WHITE PHOSPHORUS
1. Context
Recently, global human rights organizations, Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch have accused the Israel Defence Forces (IDF) of employing white phosphorus munitions in Gaza and Lebanon. This use is alleged to contravene International Humanitarian Law (IHL) which governs the conduct of states and non-state groups in armed conflicts. While the IDF denies these allegations, the controversial nature of white phosphorus demands a closer look.
2. About White Phosphorus
White phosphorus is a highly reactive substance that ignites upon exposure to oxygen, producing dense, white smoke and extreme temperatures of 815 degrees Celsius. It falls under "Pyrophoric solids, category 1" according to the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling of Chemicals, signifying its rapid ignition when in contact with air. White phosphorus emits a distinctive garlic-like odour.
Image Source: Human Rights Watch
3. Military Applications of White Phosphorus
- White phosphorus is utilized in artillery shells, bombs, and rockets, and can even be delivered through textile wedges soaked in the chemical.
- Its primary military function is as a smokescreen, concealing troop movements on the ground.
- It also disrupts infrared optics and weapons tracking systems, enhancing protection against guided missiles.
- Munitions can be ground-burst for concentrated smoke or air-burst to cover a larger area.
- Additionally, white phosphorus can be employed as an incendiary weapon to force enemy combatants out of concealed positions.
4. Health and Environmental Impacts
- Exposure to white phosphorus can lead to severe burns, often extending to the bone, causing excruciating pain, slow healing, and susceptibility to infections.
- Even burns covering just 10% of the body can be fatal. Inhaling white phosphorus particles or smoke can result in respiratory damage and harm to internal organs, often leading to a lifetime of suffering with impaired mobility and painful scars.
- It can also devastate infrastructure, damage crops, kill livestock, and start raging fires, particularly in windy conditions.
5. Historical Usage
- White phosphorus munitions have a history dating back to the late 19th century when Irish nationalists used a formulation known as "Fenian fire."
- They were extensively used by British and Commonwealth forces in World War I in grenades, bombs, shells, and rockets.
- These munitions have been employed in various conflicts worldwide, including the Normandy invasion in World War II, the US invasion of Iraq in 2004, and the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict.
- More recently, Russia faced accusations of using white phosphorus bombs during the invasion of Ukraine.
6. Legal Status of White Phosphorus Munitions
- White phosphorus munitions are not subject to a blanket ban, but their use is regulated under International Humanitarian Law.
- They are not classified as chemical weapons because their primary operational purpose is to generate heat and smoke, rather than toxicity.
- Therefore, their use is governed by the Convention on Conventional Weapons (CCW), specifically Protocol III, which deals with incendiary weapons. Palestine and Lebanon have ratified Protocol III, while Israel has not.
- However, there are notable loopholes in Protocol III. It restricts some but not all uses of ground-launched incendiary weapons near concentrations of civilians.
- Additionally, the protocol's definition of incendiary weapons arguably excludes multipurpose munitions like those containing white phosphorus, which are considered primarily as "smoking" agents.
- Over the years, there have been proposals to strengthen the CCW to address these loopholes.
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For Prelims: White Phosphorus, Convention on Conventional Weapons, International Humanitarian Law, Russia-Ukraine war, Israel, Gaza, Lebanon, World War I, World War II, Normandy invasion, US, Iraq, Nagorno-Karabakh conflict,
For Mains:
1. Describe the health and environmental impacts of white phosphorus exposure. How does it affect individuals and the surroundings in conflict zones? (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. With reference to 'Organization for the Prohibitions of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)', consider the following statements: (UPSC 2016)
1. It is an organization of European Union in working relation with NATO and WHO.
2. It monitors the chemical industry to prevent new weapons from emerging.
3. It provides assistance and protection to States (Parties) against chemical weapons threats. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
2. Consider the following pairs: (UPSC 2020) International agreement/set-up Subject
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 4 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 2, 3 and 4 only Answer: C 3. Recently, the USA decided to support India’s membership in multi-lateral export control regimes called the “Australia Group” and the “Wassenaar Arrangement”. What is the difference between them? (UPSC 2011) 1. The Australia Group is an informal arrangement which aims to allow exporting countries to minimize the risk of assisting chemical and biological weapons proliferation, whereas the Wassenaar Arrangement is a formal group under the OECD holding identical objectives.
2. The Australia Group comprises predominantly of Asian, African and North American countries whereas the member countries of Wassenaar Arrangement are predominantly from the European Union and American Continents.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only Answer: D 4. With reference to ‘Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)’, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2016) 1. It is an organization of the European Union in working relation with NATO and WHO.
2. It monitors the chemical industry to prevent new weapons from emerging.
3. It provides assistance and protection to States (Parties) against chemical weapons threats. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: B 5. Which one of the following countries of South-West Asia does not open out to the Mediterranean Sea? (2015) (a) Syria (b) Jordan (c) Lebanon (d) Israel Answer: B Mains1. ‘Too little cash, too much politics, leaves UNESCO fighting for life.’ Discuss the statement in the light of US’ withdrawal and its accusation of the cultural body as being ‘anti-Israel bias’. (UPSC 2019) 2 . “India’s relations with Israel have, of late, acquired a depth and diversity, which cannot be rolled back.” Discuss. (UPSC 2018) |
CHILD MARRIAGE
1. Context
In the small town of Kaki, Assam, a public meeting was held under a vibrant pink and green tent, organized by the All Assam Minority Students' Union (AAMSU). The gathering consisted primarily of school-going children and elderly residents from the predominantly Bengali-origin Muslim community. This meeting came in the wake of a recent police operation against child marriage, where 31 individuals from the Hojai district were apprehended. Among those arrested were 13 men accused of marrying underage girls and 18 relatives suspected of facilitating these marriages.
