WTO Ministerial Conference

1.Context

2.What is the WTO's Ministerial Conference?

• The MC is at the very top of WTO's organisational chart.
• It meets once every two years and can take decisions on all matters under any multilateral trade agreement.
• Unlike other organisations, such as the International Monetary Fund or World Bank, WTO does not delegate power to a board of directors or an organisational chief.
• All decisions at the WTO are made collectively and through consensus among member countries at varied councils and committees.
• This year's conference took place in Geneva, Switzerland, it is co-hosted by Khazikisthan.

4.Debates around the agriculture 

• As far as agricultural, trade and food security are concerned, the challenge is to figure out the most appropriate trading rules in dire situations or natural disasters.
• Many countries become inward-looking in such times and impose outright export bans citing domestic food security needs.
• Recent examples include Russia's export ban on wheat and sunflower oil, Ukraine's ban on exports of food staples, Indonesia's ban on Palm oil exports (It was lifted last month), Argentina's ban on beef exports, Turkey, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan's ban on a variety of grain products and India's wheat export ban.

5.Significant debates on India

• The agreements on the subject are of particular significance to India.
• India has a significant contribution to the World Food Programme (WEP).
• It stated that it had never imposed export restrictions for procurement under the programme.
• It put forth that a blanket exemption could constrain its work in ensuring food security back home.
• Negotiators agreed that member countries would not impose export prohibitions or restrictions on foodstuffs purchased for humanitarian purposes of the WFP.
• The decision would not prevent member countries from adopting measures for ensuring domestic food security.
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• Negotiators could not reach agreements on issues such as permissible public stockholding of domestic food security, domestic support for agriculture, cotton and market access.
• The central premise agreement was to ensure the availability, accessibility and affordability of food in humanitarian emergencies.
• Member countries were encouraged with available surplus to release them on international markets in compliance with WTO regulations.
• It helps LDCs (least-developed countries) and NFIDCs (Not Food Importing Developing Countries) through work programmes to enhance their domestic food security and support agricultural production.

6.India's major imports 

• Indian edible oil bill in 2021-22 crossed $19 billion. India imports 55 to 60 per cent of its oil requirements.
• India's Agri-exports in FY22 touched $50.3 billion against its agri-imports of $32.4 billion.
• Indian agriculture is largely globally competitive but its biggest agri-import item, edible oil, accounts for 59 per cent of the agri-import basket.
• Despite high import duties that have generally been imposed on edible oil imports are followed by fresh fruits and vegetables, pulses, spices and cashew among others.
• The excessive dependence on imports has raised the pitch for Atamanibharta in edible oil.
• The Prime Minister launched the National Edible Oil Mission-Oil Palm (NEOM-OP) in 2021.
• Achieving atmanirbhata in edible oils through traditional oilseeds such as mustard, groundnuts and soya would be required an additional area of about 39 million hectares under oilseeds.
• Such land will not be available without cutting down the area under key cereals.
• This could endanger the country's food security even more.
• A rational policy option to reduce import dependence on edible oils is to develop oil palm at home to ensure that it gives productivity comparable to that in Indonesia and Malaysia about four tonnes of oil per hectare.
• It is 10 times what mustard can give at existing yields.
  India has identified 2.8 million hectares of the area where oil palm can be grown suitably.
• The objective of NEOM-OP is to bring in at least 1 million hectares under oil palm by 2025-26.
• The problem with oil palm is that it is a long gestation period crop. It takes four to six years to come to maturity. 
• During this period, smallholders need to be fully supported.
• The support (subsidy) could be the opportunity cost of their lands, say profits from paddy cultivation, which is largely the crop oil palm will replace in coastal and upland areas of Andhra, Telangana and Northeast India.
• The pricing formula of fresh fruit bunches for farmers has to be dovetailed with a likely long-run average landed price of crude palm oil with due flexibility.
• The other option is to declare oil palm as a plantation crop and allows the corporate players to own or lease land on a long-term basis to develop their plantations and processing units. it is not plausible in the current socio-political context.
• India thinks holistically and adopts a long-term vision to reduce its imports from 14MMT in FY22 to 7MMT by FY 27 look bleak.

7.Fisheries-related agreements

• India is successfully managed to carve out an agreement on eliminating subsidies to those engaged in illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing.
• Overfishing exploits fishes at a pace faster than they could replenish themselves.
• Currently standing at 34 per cent as per the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).
• Declining fish stocks threaten to worsen poverty and endanger communities that rely on aquatic creatures for their livelihood and food security.
• According to the agreements, there would be no limitation on subsidies granted or maintained by developing or least-developed countries for fishing within their exclusive economic zones (EEZ).

8.Moratoriums on electronic transmissions

• Member countries agreed to extend the current moratorium on not imposing customs duties on electronic transmission until MC13 ( scheduled to take place in December 2023. India and South Africa opposed it.
• ETs consist of online deliveries such as music, e-books, films, software and video games.
• They differ from other cross-border e-commerce since they are ordered online but not delivered physically.
• The moratorium would help maintain certainly and predictability for businesses and consumers, particularly in the context of the pandemic.
• India and South Africa citing data from the UN Conference on Trade and Development submitted that extending duty-free market access due to the moratorium resulted in a loss of $10 billion per annum globally 95 per cent of which was borne by developing countries.
• Customs duties have been traditionally used to avert an undesired surge in imports, allowing nascent domestic industries to remain competitive.
• Developing countries need to import sizeable equipment and services for upscaling their digital capabilities.
• Customs duties provide the necessary capital infusion for capacity building and in turn, attempt to address the digital divide particularly high in low-income and developing countries worsen by the covid-19 pandemic.
• India and South Africa had sought to preserve policy space for the digital advancement of developing countries by letting them generate more revenues from customs and thereby facilitating more investment.
  
  

9.Patent relaxations

• Member countries agreed on authorising the use of the subject matter of a patent for producing Covid-19 vaccines by a member country, without the consent of the rights holder.
• It asks member countries to waive requirements, including export restrictions set forth by WTO regulations to supply domestic markets and member countries with any number of vaccines.
• The agreement is too late for economically poorer countries.
• Several LDCs have suffered in their efforts to combat the pandemic, owing to factors stressed balance of payments situation, different levels of development, financial capabilities and varying degrees of import dependence on those products.
• Within the next six months, members are expected to decide on increasing the scope of the agreement to cover the production and supply of Covid-19 diagnostics and therapeutics as well.

