 1921, following the Government of India Act of 1919, also known as the Montford Reforms.
- Although the Constitution does not explicitly outline details regarding the structure, duration, or functioning of these committees, their legitimacy stems from Article 105, which outlines the privileges of Members of Parliament, and Article 118, which empowers Parliament to regulate its procedures and business through rules.
- The Rules of Procedure of the Lok Sabha provide the framework for setting up these committees. They may be appointed or elected by the House or nominated by the Speaker or Chairman, and they function under their guidance. Reports are submitted either to the House or directly to the Speaker/Chairman.
- Parliamentary committees enable legislators to dedicate focused time and attention to specific issues, allowing for detailed analysis. These bodies often consult experts and engage relevant stakeholders, encouraging a participatory approach that helps members from different political affiliations to find common ground on otherwise contentious matters
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The Estimates Committee is a Financial Standing Committee comprising a maximum of thirty members, who are elected annually by the Lok Sabha through a system of proportional representation using the single transferable vote method.
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Ministers are not eligible to be elected to this committee. In case a sitting member of the committee is appointed as a minister, their membership automatically ends from the date of their appointment.
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The committee’s tenure is limited to one year. As per Rule 312 of the Lok Sabha, the committee is permitted to examine budget estimates periodically throughout the financial year and submit reports to the House as the review progresses. It is not mandatory for the committee to assess the complete set of estimates in a single financial year.
- Recommend potential cost savings, organizational improvements, administrative reforms, or enhancements in efficiency that align with the objectives behind the estimates;
- Propose alternative policy measures aimed at improving administrative efficiency and reducing expenditure;
- Assess whether the allocated funds are being utilized effectively, within the boundaries of the policies reflected in the estimates; and
- Recommend the appropriate format in which the estimates should be submitted to Parliament.
- The Committee’s jurisdiction does not extend to Public Sector Undertakings that fall under the purview of the Committee on Public Undertakings, as defined by the Lok Sabha Rules of Procedure or directives issued by the Speaker
6. Different types of parliamentary committee
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In general, Parliamentary Committees are categorized into four types: Financial Committees, Departmentally Related Standing Committees (DRSCs), Other Standing Committees, and Ad hoc Committees.
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The Financial Committees comprise the Estimates Committee, the Public Accounts Committee, and the Committee on Public Undertakings. These were established in the year 1950.
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The concept of Departmentally Related Standing Committees was introduced in 1993 under the speakership of Shivraj Patil. Initially, 17 such committees were formed to review budget allocations and key policy initiatives, thereby enhancing legislative oversight and enabling deeper involvement of members in law-making. The number was later increased to 24. Each committee consists of 31 members—21 from the Lok Sabha and 10 from the Rajya Sabha.
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Ad hoc Committees are temporary in nature, created to fulfill a specific objective. Once their assigned task is complete and a report is submitted to the House, these committees are dissolved. Notable examples include Select and Joint Committees on Bills, as well as others like the Railway Convention Committee and the Committee on Food Management and Security within the Parliament House Complex.
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Parliament also has the authority to form a Joint Parliamentary Committee (JPC), comprising members from both Houses, to conduct detailed investigations into specific issues or legislation. Similarly, either House may establish a Select Committee with members solely from that chamber. Typically, such committees are chaired by members of the ruling party and are disbanded upon the submission of their final reports
| Committee | Number of Members | Member nominated or elected | |
| Financial Committee | Public Accounts Committee | 22(15LS+7RS) | Elected by both the House (s)
(set up in 1921) |
| Estimates Committee | 30 (LS) | Elected by the Lok Sabha
(set up on the recommendation of John Mathai, the then Finance Minister) |
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| Committee on Public Undertakings | 22(15LS+7RS) | Elected by both the House (s)
(created in 1964) |
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For Prelims: Parliamentary Committees, Rajyasabha proceedings, Ethics Committee
For Mains: GS II - Indian Polity and Governance
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Previous Year Questions
1.Which one of the following is the largest Committee of the Parliament? (UPSC CSE 2014)
(a) The Committee on Public Accounts (b) The Committee on Estimates (c) The Committee on Public Undertakings (d) The Committee on Petition Answer (b)
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