2. What is child marriage
Child marriage is a marriage or union between a child under the age of 18 and an adult or another child. It is a harmful practice that violates the rights of children and has devastating consequences for their lives. Child marriage is defined as any formal marriage or informal union between a child under the age of 18 and an adult or another child. This includes both legally recognized marriages and informal unions where a child lives with a partner as if they are married.
3. The statistics and data on Child Marriage in India
Child marriage remains a significant issue in India, despite a decline in recent years. According to UNICEF, India has the highest number of child brides in the world, with an estimated 1.5 million girls married before the age of 18 every year.
- The prevalence of child marriage in India varies across regions, with higher rates in rural areas and certain states. According to the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5) conducted in 2019-2021, 23% of women aged 20-24 were married before the age of 18.
- Rajasthan has the highest prevalence of child marriage, with 35.4% of women aged 20-24 married before 18. Other states with high rates include Bihar (32.4%), Uttar Pradesh (29.3%), Jharkhand (26.5%), and Madhya Pradesh (25.2%).
- Child marriage is more prevalent in rural areas compared to urban areas. In rural areas, 27% of women aged 20-24 were married before 18, compared to 14.7% in urban areas.
- Education plays a crucial role in reducing child marriage. The NFHS-5 data shows that among women with no education, 46.5% were married before 18, compared to 11.4% among women with 12 or more years of education.
- Despite the high prevalence, there has been a decline in child marriage rates in India. The NFHS-5 data shows a decrease from 47.4% in 2005-2006 to 23% in 2019-2021.
4. Reasons for the prevalent of child marriages in India
Child marriage remains prevalent in certain areas of India due to a complex interplay of social, economic, and cultural factors. These factors reinforce each other, making it difficult to eradicate the practice entirely. Some of the key reasons for the persistence of child marriage in certain areas include:
- In some communities, child marriage is deeply ingrained in social norms and traditions. Girls are often seen as a burden, and marrying them off early is considered a way to protect their family's honour and reduce the economic strain.
- Poverty is a major driver of child marriage. Families struggling to make ends meet may see marrying off their daughters early as a way to reduce their financial burden and ensure their daughters' future security.
- In many communities where child marriage is prevalent, girls are not valued as much as boys. They are often denied education and opportunities for personal development, making them more vulnerable to early marriage.
- Education plays a crucial role in preventing child marriage. Girls who are educated are more likely to delay marriage, have better health outcomes, and contribute to their families and communities. However, in many areas where child marriage is common, girls have limited access to education.
- While India has laws prohibiting child marriage, enforcement remains weak, particularly in rural areas. This lack of enforcement allows the practice to continue unchecked.
5. Why Child Marriage is a violation of Human Rights?
Child marriage is a violation of human rights because it deprives children of their fundamental rights and freedoms, undermining their physical, emotional, and social well-being. It robs them of their childhood, their education, and their health, perpetuating gender inequality and perpetuating cycles of poverty.
- Right to Free and Full Consent to Marriage: Child marriage violates the right to free and full consent to marriage, as enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and other international human rights instruments. Children, due to their age and immaturity, are not capable of making informed and independent decisions about marriage. They may be coerced or manipulated into marrying against their will, often by parents or guardians who prioritize cultural norms or economic considerations over the child's well-being.
- Right to Education: Child marriage often leads to girls dropping out of school, depriving them of their right to education and limiting their future opportunities. Early marriage responsibilities, such as household chores, childcare, and early pregnancy, hinder their ability to pursue education and personal development.
- Right to Health: Child marriage poses serious health risks, particularly for girls. Early pregnancy and childbirth increase the risk of maternal mortality, obstetric fistula, and other health complications. Girls married young are more vulnerable to sexually transmitted infections, including HIV/AIDS, due to power imbalances and limited access to reproductive health information and services.
- Right to Protection from Violence: Child brides are more susceptible to domestic violence, sexual abuse, and exploitation. The power imbalance in these marriages makes it difficult for girls to assert their rights or seek help, perpetuating a cycle of violence and trauma.
- Right to Equality and Non-Discrimination: Child marriage reinforces gender inequality, perpetuating the notion that girls are less valuable than boys. It limits their opportunities for personal growth and perpetuates harmful stereotypes that undermine their agency and decision-making power.
6. The Government initiatives were taken to curb Child Marriages in India
The Indian government has implemented various initiatives to curb child marriages and protect the rights of children, particularly girls. These initiatives encompass legislative measures, policy frameworks, and social empowerment programs.
- Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 prohibits child marriage, defining a child as a person below 18 years of age. It makes child marriage a punishable offence, with penalties for individuals involved in arranging or solemnizing such marriages.
- The National Plan of Action for Children (NPAC) outlines a comprehensive strategy to address child rights issues, including child marriage. It focuses on the prevention, protection, and rehabilitation of child marriage victims.
- The Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP) program aims to empower girls and prevent child marriage through a multi-pronged approach. It promotes education, skill development, and social awareness to enhance girls' value and reduce their vulnerability to early marriage.
- Appointment of Child Marriage Prohibition Officers (CMPOs) The government has appointed CMPOs at district and block levels to monitor and prevent child marriages. These officers conduct awareness campaigns, investigate child marriage cases, and facilitate legal action.