Source: The Hindu

 

EUROPEAN FREE TRADE ASSOCIATION (EFTA)

 

 

1. Context

 

India’s gains from the proposed free trade agreement with the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) countries, to be signed on Sunday, will have to mostly flow from the $100-billion investment and one million jobs promised by the bloc over 15 years, as goods exports may gain minimally due to insignificant existing tariffs, research body Global Trade Research Initiative (GTRI) indicated in a report

 

 

 2. About European Free Trade Association

 

The European Free Trade Association (EFTA) is an intergovernmental organization that aims to facilitate free trade and economic cooperation among its member states. EFTA was established on May 3, 1960, as an alternative trade bloc to the European Economic Community (EEC), which later evolved into the European Union (EU). The founding members of EFTA were Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.

The key aspects of EFTA

EFTA comprises four member countries: Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland. The organization has experienced changes in membership over the years, with some countries joining or leaving.

• EFTA's primary objectives include promoting free trade and economic cooperation among its member states. It aims to facilitate the reduction or elimination of barriers to trade in goods and services, enhance economic relations, and foster mutual understanding and collaboration in various economic sectors.
• While EFTA is a distinct organization, its member states often have close economic ties with the European Union. EFTA countries have developed various agreements and arrangements with the EU to facilitate trade and economic cooperation. However, EFTA member states are not part of the EU Customs Union or the EU Single Market.
• EFTA has engaged in numerous free trade agreements (FTAs) with countries and regions around the world. These agreements aim to reduce or eliminate tariffs and other trade barriers, promoting the flow of goods and services. EFTA countries have FTAs with countries in Europe, Asia, Africa, and South America.
• The EFTA Surveillance Authority oversees the application of EFTA's rules in its member states. It monitors compliance with agreements, including ensuring that competition rules and other regulations are adhered to by member countries.
• The EFTA Court serves as the judicial body for the EFTA states. It handles disputes related to the interpretation and application of EFTA law. The court's decisions contribute to the legal framework of EFTA's trade and economic agreements.
• Over the years, EFTA has seen changes in its membership. Some countries have joined, while others have left. Accession to EFTA involves negotiations and the fulfillment of certain criteria, reflecting the organization's commitment to free trade and economic cooperation.
• EFTA member countries have diverse and developed economies. They are known for their high living standards, economic stability, and competitiveness. The organization provides a platform for these countries to collaborate and engage in trade with partners around the world.
• While trade is a central focus, EFTA member states also collaborate in other areas, including research and development, innovation, and cultural exchanges. The organization serves as a forum for discussing and addressing various economic and policy issues.

Main Goals of EFTA

• To promote free trade and economic integration among its member states.
• To strengthen member states' economies and improve their competitiveness on the global market.
• To cooperate with other countries and international organizations to further liberalize trade and promote economic development.

Institutional Structure

• The EFTA Council is the organization's highest governing body, consisting of representatives from each member state. It meets regularly to discuss and decide on important matters related to EFTA's objectives and activities.
• The EFTA Secretariat, based in Geneva, Switzerland, provides administrative support and facilitates communication among member states.
• EFTA actively engages in negotiations and establishes free trade agreements (FTAs) with various countries and regions outside the organization, contributing to the expansion of economic cooperation.

Current Status of EFTA

• Despite not being part of the EU, EFTA members maintain close economic ties with the EU through a series of bilateral agreements.
• They participate in the European Single Market and are part of the Schengen Area, allowing for the free movement of goods, services, capital, and people.
• EFTA remains an important economic player in Europe, with a combined GDP of over €1 trillion and a population of over 13 million.

 

Benefits of EFTA Membership

• EFTA's free trade agreements and common market have led to a significant increase in trade and investment between member states and their trading partners.
• EFTA's focus on free trade and economic cooperation has helped to stimulate economic growth in member states.
• By cooperating on research and development, innovation, and education, EFTA member states have become more competitive in the global market.
• EFTA membership has contributed to a higher standard of living and greater prosperity for the citizens of member states.

 

Challenges for EFTA

• The EU remains EFTA's largest trading partner, but it also poses a significant challenge. The EU's larger size and economic power give it an advantage in negotiations, and some EFTA businesses have expressed concerns about being at a disadvantage compared to their EU counterparts.
• With the ongoing integration of the EU, EFTA needs to ensure that it remains relevant and attractive to potential members and trading partners. The association needs to continue to find ways to differentiate itself from the EU and to offer unique benefits to its members.
• The global economy is constantly evolving, and EFTA needs to be able to adapt to these changes. The association needs to focus on emerging markets and new technologies to ensure that its members remain competitive in the long term.

 

3. The Way Forward

 

EFTA remains a vital economic force in Europe. The association is well-positioned to continue to prosper in the coming years, thanks to its strong member states, its focus on free trade and economic cooperation, and its adaptability. By continuing to adapt to the changing global economy and by finding ways to differentiate itself from the EU, EFTA can ensure that it remains a relevant and successful organization for its members in the years to come.

 

 

For Prelims: European Union, free trade, European Free Trade Association, European Economic Community   For Mains:  1. Examine the impact of Switzerland's policy on tariff-free entry for all industrial goods on India's potential gains from the ongoing India-EFTA Free Trade Agreement negotiations. (250 Words) 2. Discuss the strategies and opportunities for EFTA to remain relevant, differentiate itself, and adapt to the evolving global economy. (250 Words)

Source: The Indian Express

 

ELECTRIC VEHICLES

1. Context

Sterling Gtake E-Mobility, the electric vehicle (EV) component manufacturing subsidiary of Sterling Tools Ltd., is expanding capacity to manufacture six lakh EV components a year by March compared with 4.5 lakh now

2. What are Electric Vehicles?

• An E-vehicle or Electric Vehicle is one that needs an electric motor to generate power and function instead of an internal-combustion engine that generates power by burning a mix of gases and fuel.
• Electric Vehicles have a battery that can be charged by an electric supply.
• This electric energy is used to run the motor. There is a hybrid electric vehicle as well, which means a combination of an electric motor and a combustion engine.