- The National Child Marriage Prohibition Officer (NCMPO) coordinates and oversees the implementation of the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act across India. They provide technical support to CMPOs and collaborate with various stakeholders to address child marriage.
- The National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR) is a statutory body that safeguards child rights, including protection from child marriage. It receives complaints, conducts inquiries, and recommends actions to prevent and address child marriage cases.
- Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) provides a range of services to children and mothers, including nutrition, health care, and early childhood education. These services indirectly contribute to preventing child marriage by promoting girls' well-being and education.
- Sakshar Bharat Mission is a literacy program that aims to increase literacy rates, particularly among women and girls. Education empowers girls and makes them less vulnerable to child marriage.
- National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 emphasizes gender equality and inclusive education, promoting girls' education and creating an enabling environment to delay marriage and pursue personal development.
- Collaboration with NGOs and civil society organizations to implement awareness campaigns, community engagement programs, and interventions to prevent child marriage.
7. The Prohibition of Child Marriage (Amendment) Bill, 2021
The Prohibition of Child Marriage (Amendment) Bill, 2021, proposes to amend the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006, to strengthen the legal framework against child marriage and enhance the protection of children, particularly girls.
The key provisions of the Bill include:
- The Bill proposes to increase the minimum age of marriage for women from 18 to 21 years, bringing it at par with the minimum age for men. This aligns with the principle of gender equality and recognizes that women should have the same opportunities as men to pursue education, personal development, and career aspirations before entering marriage.
- The Bill proposes to make child marriage a cognizable offence, allowing police to arrest an accused without a warrant, and a non-bailable offence, making it more difficult for the accused to obtain bail. This strengthens the deterrent effect of the law and sends a strong message against child marriage.
- The Bill proposes to increase the punishment for child marriage to a minimum of two years imprisonment and a fine of up to one lakh rupees. This enhanced punishment reflects the seriousness of the offence and aims to discourage individuals from engaging in child marriage practices.
- The Bill proposes to extend the period for annulment of child marriage from two years to five years after attaining majority. This provides a longer window for victims of child marriage to seek legal remedies and escape from unwanted marital unions.
- The Bill proposes to designate Child Marriage Prohibition Officers (CMPOs) at various levels to prevent, monitor, and report child marriage cases. These officers would be responsible for conducting awareness campaigns, investigating child marriage cases, and facilitating legal action.
- The Bill proposes to give the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act an overriding effect on any personal law, custom, usage, or practice governing the parties. This ensures that the Act takes precedence over any conflicting provisions in personal laws, ensuring uniformity in the legal framework against child marriage.
8. International Conventions and Declarations
The UN Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages (1962), the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979), and the Beijing Declaration (1995) all address the issue of child marriage and call for its elimination.
- UN Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages (1962) establishes that all marriages must be entered into with the full and free consent of both parties, and it sets a minimum age for marriage at 15 years old. However, it allows for countries to set a higher minimum age, and it encourages them to do so.
- UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979) defines child marriage as a form of discrimination against women and girls, and it calls on states to take all appropriate measures to eliminate child marriage, including setting a minimum age for marriage at 18 years old.
- Beijing Declaration (1995) reaffirms the commitment to eliminate child marriage and calls on states to take measures to prevent and eliminate child marriage, including enacting and enforcing laws that set a minimum age for marriage at 18 years old. It also calls for measures to address the root causes of child marriage, such as poverty, gender inequality, and lack of access to education.
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For Prelims: Child Marriages, The UN Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages (1962), the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979), the Beijing Declaration (1995), Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, UNICEF, NFHS-5, Beti Bachao Beti Padhao, Child Marriage Act, 2006,
For Mains:
1. Explain how child marriage is a violation of human rights. Elaborate on the rights and freedoms that child marriage undermines and the consequences it has on children's lives. (250 Words)
2. Evaluate the government initiatives in India to combat child marriages. Assess the effectiveness of legislative measures, policy frameworks, and social empowerment programs in addressing this issue. (250 Words)
3. Examine the role of education in reducing child marriage. Discuss how access to education can empower girls and delay the age of marriage. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
Prelims
1. Read the following about child marriages: (Telangana Police SI 2016)
A) 'Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929' fixed the age of the marriage for girls at 14 years.
B) 'Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006' raised the age of marriage for girls to 18 years.
C) The 2011 Census found that 18% of women were married before 18 years of age.
Choose the correct statements
1. A & B 2. B & C 3. C & A 4. A, B & C
Answer: 1
2. 'Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action', often seen in the news, is (UPSC 2015)
A. a strategy to tackle the regional terrorism, an outcome of a meeting of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization
B. a plan of action for sustainable economic growth in the Asia-Pacific Region, an outcome of the deliberations of the Asia-Pacific Economic Forum
C. an agenda for women's empowerment, an outcome of a World Conference convened by the United Nations
D. a strategy to combat wildlife trafficking, a declaration of the East Asia Summit
Answer: C
3. The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006, prohibits child marriage. Under this act, ______ is the legal age for the marriage of girls. (DSSSB DOE PRT 2022)
A. 16 years B. 20 years C. 22 years D. 18 years
Answer: D
4. United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) was founded in ____ (DSSSB AE Civil 2021)
A.1948 B. 1945 C. 1946 D. 1947
Answer: C
5. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2021)
1. 21st February is declared to be the International Mother Language Day by UNICEF.
2. The demand that Bangla has to be one of the national languages was raised in the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan.
Which of the above statement is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: B
6. National Family Health Survey (NFHS) – 5 does not include - (UPPSC 2019)
A. High blood-pressure B. Diabetes C. HIV Test D. Registration of death
Answer: C
Mains
1. What are the continued challenges for Women in India against time and space? (UPSC 2019)
2. Women empowerment in India needs gender budgeting. What are the requirements and status of gender budgeting in the Indian context? (UPSC 2016)
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SHUKRAYAAN
1. Context
Two Months after the successful Moon landing and launch of a mission to study the Sun, Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced recently two new targets for the space agency ISRO setting up an Indian space station by 2035 and taking the first Indian to the Moon by 2040. The Prime Minister also called on the scientists to work towards a Venus Orbiter Mission and a Mars Lander Mission.
2. Shukrayaan (Venus Orbiter Mission)
The Venus Orbiter Mission, unofficially known as Shukrayaan, is a planned Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) mission to study the surface and atmosphere of Venus. It is expected to launch in 2024.
Key features of the mission
- The spacecraft will orbit Venus for four years, enabling a comprehensive study of the planet's dynamic atmosphere and surface features.
- The mission will carry a suite of scientific instruments, including a high-resolution camera, an atmospheric spectrometer, and a plasma analyzer, to gather detailed information about Venus's atmosphere, surface composition, and ionosphere.
- The mission aims to shed light on the evolution of Venus, particularly its transition from a potentially habitable planet to its current harsh environment. It will also investigate the planet's unique atmospheric dynamics and greenhouse effect, providing insights into climate change processes.
- The mission will involve collaboration with international space agencies, such as NASA, which will contribute a Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) instrument to map Venus's surface at high resolution.
- The mission will push the boundaries of spacecraft design and engineering, as it will need to withstand the extreme conditions of Venus's atmosphere and surface. This will contribute to India's growing expertise in space technology.
The Indian Human Spaceflight Programme (IHSP), spearheaded by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), is a pivotal initiative that aims to establish India's capability to launch and safely return humans to low Earth orbit. At the heart of this program lies the ambitious Gaganyaan mission, India's first crewed spaceflight endeavour.
3.1. Objectives of the IHSPThe IHSP embodies India's aspirations to become a self-reliant spacefaring nation and pursue human spaceflight missions independently. Its primary objectives include:
- To develop and showcase India's indigenous technological expertise in launching and recovering humans from space.
- To conduct scientific experiments in the unique microgravity environment of space, contributing to advancements in various fields.
- To ignite national pride and inspire the youth, particularly in pursuing STEM education and careers in space exploration.
The Gaganyaan mission, meaning "Sky Craft" in Sanskrit, is the first step in realizing the IHSP's vision. It is scheduled to launch in 2024, carrying three Indian astronauts to orbit Earth for seven days.
- The Gaganyaan mission will utilize the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III (GSLV Mk III), India's most powerful rocket, to launch the crew module into a low Earth orbit of approximately 400 kilometres.
- The crew module will accommodate the three astronauts and provide a habitable environment during their week-long mission. The astronauts will undergo rigorous training, including simulations, physical conditioning, and psychological preparation.
- The mission will carry a suite of scientific experiments to be conducted in microgravity, covering areas such as material science, bioscience, and space medicine.
The successful execution of the IHSP and the Gaganyaan mission will mark a significant milestone in India's space exploration journey. It will:
- Place India among an elite group of nations with independent human spaceflight capabilities, demonstrating its technological prowess and boosting national pride.
- Spur further advancements in space technology, leading to the development of new space-based applications and services.
- Ignite the imagination of young minds and inspire future generations to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM).
4. Indian Space Research Organisation
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is the premier national space agency of India, headquartered in Bengaluru. Established in 1969, ISRO has emerged as a global leader in space technology and is renowned for its cost-effective and innovative approach to space exploration.
4.1. Vision and Mission
ISRO's vision is to harness space technology for national development while pursuing space science research and planetary exploration. Its mission is to develop and operate space systems and applications for societal benefit while promoting space research and fostering international cooperation.
4.2. Core Objectives
ISRO's core objectives encompass a wide range of space-related activities, including:
- Developing and launching communication and navigation satellites to provide essential services for telecommunication, broadcasting, weather forecasting, and disaster management.
- Utilizing Earth observation satellites to gather data for resource mapping, environmental monitoring, and disaster management, aiding in national development planning.
- Conducting space science research and planetary exploration missions to enhance our understanding of the universe and explore celestial bodies.
- Designing and building a range of launch vehicles to provide reliable and cost-effective access to space for India's satellites and spacecraft.
- Developing the technology and infrastructure for human spaceflight, enabling India to send astronauts into space and conduct future crewed missions.
4.3. Achievements and Contributions
ISRO has a remarkable track record of achievements, including:
- Launching India's first satellite, Aryabhata, in 1975, and subsequently launching numerous satellites for communication, navigation, remote sensing, and scientific purposes.
- Successfully placed a spacecraft in Mars orbit in 2014, making India the first nation to achieve this feat in its maiden attempt.
- Sending Chandrayaan-1 to the Moon in 2008, discovering water molecules on the lunar surface, and launching Chandrayaan-2 in 2019, attempting a soft landing on the Moon.
- Developing a reputation for delivering high-impact space missions at relatively low costs, demonstrating India's ingenuity and resourcefulness.