3. Types of Electric Vehicles

• Plug-in electric – Such Electric Vehicles run purely on electricity, and it is powered when it is plugged in to charge. They don’t produce emissions like petrol or diesel.
• Plug-in hybrid – Their primary source of power is electricity, but these vehicles also have a fuel engine. These cars produce emissions only when they run on fuel engines but not when they run on electricity.
• Hybrid-electric – These Electric Vehicles primarily run on petrol or diesel, but they’re also fitted with an electric battery. One can charge the battery through regenerative braking. It comes with a button that lets you switch from using a fuel engine to using an electric battery (EV mode.)
• Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)– these vehicles use a highly efficient electrochemical process to convert hydrogen into electricity, and it powers the electric motor.

4. Initiatives by the Government

The government has set a target of 30% new sales of electric vehicles and two-wheelers by 2030. The government is working towards it by following the initiative and various government schemes.

National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP)

• It is a road map/document for India’s fuel security by promoting and faster adoption of electric vehicles in India with the initial allocation of Rs 75 crore. The ambition is to have around 6 million vehicles on the road by 2020.
• This plan is for affordable and environmentally friendly transportation in the country and to achieve automotive leadership in global manufacturing.

Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (hybrid and) electric vehicles (FAME)

• The scheme was announced by the government in 2015 with the objective of market creation and developing a manufacturing ecosystem with sustainable development.
• It is formulated by the Department of Heavy Industry, having 4 key areas- technology creation, demand creation, pilot projects, and infrastructure related to charging.

Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (hybrid and) electric vehicles (FAME) II

• Based on the result and experience of phase I of the scheme, phase II was launched with an allocation of Rs 10000 Crore over three years, recently approved by the cabinet.
• This scheme vision a holistic approach to the EV industry, including infrastructure for charging, manufacturing of batteries, market creation, public demand, and push for EVs in public transport.
• It also offers incentives to the manufacturer of electric vehicles and their components.
• It enables the creation of charging infrastructure in selected cities and major highways at an interval of 25 km.

5. Electric Vehicle Policy, 2020

Electric Vehicle Policy 2020 has been announced by the Delhi Government, where it put emphasis on the replacement of two-wheelers, shared vehicles, public transport, and private four-wheelers with Electric Vehicles. Some of the Features of EV Policy 2020 are given below:

• As per Electric Vehicle Policy, the focus is given to e-mobility, which includes e-buses and e-autos.
• The government has decided to give low-interest loans so that people can purchase Electric Vehicles easily.
• The main goal of the E-Vehicle Policy in India is to reduce pollution and curb health issues in Delhi.
• State EV Fund will be introduced for the expenditure of EV Policy.

6. Challenges in promoting Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) Adoption

• Subsidy Limitations: In contrast to countries like Norway, where extensive subsidies have spurred BEV adoption, India's subsidy structure primarily benefits the middle or upper middle classes. This inequality raises concerns about the effectiveness and fairness of upfront purchase subsidies, which tend to benefit those who can afford BEVs.
• Charging Network: Investing in comprehensive charging infrastructure is crucial for driving BEV adoption. Countries like Norway and China have seen success by expanding public charging stations while providing purchase subsidies. However, India's charging infrastructure remains insufficient, particularly for two- and three-wheelers, which dominate the vehicle mix. Adapting charging strategies to accommodate different vehicle types and power requirements is essential for promoting widespread adoption.
• Electricity Source: India's reliance on coal-fired thermal plants for electricity generation poses a challenge to the potential environmental benefits of BEVs. While EVs may reduce tailpipe emissions, continued reliance on thermal plants contributes to pollution. Shifting towards renewable energy sources is necessary to mitigate these concerns and achieve cleaner electric mobility.
• Limited Access to the Global Lithium Value Chain: India's heavy reliance on imports for lithium-ion batteries raises concerns about supply chain vulnerabilities. The concentration of global lithium production and key battery components in a handful of countries creates dependency risks. Diversification of the country's battery technology and exploring alternative options to lithium-ion batteries is crucial for long-term sustainability.
• Technology Agnostic Approach: While BEVs have gained traction in the two-wheeler and three-wheeler segments, the four-wheeler segment lags behind. Governments must adopt a technology-agnostic approach that encourages the adoption of various electrification technologies, including hybrids and fuel-cell vehicles. Such an approach promotes innovation, fosters competition, and allows manufacturers to meet emissions objectives irrespective of technology.
• Exploring Alternative Technologies: Hybrids serve as an intermediate step toward full electrification, offering improved fuel efficiency without relying solely on charging infrastructure. Additionally, exploring flex-fuel vehicles running on multiple fuel types, fuel cell electric vehicles, hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles, and synthetic fuels can provide alternative options for reducing emissions and promoting sustainable mobility.

For Prelims: Electric Vehicles, Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs), Electric Vehicle Policy, 2020, National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP), Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (hybrid and) electric vehicles (FAME), Global Lithium Value Chain. For Mains: 1. Analyze the challenges and opportunities in promoting the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) in developing countries like India. Discuss the key factors that hinder EV penetration and propose strategies to overcome them.(250 Words)

 

 

Previous year Question 1. Which of the following Indian States/Union Territories launched Electric Vehicle Policy on 7th August 2020? (UPPSC 2020) A. Madhya Pradesh B. Uttar Pradesh C. Delhi D. Tamil Nadu Answer: C

Source: The Indian Express

 

ELECTION COMMISSION OF INDIA

 

1. Context

The sudden and unexpected resignation of Election Commissioner (EC) Arun Goel, barely a week before the announcement of the Lok Sabha election, came as a surprise to many, but insiders in the poll body have said that apparent differences emerged between Mr. Goel and Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) Rajiv Kumar during their visit to West Bengal 

2. The Chief Election Commissioner and Other Election Commissioners (Appointment, Conditions of Service, and Term of Office) Bill, 2023

The Chief Election Commissioner and Other Election Commissioners (Appointment, Conditions of Service, and Term of Office) Bill, 2023, was introduced in Rajya Sabha on August 10, 2023.  It repeals the Election Commission (Conditions of Service of Election Commissioners and Transaction of Business) Act, 1991.