- Engaging in international partnerships and collaborations with various space agencies, promoting knowledge sharing and joint space endeavours.
4.4. Global Recognition and Impact
- ISRO has earned global recognition for its contributions to space technology and exploration.
- It is a member of several international space organizations and actively participates in global space initiatives.
- ISRO's achievements have inspired nations around the world, particularly developing countries, demonstrating that space exploration is not limited to a select few but can be pursued with ingenuity and determination.
- In essence, the ISRO stands as a testament to India's scientific and technological prowess.
- It has transformed India's space capabilities, placing the country among the world's leading spacefaring nations, and continues to inspire future generations to reach for the stars.
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For Prelims: Indian Space Research Organisation, Gaganyaan, Shukrayaan, Indian Human Spaceflight Programme,
For Mains:
1. Discuss the scientific objectives of the Shukrayaan mission and its potential contributions to our understanding of Venus. (250 Words)
2. Explain the objectives of the Indian Human Spaceflight Programme (IHSP) and its role in establishing India's capabilities in human spaceflight. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. With reference to India's satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2018)
1. PSLVs launch satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites.
2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth.
3. GSLV Mk III is a four- staged launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 and 3
C. 1 and 2
D. 3 only
Answer: A
2. India's first human space mission "Gaganyaan" will be launched in which year? (ESIC UDC 2022)
A. 2022 B. 2023 C. 2024 D. 2025 E. 2026
Answer: B
3. Find the incorrect statements, about the Gaganyaan Mission of India. (MPSC 2020)
1. Four pilots from Indian Air Force were shortlisted to be astronauts of Gaganyaan.
2. They will be trained at Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Centre in Russia.
3. This mission was announced by Prime Minister in 2014.
4. It is scheduled for 2022 with a team of 5 crew members and a month-long stay in space.
A. 1, 2, 3, 4 B. 2, 3, 4 C. 3, 4 D. 2, 3
Answer: C
4. ISRO is related to: (SSC JE EE 2020)
A. space research B. agricultural research C. seed research D. marine research Answer: A
5. Which of the following pairs is/are correctly matched? (UPSC 2014) Spacecraft Purpose
Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: B 6. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2016) The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO 1. is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission
2. made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA
3. made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit the Mars in its very first attempt
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: C |
OBCs AND SUBCATEGORIES
1. Context
Andhra Pradesh will conduct a backward classes census starting around November 15 to determine the exact population of the state's 139 backward-class communities. This move follows Bihar's recent caste survey and highlights the growing demand for caste enumeration and subcategorization of Other Backward Classes (OBCs) to ensure equitable distribution of reservation benefits.
2. Who are the Other Backward Classes (OBCs)?
- Other Backward Classes (OBCs) are marginalized communities and castes in India that are neither Scheduled Castes (SCs) nor Scheduled Tribes (STs).
- Their social and educational backwardness is often rooted in their caste status.
- The Indian Constitution, under Articles 15(4) and 16(4), mandates affirmative action for OBCs, allowing the state to make special provisions for their advancement and reserve appointments or posts in their favour.
- OBCs are generally identified based on their traditional occupations, primarily in agriculture and artisanal crafts.
- However, there are significant disparities in marginalization levels among various OBC castes. A key distinction is between land-owning OBCs and those who don't own land.
- The demand for subcategorization of OBCs has grown due to the perception that a few dominant OBC groups have disproportionately benefited from the 27% reservation policy implemented following the Mandal Commission recommendations.
3. Bihar's caste survey
- Bihar's caste survey revealed that 27% of the population belongs to "backward" castes and 36% to "extremely backward" castes (EBCs).
- The state has a history of attempts to categorize backward classes, with the Mungeri Lal Commission's recommendations implemented in the 1970s.
- The Karpoori Thakur Formula divided the 26% reservation among OBCs, economically backward OBCs, women, and the poor from "upper castes."
- Chief Minister Nitish Kumar has focused on reaching out to EBCs, a significant vote bank.
- The current OBC reservation is divided among BC-I, BC-II, and OBC Women, but this could change based on the caste survey findings.
4. First OBC Commission
- The initial OBC Commission, led by Kaka Kalelkar, was established by the government of Jawaharlal Nehru on January 29, 1953, and it submitted its report on March 30, 1955.
- To identify socially and educationally backward classes, this commission applied specific criteria, including low social standing within the traditional caste hierarchy of Hindu society, a lack of general educational advancement within the majority of the caste/community, inadequate or nonexistent representation in government positions, and insufficient representation in trade, commerce, and industry.
- This commission created a list of 2,399 backward castes or communities across the country, with 837 of them categorized as the "most backwards."
- It also recommended the inclusion of caste enumeration in the 1961 census, along with a 25-40% reservation in various government job tiers and a 70% reservation for technical and professional institution admissions.
- Unfortunately, the report never underwent parliamentary discussion and remained unimplemented due to the government's perception of impracticality in creating an all-India list.
4.1. Second OBC Commission
- The second OBC Commission, known as the B.P. Mandal Commission, was appointed in 1979 during Morarji Desai's Janata government.
- However, its implementation was only officially declared in 1990 under the government of V.P. Singh.
- The Mandal Commission identified 3,743 castes and communities as OBCs, estimating their population at 52%.
- It recommended a 27% reservation in government jobs and admissions to all government-run scientific, technical, and professional institutions.
- The 27% OBC quota did not incorporate subcategories, although one member of the commission, L.R. Naik, dissented and proposed the division of OBCs into intermediate backward classes and depressed backward classes.
- The Central Government's Official Memorandum regarding the implementation of the Mandal recommendations, issued on September 25, 1991, stipulated that preference should be given to candidates from the economically disadvantaged sections of the SEBCs within the 27% reservation.
- Nevertheless, the central government consistently implemented the quota by treating the entire OBC population as a single group and excluding the "creamy layer" of affluent candidates, as per criteria established after a Supreme Court ruling.
5. Subcategories in States
Over the years, state governments have devised their own criteria for distributing reservation benefits among various OBC categories, a practice that began well before the implementation of the Mandal recommendations at the national level.
- In Andhra Pradesh, OBCs are categorized into five subgroups:
(A) Aboriginal tribes, Vimukt Jatis, nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes, etc.;
(B) Professional groups like tappers, weavers, carpenters, ironsmiths, goldsmiths, kamsalins, etc.;
(C) SC converts to Christianity and their descendants;
(D) all other OBC castes and communities not covered in the previous three categories;
(E) 14 Muslim OBC castes were identified in 2007.
- These groups share 29% reservation benefits, divided into 7%, 10%, 1%, 7%, and 4%, respectively. Telangana follows a similar model.
- In Karnataka, the 207 OBC castes are divided into five sub-groups.
- Jharkhand has two groups: Extremely Backward Classes (EBCs) and Backward Classes.
- In West Bengal, the 143 OBC castes are categorized into More Backwards and Backwards.
- In Maharashtra, the 21% OBC reservation is divided between the Special Backward Category (2%) and Other Backward Classes (19%).
- In Tamil Nadu, the 50% OBC quota is distributed among Backward Classes (26.5%), Backward Class Muslims (3.5%), and Most Backward Classes/Denotified Community (20%).
- In Kerala, the 40% OBC reservation is divided into eight subgroups, including Ezhava/Thiyya/Billava (14%) and Muslims (12%).
- In Uttar Pradesh, Rajnath Singh established a Social Justice Committee to subcategorize SCs and OBCs to provide quotas within quotas.
- The Hukum Singh Committee categorized Yadavs as 'forwards' among the backward classes and ranked more influential communities like Jats below them, placing Jatavs at the top among SCs.
- The report faced challenges in the Supreme Court, and the BSP-BJP government led by Mayawati did not proceed with the implementation.
6. UPA’s subcategorisation bid
- The United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government sought to address the issue of subcategorization of OBCs in response to political developments and the BJP's emphasis on OBC identity.
- In 2015, the National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC) proposed dividing OBCs into three subcategories: Extremely Backward Classes, More Backward Classes, and Backward Classes.
- However, this recommendation was not implemented, and a new commission under Justice G Rohini was formed in 2017.
- The Rohini Commission submitted its report in 2023, but its contents are not publicly available.
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For Prelims: Rohini Commission, OBC, National Commission for Backward Classes, Hukum Singh Committee, B.P. Mandal Commission, Kaka Kalelkar Commission,
For Mains:
1. "Discuss the significance of caste enumeration and subcategorization of Other Backward Classes (OBCs) in the context of India's reservation policies. How does it impact social equity and representation?" (250 Words)
2. Critically assess the role of the Mandal Commission and subsequent commissions in addressing the issue of OBC reservation and subcategorization. Discuss the challenges and opportunities in implementing subcategorization policies. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Consider the following organizations/bodies in India: (UPSC 2023)
How many of the above constitutional bodies? (a) Only one Answer: A 2. The First Backward Classes Commission was chaired by: (Dehli Police Constable 2020) (TNPSC Group 1) A. V.P. Singh B. PG Shah C. Kaka Kalelkar D. Anup Singh Answer: C |
MINIMUM SUPPORT PRICE
1. Context
The Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs, led by Prime Minister Narendra Modi, has approved an increase in the Minimum Support Prices (MSP) for all mandated Rabi Crops for the 2024-25 marketing season. This decision aims to ensure fair prices for farmers. The highest MSP increase is for lentils (masur) at Rs. 425 per quintal, followed by rapeseed & mustard at Rs. 200 per quintal. Wheat and safflower have an increased MSP of Rs. 150 per quintal each, while barley and gram have an increase of Rs. 115 and Rs. 105 per quintal, respectively.
2. What is the Minimum Support Price (MSP)?
- MSP is the minimum price a farmer must pay for their food grains as guaranteed by the government. They are recommended by the Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) and approved by the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs.
- The CACP submits its recommendations to the government in the form of Price Policy Reports every year.
- After considering the report and views of the state governments and also keeping in view the overall demand and supply situation in the country, the central government takes the final decision.
- The Food Corporation of India (FCI) is the nodal agency for procurement along with State agencies, at the beginning of the sowing season.
The minimum support price (MSP) is set for 23 crops every year. They include:
- 7 cereals (paddy, wheat, maize, bajra, jowar, ragi, and barley)
- 5 pulses (chana, tur/arhar, moong, urad, and Masur)
- 7 oilseeds (rapeseed-mustard, groundnut, soya bean, sunflower, sesamum, safflower, and Enigerseed) and
- 4 commercial crops (sugarcane, cotton, copra, and raw jute).
3. How MSP is Calculated?
- MSP, presently, is based on a formula of 1.5 times the production costs.
- The CACP projects three kinds of production costs for every crop, both at state and all-India average levels.
- A2 covers all paid-out costs directly incurred by the farmer — in cash and kind — on seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, hired labour, leased-in land, fuel, irrigation, etc.