• Election Commission: As per Article 324 of the Constitution, the Election Commission consists of the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and such number of other Election Commissioners (ECs), as the President may decide.  The CEC and other ECs are appointed by the President.  The Bill specifies the same composition of the Election Commission.  It adds that the CEC and other ECs will be appointed by the President on the recommendation of a Selection Committee.
• Selection Committee: The Selection Committee will consist of (i) the Prime Minister as Chairperson, (ii) the Leader of the Opposition in Lok Sabha as member, and (iii) a Union Cabinet Minister nominated by the Prime Minister as member.  If the Leader of the Opposition in Lok Sabha has not been recognized, the leader of the single largest opposition party in Lok Sabha will assume the role.
• Search Committee: A Search Committee will prepare a panel of five persons for the consideration of the Selection Committee.  The Search Committee will be headed by the Cabinet Secretary.  It will have two other members, not below the rank of Secretary to the central government, having knowledge and experience in matters related to elections.  The Selection Committee may also consider candidates who have not been included in the panel prepared by the Search Committee.
• Qualification of CEC and ECs: Persons who are holding or have held posts equivalent to the rank of Secretary to the central government will be eligible to be appointed as CEC and ECs.   Such persons must have expertise in managing and conducting elections.
• Salary and allowances: The 1991 Act provides that the salary of the ECs will be equal to that of a Supreme Court judge.  The Bill provides that the salary, allowance, and service conditions of the CEC and other ECs will be the same as that of the Cabinet Secretary.
• Term of office: The 1991 Act mandates that the CEC and other ECs will hold office for a term of six years or until they reach the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier.  If an EC is appointed as the CEC, his total term cannot exceed six years.  The Bill retains the same tenure.  Further, under the Bill, the CEC and other ECs will not be eligible for re-appointment.
• Conduct of business: All business of the Election Commission is to be conducted unanimously.  In case of a difference of opinion between the CEC and the other ECs on any matter, it shall be decided through the majority.
• Removal and resignation: Under Article 324 of the Constitution, the CEC can only be removed from his office in a manner similar to that of a Supreme Court judge.  This is done through an order of the President, based on a motion passed by both Houses of Parliament in the same session. The motion for removal must be adopted with (i) majority support of total membership of each House, and (ii) at least two-thirds support from members present and voting.  An EC can only be removed from office on the recommendation of the CEC.  The Bill retains this removal procedure.
• Further, the 1991 Act provides that the CEC and other ECs may submit their resignation to the President.  The Bill has the same provision. 

3. Election Commission of India- Powers and Functions

• The Election Commission of India (ECI) is an autonomous constitutional authority responsible for overseeing and conducting elections in India.
• Established on January 25, 1950, under Article 324 of the Indian Constitution, the Election Commission plays a vital role in upholding the democratic principles of the country by ensuring free and fair elections.
• The Election Commission of India (ECI) is vested with significant powers and functions to ensure the conduct of free, fair, and transparent elections in the country.
• These powers and functions are outlined in the Indian Constitution and various laws related to elections.

Some of the key powers and functions of the Election Commission of India include:

• Conducting Elections: The ECI is responsible for organizing and conducting elections to the Lok Sabha (House of the People), State Legislative Assemblies, and offices of the President and Vice-President of India.
• Voter Registration: The ECI oversees the process of voter registration, which includes the preparation and revision of electoral rolls, and the issuance of Voter ID cards to eligible citizens.
• Delimitation of Constituencies: The ECI determines the boundaries and delimits constituencies for parliamentary and assembly elections. This process aims to ensure equitable representation and prevent gerrymandering.
• Nomination of Candidates: The ECI supervises the filing of nominations by candidates, verifies their eligibility, and ensures compliance with nomination procedures.
• Model Code of Conduct: The ECI enforces the Model Code of Conduct, which provides guidelines for political parties and candidates to maintain ethical and fair campaigning practices during elections.
• Election Monitoring and Supervision: The ECI monitors all stages of the electoral process, including the conduct of polls, to ensure that elections are free from malpractices and irregularities.
• Election Schedule: The ECI announces the schedule for elections, including polling dates and result declaration dates, and ensures that elections are held within a specified time frame.
• Campaign Finance Regulation: The ECI monitors and regulates campaign financing to curb the use of illegal funds and maintain transparency in election spending.
• Media Management: The ECI regulates media coverage during elections to ensure equal opportunities for all candidates and parties and prevent any undue influence.
• Disqualification of Candidates: The ECI has the authority to disqualify candidates who violate election laws or engage in corrupt practices.
• Counting of Votes and Results: The ECI oversees the counting of votes and the declaration of election results, ensuring accuracy and transparency in the process.
• Dispute Resolution: The ECI adjudicates election-related disputes, addresses complaints of violations, and takes necessary actions to ensure a fair electoral process.
• Voter Education: The ECI conducts voter education campaigns to raise awareness among citizens about the electoral process, their voting rights, and the importance of participating in elections.
• Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) and VVPATs: The ECI is responsible for the use and maintenance of Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) and Voter Verified Paper Audit Trails (VVPATs), which enhance the transparency and integrity of the voting process.
• Code of Conduct for Political Parties: The ECI monitors the conduct of political parties and can take action against parties that violate election laws or engage in unethical practices.

4. Chief Election Commissioner and the two other Election Commissioners have equal powers-True or False?

• The Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) of India holds a higher position and is the head of the Election Commission of India (ECI).
• While the three members of the Election Commission (including the CEC and the two Election Commissioners) work collectively to make decisions, the Chief Election Commissioner generally holds more administrative and decision-making authority.
• The Chief Election Commissioner is responsible for presiding over the meetings of the Election Commission, casting the deciding vote in case of a tie on any matter, and representing the Election Commission in its relations with the President of India and other authorities.
• The CEC also has a prominent role in shaping the policies and decisions of the Election Commission.
• However, it's important to note that the decisions and functioning of the Election Commission are usually made through a collective process, and the Chief Election Commissioner is expected to work in consultation with the other Election Commissioners.
• The independence, fairness, and integrity of the Election Commission's decisions are paramount, regardless of the position held by each member.

For Prelims: Election Commission of India, Chief Election Commissioner, Election Commission (Conditions of Service of Election Commissioners and Transaction of Business) Act, 1991, State Election Commission, Article 324, Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) and Voter Verified Paper Audit Trails (VVPATs). For Mains: 1. Discuss the powers and functions of the Election Commission of India. How does the Election Commission ensure the conduct of free and fair elections in the Country? (250 words).

 

Previous year Question 1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2017) 1. The Election Commission of India is a five-member body. 2. Union Ministry of Home Affairs decides the election schedule for the conduct of both general elections and bye-elections. 3. Election Commission resolves the disputes relating to splits/mergers of recognized political parties. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 only C. 2 and 3 only D. 3 only Answer: D   2. Consider the following statements : (UPSC 2021) 1. In India, there is no law restricting the candidates from contesting in one Lok Sabha election from three constituencies. 2. In the 1991 Lok Sabha Election, Shri Devi Lal contested from three Lok Sabha constituencies. 3. As per the- existing rules, if a candidate contests in one Lok Sabha election from many constituencies, his/her party should bear the cost of bye-elections to the constituencies vacated by him/her in the event of him/her winning in all the constituencies. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only B. 2 only C. 1 and 3 D. 2 and 3 Answer: B

Source: PRS Legislative Research

 

FREE TRADE AGREEMENT 

1. Context

India signed a free trade agreement (FTA) with four European countries — Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland — on Sunday, with a goal of reaching $100 billion in investments in India and one million jobs within 15 years

 

2. About the Free Trade Agreement

• A Free Trade Agreement (FTA) is an agreement between two or more countries to reduce or eliminate barriers to trade, such as tariffs, quotas, and subsidies.
• FTAs can also include provisions on other issues, such as investment, intellectual property, and labour standards.
• The goal of an FTA is to promote trade and economic growth between the signatory countries.
• By reducing or eliminating trade barriers, FTAs can make it easier for businesses to export their goods and services to other countries, which can lead to increased production, employment, and innovation.

3. Types of Free Trade Agreement

• Bilateral Free Trade Agreement (BFTA) involves two countries, aiming to promote trade and eliminate tariffs on goods and services between them.  It establishes a direct trade relationship, allowing for a more focused and tailored agreement between the two nations.
• Multilateral Free Trade Agreement (MFTA) Involving three or more countries, an MFTA seeks to create a comprehensive trade bloc, promoting economic integration on a larger scale. It requires coordination among multiple parties, addressing diverse economic interests and fostering a broader regional economic landscape.
• Regional Free Trade Agreement (RFTA) involves countries within a specific geographic region, aiming to enhance economic cooperation and integration within that particular area. It focuses on addressing regional economic challenges and fostering collaboration among neighbouring nations.
• Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA) involves a reciprocal reduction of tariffs and trade barriers between participating countries, granting preferential treatment to each other's goods and services. It allows countries to enjoy trading advantages with specific partners while maintaining autonomy in their trade policies with non-participating nations.
• Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) is a broad and advanced form of FTA that goes beyond traditional trade barriers, encompassing various economic aspects such as investment, intellectual property, and services. It aims for a more comprehensive economic partnership, encouraging deeper integration and collaboration between participating countries.
• Customs Union While not strictly an FTA, a Customs Union involves the elimination of tariffs among member countries and the establishment of a common external tariff against non-member nations. It goes beyond standard FTAs by harmonizing external trade policies, creating a unified approach to trade with the rest of the world.
• Free Trade Area (FTA) with Trade in Goods (TIG) and Trade in Services (TIS): Some FTAs specifically emphasize either trade in goods or trade in services, tailoring the agreement to the specific economic strengths and priorities of the participating countries. This approach allows nations to focus on areas where they have a comparative advantage, fostering specialization and efficiency.

4. India's Free Trade Agreements

India is a member of several free trade agreements (FTAs) and is currently negotiating others.  India's FTAs have helped to reduce trade barriers and promote trade and economic growth. They have also helped to attract foreign investment and create jobs. 

• The South Asian Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA) was signed in 1995 by the seven countries of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). SAFTA aims to reduce or eliminate tariffs on trade between the member countries.
• The India-Bangladesh FTA was signed in 2010 and came into force in 2011. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
• The India-Sri Lanka FTA was signed in 1999 and came into force in 2000. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
• The India-ASEAN Free Trade Agreement was signed in 2002 and came into force in 2010. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
• The India-Korea Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) was signed in 2010 and came into force in 2011. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
• The India-Japan Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement(CEPA) was signed in 2022 and came into effect in 2023. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
• The India-UAE Comprehensive Partnership Agreement (CEPA) was signed in 2022 and came into effect in 2022. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.
• The India-Australia Economic Cooperation and Trade Agreement (ECTA) was signed in 2022 and came into effect in 2022. It is a comprehensive FTA that covers goods, services, and investments.

• The India-Malaysia Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA) was signed in 2010 and aims to enhance economic ties by addressing trade in goods and services, as well as investment and other areas of economic cooperation.
• The India-Thailand Free Trade Agreement was signed in 2003 and focuses on reducing tariffs and promoting trade in goods and services between India and Thailand.
• The India-Singapore Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA) has been operational since 2005, this agreement covers trade in goods and services, as well as investment and intellectual property.
• The India-Nepal Trade Treaty While not a comprehensive FTA, India and Nepal have a trade treaty that facilitates the exchange of goods between the two countries.
• The India-Chile Preferential Trade Agreement was signed in 2006 and aims to enhance economic cooperation and reduce tariffs on certain products traded between India and Chile.

5.  India - UK Free Trade Agreement

5.1. Background

• Both countries have agreed to avoid sensitive issues in the negotiations.
• The interim (early harvest agreement) aims to achieve up to 65 per cent coverage for goods and up to 40 per cent coverage for services.
• By the time the final agreement is inked, the coverage for goods is expected to go up to "90 plus a percentage" of goods.
• India is also negotiating a similar early harvest agreement with Australia, which is supposed to set the stage for a long-pending Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement that both countries have been pursuing for nearly a decade.
• While the commencement of negotiations does mark a step forward in the otherwise rigid stance adopted and when it comes to trade liberalisation, experts point to impediments and the potential for legal challenges going ahead.

5.2. GATT (General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs)

• The exception to the rule is full-scale FTAs, subject to some conditions.
• One rider, incorporated in Article XXIV.8 (b) of GATT, stipulates that a deal should aim to eliminate customs duties and other trade barriers on "Substantially all the trade" between the WTO member countries that are signatories to an FTA.
• For this Agreement, a free-trade area shall be understood to mean a group of two or more customs territories in which the duties and other restrictive regulations of commerce are eliminated on substantially all the trade between the constituent territories in products originating in such territories.
• It is often beneficial to negotiate the entire deal together, as an early harvest deal may reduce the incentive for one side to work towards a full FTA.
• These agreements are not just about goods and services but also issues like investment.
• If you are trying to weigh the costs and benefits, it is always better to have the larger picture in front of you.
• In the case of the early harvest agreement inked with Thailand, automobile industry associations had complained that relaxations extended to Bangkok in the early harvest had reduced the incentive for Thailand to work towards a full FTA.
• Early harvest agreements may serve the function of keeping trading partners interested as they promise some benefits without long delays, as India becomes known for long-drawn negotiations for FTAs.
• Government emphasis on interim agreements may be tactical so that a deal may be achieved with minimum commitments and would allow for contentious issues to be resolved later.