- A2+FL includes A2 plus an imputed value of unpaid family labour.
- C2: Estimated land rent and the cost of interest on the money taken for farming are added to A2 and FL.
- Farm unions are demanding that a comprehensive cost calculation (C2) must also include capital assets and the rentals and interest forgone on owned land, as recommended by the National Commission for Farmers.
4. The issue with the calculation of MSP
- To calculate MSP, the government uses A2+FL cost. The criticism of A2+FL is that it doesn’t cover all costs and that a more representative measure, C2, needs to be used.
- For example, in the 2017-18 rabi season, CACP data shows that C2 for wheat was 54% higher than A2+FL.
- The Swaminathan Commission also stated that the MSP should be based on the comprehensive cost of production, which is the C2 method.
5. Key Points about the Farmer's Demand
- After the recent decision to repeal three contentious farm laws, protesting farmer unions are now pressing for their demand of the legalization of the Minimum Support Price (MSP).
- They want a legal guarantee for the MSP, which at present is just an indicative or a desired price.
- Legalising MSPs would put the government under a legal obligation to buy every grain of the crops for which MSPs have been announced.
- At present, the PM has announced the formation of a committee to make MSP more transparent, as well as to change crop patterns and to promote zero-budget agriculture which would reduce the cost of production.
- The entire issue of enforcing MSP legally is a tricky, complicated, and multidimensional one, involving lots of factors.
- Core demand: MSP based on a C2+50% formula should be made a legal entitlement for all agricultural produce. This would mean a 34% increase in the latest MSP for paddy and a 13% increase for wheat. MSP should also be extended to fruit and vegetable farmers who have been excluded from benefits so far.
6. The rationale behind the demand for legislation of MSP
- Farmers receive less than MSP: In most crops grown across much of India, the prices received by farmers, especially during harvest time, are well below the officially declared MSPs. And since MSPs have no statutory backing, they cannot demand these as a matter of right.
- Limited procurement by the Govt: Also, the actual procurement at MSP by the Govt. is confined to only about a third of wheat and rice crops (of which half is bought in Punjab and Haryana alone), and 10%-20% of select pulses and oilseeds. According to the Shanta Kumar Committee’s 2015 report, only 6% of the farm households sell wheat and rice to the government at the MSP rates.
7. Challenges associated with MSP
- Protest by Farmers: Farm unions have been protesting for more than six months on Delhi's outskirts, demanding legislation to guarantee MSP for all farmers for all crops and a repeal of three contentious farm reform laws.
- MSP and Inflation: When announcing the MSP, inflation should be taken into account. But often the price is not increased up to the mark. For example, this time MSP for Maize has not even considered inflation then how it will benefit farmers! Also, frequent increases in the MSPs can lead to inflation too.
- High Input Costs: The input costs have been rising faster than sale prices, squeezing the meagre income of the small farmers and driving them into debt.
- Lack of Mechanism: No mechanism guarantees that every farmer can get at least the MSP as the floor price in the market. So proper mechanisms need to be fixed for all times to come.
- Restriction in Europe: Even after producing surplus grains, every year a huge portion of these grains gets rotten. This is due to the restrictions under WTO norms, that grain stocks with the FCI (being heavily subsidized due to MSP) cannot be exported.
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For Prelims: Minimum Support Price, Rabi Crops, WTO, Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP), Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs, Food Corporation of India
For Mains:
1. Explain the concept of Minimum Support Price (MSP) in India. How is MSP determined, and what is its role in ensuring fair prices for agricultural produce? (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2020)
1. In the case of all cereals, pulses, and oil seeds, the procurement at Minimum Support Price (MSP) is unlimited in any State/UT of India.
2. In the case of cereals and pulses, the MSP is fixed in any State/UT at a level to which the market price will never rise.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: D
2. Which of the following factors/policies were affecting the price of rice in India in the recent past? (UPSC CSE, 2020)
(1) Minimum Support Price (2) Government’s trading (3) Government’s stockpiling (4) Consumer subsidies Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2 and 4 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 Answer: D
3. In India, which of the following can be considered as public investment in agriculture? (UPSC GS1, 2020)
(1) Fixing Minimum Support Price for agricultural produce of all crops (2) Computerization of Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (3) Social Capital development (4) Free electricity supply to farmers (5) Waiver of agricultural loans by the banking system (6) Setting up of cold storage facilities by the governments. In India, which of the following can be considered as public investment in agriculture? Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2 and 5 only (b) 1, 3, 4 and 5 only (c) 2, 3 and 6 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 Answer: C
4. The Fair and Remunerative Price (FRP) of sugarcane is approved by the (UPSC CSE, 2015)
(a) Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (b) Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (c) Directorate of Marketing and Inspection, Ministry of Agriculture (d) Agricultural Produce Market Committee Answer: A
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POSCO ACT
1. Context
In the small town of Kaki, Assam, a public meeting was held under a vibrant pink and green tent, organized by the All Assam Minority Students' Union (AAMSU). The gathering consisted primarily of school-going children and elderly residents from the predominantly Bengali-origin Muslim community. This meeting came in the wake of a recent police operation against child marriage, where 31 individuals from the Hojai district were apprehended. Among those arrested were 13 men accused of marrying underage girls and 18 relatives suspected of facilitating these marriages.
2. About POSCO Act
The Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, 2012, is a comprehensive law enacted by the Indian Parliament to protect children from sexual abuse, assault, harassment, and pornography. The Act defines a child as any person below the age of 18 years and provides stringent punishments for various offences against children.