 

For Prelims: Free Trade Agreement, India-U.K, Bilateral Free Trade Agreement, G-20 Summit, Agenda 2030, Covid-19 Pandemic, SAARC, General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs, Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement, Multilateral Free Trade Agreement, Regional Free Trade Agreement, Preferential Trade Agreement, Customs Union,  For Mains:  1. Evaluate the potential impact of the India-UK FTA on the Indian economy, considering both positive and negative aspects (250 Words) 2. Critically evaluate the significance of Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) in promoting trade and economic growth, considering their potential benefits and drawbacks. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Consider the following countries: 1. Australia 2. Canada 3. China 4. India 5. Japan 6. USA Which of the above are among the free-trade partners' of ASEAN? (UPSC 2018) A. 1, 2, 4 and 5          B.  3, 4, 5 and 6      C.  1, 3, 4 and 5       D.  2, 3, 4 and 6   Answer: C   2. Increase in absolute and per capita real GNP do not connote a higher level of economic development, if (UPSC 2018) (a) Industrial output fails to keep pace with agricultural output. (b) Agricultural output fails to keep pace with industrial output. (c) Poverty and unemployment increase. (d) Imports grow faster than exports. Answer: C 3. The SEZ Act, 2005 which came into effect in February 2006 has certain objectives. In this context, consider the following: (2010) Development of infrastructure facilities. Promotion of investment from foreign sources. Promotion of exports of services only. Which of the above are the objectives of this Act? (a) 1 and 2 only     (b) 3 only         (c) 2 and 3 only           (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: A 4. A “closed economy” is an economy in which (UPSC 2011) (a) the money supply is fully controlled (b) deficit financing takes place (c) only exports take place (d) neither exports nor imports take place Answer: D 5. With reference to the “G20 Common Framework”, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022) 1. It is an initiative endorsed by the G20 together with the Paris Club. 2. It is an initiative to support Low Income Countries with unsustainable debt. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only         (b) 2 only            (c) Both 1 and 2          (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: C

 

 Source: The Hindu

 

BITCOIN

 

 

 

1. Context

 

On March 5 2024, Bitcoin, the largest cryptocurrency by market capitalisation, broke its previous price record to hit a new all-time high of $69,170.63, according to the CoinMarketCap live tracker. The last high was $68,789.63, which Bitcoin achieved in November 2021. After this event in 2021, the coin crashed to multi-year lows and the crypto market was battered by company collapses and regulatory hits

 

 

2. About Bitcoin

• Bitcoin is a digital or virtual currency that uses cryptography for security and operates on a decentralized network called blockchain.
• It was invented in 2008 by an unknown person or group of people using the pseudonym Satoshi Nakamoto and was released as open-source software in 2009.
• Bitcoin is often referred to as a cryptocurrency because it relies on cryptographic techniques to secure transactions, control the creation of new units, and verify the transfer of assets.
• Unlike traditional currencies, Bitcoin is not issued by a central authority like a government or a bank, but rather it is created through a process called mining, where powerful computers solve complex mathematical problems to validate and record transactions on the blockchain.
• Bitcoin can be used to buy goods and services, or it can be traded on various online exchanges for other currencies or assets.

3. Understanding Bitcoin Halving

• Bitcoin halving is a significant event in the world of cryptocurrency, marking a 50% reduction in the reward given to Bitcoin miners for successfully validating transactions and adding them to the blockchain. This process, known as 'Proof of Work,' requires miners to solve complex mathematical puzzles using advanced computer equipment. The first miner to solve the puzzle claims the reward, which is currently set at 6.25 Bitcoin (BTC). However, the actual value of this reward fluctuates based on the market price of BTC and when the miner chooses to sell.
• Imagine a group of cashiers in a grocery store competing to accurately tally up the same set of items. The first cashier to complete the task receives a prize of ten gold coins. Each cashier can use their preferred tools to tally the items, with some opting for paper and pencil, others using a smartphone calculator, and some investing in state-of-the-art computer systems. While the cashier with the most advanced equipment is more likely to win, others still have a chance. This system encourages all cashiers to perform well, ensuring efficient service for customers.
• Now, consider returning to the same grocery store after several years. The cashiers are still competing for the same prize, but it has been reduced to five gold coins. Is the prize still worth the effort? The answer depends on the market price of gold and the cost of the equipment the cashiers invested in.
• Similarly, Bitcoin halving reduces the reward for miners, making it less profitable for some. However, it also helps maintain the scarcity of Bitcoin, which is a key factor in its value. Ultimately, Bitcoin halving is a crucial part of the cryptocurrency ecosystem, ensuring the sustainability and integrity of the blockchain.

4. Significance of Bitcoin Halving for Crypto Investors

• Bitcoin halving is a critical event for crypto investors due to its impact on the supply and scarcity of BTC. While Bitcoin mining increases the supply of BTC, halving reduces the rate at which new coins are released, making the asset more scarce.
• This scarcity is often associated with upward pressure on prices, similar to gold. With a total limit of 21 million BTC, over 19 million have already been mined, leaving a limited number of coins to be mined in the future.
• Halving occurs after every 210,000 blocks are mined, typically happening every four years. In 2009, a successful miner could claim 50 BTC as a reward, which has now been reduced to 3.125 BTC after the latest halving.
• However, the value of these rewards can vary significantly based on the price of Bitcoin. For example, as of February 14, 2024, the price of 1 BTC was approximately $49,528, making a mining reward of 6.25 BTC worth around $309,550.
• Both corporate and independent miners are actively involved in Bitcoin mining, often seeking locations with cheap electricity prices to maximize profits.
• While China was once a hub for crypto mining, government crackdowns have led to a migration of miners to other countries like Kazakhstan and Iran.
• The future value of Bitcoin rewards after halving largely depends on the market price of Bitcoin, making it a crucial consideration for crypto investors.

 

5. Impact of Bitcoin Halving on Investors

• The impact of Bitcoin halving on investors varies depending on their level of involvement with Bitcoin and its ecosystem.
• For instance, a corporate-level miner who has invested heavily in Bitcoin mining hardware and is facing high electricity bills may be eager to earn their block reward while it is still set at 6.25 BTC, rather than the reduced 3.125 BTC.
• On the other hand, a new trader who has made a small investment in Bitcoin through a crypto exchange app and is less familiar with the underlying blockchain technology might not react much to the news of halving.
• Meanwhile, a more experienced trader who has studied past halvings might consider increasing their Bitcoin investment in anticipation of a potential price spike, while another might "short" Bitcoin, hoping to profit from a potential price crash.
• Ultimately, the impact of Bitcoin halving on investors depends on their individual strategies, knowledge, and level of involvement in the cryptocurrency market.

 

6. Predicting the Crypto Market Post-Next Bitcoin Halving

• The future of the crypto market after the next Bitcoin halving is uncertain and subject to various factors. While many self-styled crypto traders, financial analysts, fintech engineers, crypto influencers, and statisticians claim to predict Bitcoin's price trajectory using cryptocurrency models and metrics, investors must understand that these are educated guesses at best.
• Some investors and analysts refer to a recurring four-year cycle tied to halvings, suggesting that prices tend to spike after these events. However, Bitcoin's journey has been unpredictable due to a mix of blockchain-related factors, regulatory changes, increased awareness of cryptocurrency investments, growing adoption of Bitcoin, and geopolitical or economic events.
• Bitcoin's price is heavily influenced by investor sentiment, with indicators like the 'Fear and Greed' index helping investors understand potential price shifts. While the next Bitcoin halving will be an intriguing event, crypto watchers need to conduct their own research and determine what the halving means for them personally.

 

7. The Way Forward

 

Bitcoin is a complex and innovative digital currency. Understanding halving and its implications is crucial for anyone considering investing in the crypto market. Remember, thorough research and informed decision-making are essential when navigating this dynamic and evolving space.

 

 

For Prelims: Bitcoin, Crypto Currency, Digital Currency For Mains:  1. Explain the significance of Bitcoin halving for the cryptocurrency ecosystem. How does it affect the supply and scarcity of Bitcoin? (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. With reference to 'Bitcoins', sometimes seen in the news, which of the following statements is/are correct?  (UPSC 2016) 1. Bitcoins are tracked by the Central Banks of the countries. 2. Anyone with a Bitcoin address can send and receive Bitcoins from anyone else with Bitcoin address. 3. Online payments can be sent without either side knowing the identity of the other. Select the correct answer using the code given below. A. 1 and 2 only        B. 2 and 3 only        C.  3 only      D.  1, 2 and 3     2. With reference to “Blockchain Technology”, consider the following statements:  (UPSC 2020)  1. It is a public ledger that everyone can inspect, but which no single user controls. 2. The structure and design of the blockchain are such that all the data in it are about cryptocurrency only. 3. Applications that depend on the basic features of blockchain can be developed without anybody’s permission. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only    B. 1 and 2 only    C. 2 only      D.1 and 3 only     3. Currency swap is a method of (UGC  Commerce 2019)  A. hedging against foreign exchange risk B. speculating in foreign exchange C. leverage instrument used by cooperative banks D. mode of payment in international trade     4. "Rapid Financing Instrument" and "Rapid Credit Facility" are related to the provisions of lending by which one of the following? (UPSC 2022) A. Asian Development Bank B. International Monetary Fund C. United Nations Environment Programme D. Finance Initiative World Bank   Answers: 1-B. 2-D, 3-A, 4- B

Source: The Indian Express

NEW TOLL COLLECTION SYSTEM

 

 

1. Context

 

Road Transport and Highways Minister Nitin Gadkari said in Parliament in February that the government plans to implement a new highway toll collection system based on the global navigation satellite system before the model code of conduct for the 2024 election kicks in

 

2.What is road toll System in India?

 

India has implemented various toll collection systems for its road infrastructure. One common toll collection method is through toll booths or plazas located on national highways and some state highways. Here's a brief overview of the road toll system in India:

• Manual Toll Collection:

  • Toll booths are set up at various points on highways.
  • Vehicles passing through the toll booths need to stop and pay the toll in cash.
  • Toll charges are based on factors such as the type of vehicle, distance traveled, and the number of axles.

• Electronic Toll Collection (ETC):

  • The government has been promoting the use of electronic toll collection systems to reduce traffic congestion and facilitate smoother transactions.
  • FASTag is one such electronic toll collection system introduced in India. It is a prepaid tag that allows automatic deduction of toll charges.
  • FASTag users can drive through dedicated lanes at toll booths without stopping, as the toll amount is deducted automatically from their prepaid account.

• FASTag Implementation:

  • FASTag is mandatory for all vehicles in India as of February 15, 2021.
  • Vehicle owners can purchase FASTags from authorized banks, online platforms, or through certain point-of-sale locations near toll plazas.
  • The tag is linked to the vehicle's registration details and a prepaid account.

3.What is the new proposed highway tolling system?

 

• The term "global navigation satellite system" encompasses satellite-based navigation systems, such as the United States' Global Positioning System (GPS). Unlike GPS alone, this system utilizes a vast array of satellites to furnish users worldwide with more precise location and navigation information.
• A representative from the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways clarified that its implementation involves incorporating an On-Board Unit (OBU) or tracking device within a vehicle.
• This device enables the mapping of the vehicle's location using GAGAN, the Indian satellite navigation system, with an approximate accuracy of 10 meters.
• The process entails logging the coordinates of the entire stretch of the country's national highways through digital image processing.
• Software is then employed to determine the toll rate for a specific highway, calculate the toll amount based on the vehicle's travel distance, and subsequently deduct it from a wallet linked to the OBU. To enforce compliance, the system includes gantries or arches equipped with CCTV cameras at various highway points.
• These cameras capture images of the vehicle's high-security registration plate and cross-verify if a road user attempts to deceive the system by removing the tracking device or traveling without an OBU onboard.
• The Ministry official further elucidated that the technology's objective is to offer users the advantage of paying tolls only for the actual distance covered on a highway, following a pay-as-you-use model. The government anticipates that this system will eventually facilitate barrier-free movement

4.Challenges

 

• One significant challenge presented by this technology involves the difficulty of recovering toll amounts in instances where a road user neglects to settle the payment upon completing a journey on a highway, such as when the digital wallet linked to the On-Board Unit (OBU) is depleted.
• As there are no physical barriers to halt non-compliant vehicles, various issues arise, such as when a vehicle travels on a highway without a linked OBU device, when the OBU is intentionally deactivated to evade payment, or when a car's OBU is installed on a truck to reduce toll charges.
• To address these concerns, it is necessary to establish Gantry-mounted Automatic Number-Plate Recognition (ANPR)-based systems for capturing violations on highways throughout India. However, as of now, no such infrastructure is in place in the country.
• Moreover, the effectiveness of an ANPR system hinges on the quality of license plates, which are currently limited to specific cities and states. To ensure the recovery of unpaid tolls, define offenses, and mandate the inclusion of an OBU in vehicles, the government will need to amend the National Highways Fee (Determination of Rates and Collection) Rules