3. Key Provisions of the POCSO Act
- In Penetrative sexual assault (Section 4) Minimum punishment of 10 years imprisonment, extendable to life imprisonment, and a fine.
- In Aggravated penetrative sexual assault (Section 6) Minimum punishment of 20 years imprisonment, extendable to life imprisonment or the death penalty, and a fine.
- In Sexual assault (Section 7) Minimum punishment of 3 years imprisonment, extendable to 5 years, and a fine.
- In Aggravated sexual assault (Section 8) Minimum punishment of 5 years imprisonment, extendable to 7 years, and a fine.
- In Sexual harassment (Section 11)Minimum punishment of 3 years imprisonment and a fine.
- In the Use of a child for pornographic purposes (Section 13) Minimum punishment of 5 years imprisonment and a fine.
- In the Storage of pornographic material involving a child (Section 14) Minimum punishment of 3 years imprisonment and a fine.
- In the Abetment of an offence(Section 15) Punishment for abetment is the same as that for the actual offence.
4. Special Provisions of the POCSO Act
- Any person who knows that a child has been sexually abused must report the offence to the police or the Special Juvenile Police Unit (SJPU).
- There is no time limit for reporting offences under the POCSO Act.
- Special courts are designated to handle cases under the POCSO Act to ensure speedy trials.
- The Act mandates child-friendly procedures during investigation and trial, including the use of child-friendly language, avoiding repeated questioning, and providing support services.
5. Impact of the POCSO Act
- The POCSO Act has played a significant role in addressing child sexual abuse in India.
- It has raised awareness about the issue, strengthened legal provisions, and provided a framework for child protection.
- The Act has also led to an increase in reporting of child sexual abuse cases, indicating a growing trust in the legal system.
6. Challenges in Implementation
Despite its positive impact, the POCSO Act faces challenges in implementation, including:
- There is still a lack of awareness about the POCSO Act among the general public, including children, parents, and law enforcement officials.
- Due to overburdened courts and a shortage of trained personnel, there are often delays in the investigation and trial of POCSO cases.
- Social stigma and fear of reprisal often discourage victims and their families from reporting child sexual abuse.
7. Addressing the Challenges
To address these challenges, there is a need for:
- Comprehensive awareness campaigns targeting children, parents, teachers, and law enforcement officials are crucial to promote understanding of the POCSO Act and encourage reporting.
- Child welfare committees and special juvenile police units need to be strengthened to ensure effective implementation of the Act.
- Sensitization training for judges, prosecutors, and police personnel is essential to ensure child-friendly procedures and effective handling of POCSO cases.
8. The Way Forward
The POCSO Act is a significant step towards protecting children from sexual abuse. With continued efforts to address implementation challenges, the Act can play a vital role in ensuring a safe and secure environment for children in India.
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For Prelims: POCSO Act, Child abuse, sexual harassment,
For Mains:
1. The POCSO Act is a crucial tool in the fight against child sexual abuse, but public awareness and sensitization are still lacking. How can comprehensive awareness campaigns be designed to educate children, parents, teachers, and law enforcement officials about the Act and encourage reporting of offences? (250 Words)
2. Despite the positive impact of the POCSO Act, it faces several challenges in its implementation. Elaborate on the challenges faced in implementing the POCSO Act and suggest measures to address these challenges for more effective child protection. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
Prelims
1. Read the following about child marriages: (Telangana Police SI 2016)
A) 'Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929' fixed the age of the marriage for girls at 14 years.
B) 'Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006' raised the age of marriage for girls to 18 years.
C) The 2011 Census found that 18% of women were married before 18 years of age.
Choose the correct statements
1. A & B 2. B & C 3. C & A 4. A, B & C
Answer: 1
2. 'Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action', often seen in the news, is (UPSC 2015)
A. a strategy to tackle the regional terrorism, an outcome of a meeting of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization
B. a plan of action for sustainable economic growth in the Asia-Pacific Region, an outcome of the deliberations of the Asia-Pacific Economic Forum
C. an agenda for women's empowerment, an outcome of a World Conference convened by the United Nations
D. a strategy to combat wildlife trafficking, a declaration of the East Asia Summit
Answer: C
3. The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006, prohibits child marriage. Under this act, ______ is the legal age for the marriage of girls. (DSSSB DOE PRT 2022)
A. 16 years B. 20 years C. 22 years D. 18 years
Answer: D
4. United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) was founded in ____ (DSSSB AE Civil 2021)
A.1948 B. 1945 C. 1946 D. 1947
Answer: C
5. According to the definition of the POSCO Act, children under what age or less than what age is considered to be a minor? (Rajasthan Police Constable 2020)
A. Less than 16 B. Less than C. 17 Less than D. 18 Less than 14
Answer: C
6. Read the following Child Rights as mentioned in the Children's Bill of Rights - (CTET 2021)
A) I have the right to a good education, and everyone has the Responsibility to encourage all children to go to school. (Article 28, 19, 23)
B) I have the right to express my views freely which should be taken seriously, and everyone has the responsibility to listen to others. (Article 12, 13)
Which of the following Articles of the Indian Constitution are complementary to the above Child Rights?
A. Article 28 and 12 B. Article 14 and 16 C. Article 51 and 78 D. Article 32 and 44
Answer: A
Mains
1. Examine the main provisions of the National Child Policy and throw light on the status of its implementation. (UPSC 2016)
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