 

 

How does it safeguard privacy?   When asked about the government's strategy for preserving the privacy of vehicle users, the Ministry official explained that, as a first measure, the decision was made to utilize the GAGAN satellite system instead of GPS, owned by the U.S., to ensure the security of data within the country. The official further stated that, while the concept is still evolving, the Digital Personal Data Protection Act of 2023, enacted in Parliament last year, aims to tackle privacy concerns. It is worth noting that this law faced criticism from civil society for expanding exemptions provided to government agencies, potentially leading to heightened state surveillance

 

5. Status of FASTags

 

• The forthcoming tolling system will operate alongside the existing FASTag-based toll collection, as the government has yet to decide whether On-Board Units (OBUs) will be mandatory for all vehicles or exclusively for new ones.
• Minister Gadkari has been discussing the implementation of satellite-based toll collection since 2020, despite the prior rollout of radio frequency identification-based FASTags for toll collection in 2016, becoming mandatory only on February 16, 2021.
• Substantial compliance has been achieved over the years, with 98.9% of vehicles passing through national highway toll fee plazas being FASTag compliant by December 2023.
• Toll collection has seen a 1.5 times increase, rising from ₹17,942 crore in 2016-2017 to ₹27,744 crore in 2020-2021 at National Highway fee plazas, attributable to factors such as a growing number of vehicles, toll rate revisions, and the widespread adoption of FASTags.
• Nevertheless, officials point out that the global navigation satellite system entails lower operational costs compared to FASTags, given the absence of toll plazas and a reduced number of entities involved in the toll collection process

 

Source: The Hindu

FRANCE'S ABORTION RIGHTS

 

 

1. Context

 

In a global first, France inscribed the guaranteed right to abortion in its constitution on March 8 sending a powerful message of solidarity with women’s rights on International Women’s Day. Justice Minister Eric Dupond-Moretti used a 19th-century printing press to seal the amendment in France’s constitution at a special public ceremony. The measure was approved at a joint session of Parliament on March 4 2024

 

2. Reforms legislative History

• The National Assembly passed the amendment in January, followed by the Senate last week. However, the final endorsement of the constitutional change required approval during a joint session of parliament.
• In the voting session, 780 out of 902 legislators voted in favor of the reform, 72 opposed it, and 50 abstained.
• While abortion has been legal in France since 1975, it will now be recognized as a "guaranteed freedom" for women. Although infrequent, France has a history of amending its constitution, with nearly 25 modifications since its adoption in 1958.
• The most recent alteration occurred in 2008, granting more powers to Parliament and limiting presidential tenure to a maximum of two consecutive five-year terms
• Introduced last year, the Bill modified the 17th paragraph of Article 34 in the French constitution, specifying that "the law establishes the conditions under which the freedom of women to voluntarily terminate a pregnancy, a guaranteed right, is exercised."
• This implies that future administrations will be restricted in making significant changes to existing laws that allow termination up to 14 weeks.
• Highlighting the scrutiny of abortion rights in various European countries, the preamble of the legislation notes, "Regrettably, this occurrence is not an isolated one: in numerous countries, even within Europe, there are trends that aim to obstruct, at any cost, women's freedom to terminate their pregnancy as they choose"

3.Is this a first-of-its-kind precedent?

 

• France is presently the sole country with a specific constitutional provision on abortion, contrasting with the 1974 constitution of the former Communist-run Yugoslavia, which asserted that "a person is free to decide on having children" and limited this right only "for the reasons of health protection."
• Following Yugoslavia's breakup in the early 1990s, several Balkan states embraced similar principles, though lacking an explicit constitutional guarantee. For instance, Serbia's constitution, albeit less explicitly, asserts that "everyone has the right to decide on childbirth."
• Nevertheless, some contend that abortion was already constitutionally safeguarded after a 2001 decision. In this ruling, France's constitutional council justified its approval of abortion by referencing the concept of liberty enshrined in the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man, a technical component of the constitution

4.What about other European countries?

 

• Abortion is currently available in over 40 European countries, but several nations are witnessing heightened attempts to restrict access to the procedure. In September 2022, Hungary's far-right government mandated that women must listen to the foetal heartbeat before being granted access to a safe abortion.
• Poland, with some of the strictest abortion laws in Europe, permits termination solely in cases of rape, incest, or a threat to the mother's health or life. The regulations became even more stringent in 2020 when the country's highest court declared abortions based on foetal defects unconstitutional.
• In the U.K., abortion is allowed up to 24 weeks of pregnancy with approval from two doctors. Exceptions for late-term abortions are granted only when the mother's life is at risk. However, women undergoing abortions after 24 weeks may face prosecution under the Offences Against the Person Act, 1861.
• Italy, despite resisting Vatican pressure, legalized abortion in 1978, permitting termination up to 12 weeks or later if the woman's health or life is endangered. Yet, the law allows medical practitioners to register as "conscientious objectors," creating significant obstacles to accessing the procedure.
• The French initiative has the potential to strengthen endeavors to include abortion in the European Charter of Fundamental Rights

5.What is India’s stance on abortion?

 

• In 1971, India introduced the Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) Act, enabling authorized medical professionals to conduct abortions under specific conditions, provided the pregnancy did not surpass 20 weeks.
• The Act underwent a revision in 2021, extending the permissible period for abortions to 24 weeks in certain cases.
• For abortions within the initial 20 weeks of gestation, the opinion of a single registered medical practitioner is adequate.
• In pregnancies spanning 20-24 weeks, the right to seek an abortion is contingent upon the assessment of two registered medical practitioners, but this is restricted to specific situations such as forced pregnancies resulting from statutory rape involving minors or sexual assault, pregnancies in women with disabilities, or changes in the marital status of the woman during pregnancy.
• Beyond 24 weeks, the Act mandates the establishment of a State-level medical board in "approved facilities," with the authority to either permit or deny termination of pregnancy, exclusively in cases of significant foetal abnormalities

 

Source: The Hindu