Image source: One district-one product

The art form belongs to the Lanjia Saura community, a PVTG largely residing in the Rayagada district. These paintings are in the form of exterior murals painted on the mud walls of homes. White paintings figure over a crimson-maroon background.

It is believed that the Lanjia Sauras paint their walls with Idital artworks to show gratitude to their deities and forefathers, and also for the well-being of their community. Reflecting the love and affection of the primitive tribes for nature, they feature subjects like tribal humans, trees, animals, birds, the Sun and the Moon.

4.10. Koraput Kala Jeera Rice

Nayagarh Kanteimundi Brinjal is known for its prickly thorns on the stems and the whole plant. The green and round fruits contain more seeds as compared to other genotypes. It is famous for its unique taste and relatively short quick cooking time. The plants are resistant to major insects and can be grown with minimal pesticide.

It is being widely cultivated in Nayagarh district of the state. The growers are getting a yield of up to 200 quintals per hectare and selling at around Rs 60 per kg. Historical records also suggest that the locals got the brinjal from the hilly areas. They collected seeds from it and started raising seedlings nearly 100 years ago

4.13.Odisha Khajuri Guda

Odisha’s “Khajuri Guda” or jaggery is a natural sweetener extracted from date palm trees and has its origin in the Gajapati district. Traditionally, the jaggery is prepared in a trapezoidal form called ‘Patali Gur’ and is organic by nature. It is dark brown and has a unique taste

4.14.Dhenkanal Magji

Dhenkanal Magji is a type of sweet made from cheese from buffalo milk, with distinct characteristics in terms of appearance, taste, flavour, shape, and size. It also has unique nutritional values that distinguish it from other cheese-based sweets.

Thousands of people were said to be earning their livelihood through animal husbandry, especially buffalo rearing, during the British era. The region was the hinterland of buffalo milk production and cheese was the third largest produce, after milk and curd. Mandar-Sadangi area of Gondia block is believed to be the centre of origin of the sweet stuff, which has now been spread to the entire district.

The sweet is prepared by draining moisture from the cheese and then frying it, finally forming balls from the mixture

5. Way forward

 A marker of authentic products, the GI tags also help protect the interests of the local growers and artisans by preventing duplicity of the products and sale from unauthorised traders. Consumers, through the tags, can know which goods are certified

• The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts, 1992 are regarded as landmark reforms in India's democratic framework because they provided constitutional status to local self-government institutions.
• These amendments were enacted with the objective of decentralizing power, promoting grassroots democracy, and ensuring greater participation of people in governance.
• While the 73rd Constitutional Amendment deals with rural local self-government through Panchayati Raj Institutions, the 74th Constitutional Amendment focuses on urban local self-government through Municipalities.
• The 73rd Amendment came into effect on 24 April 1993, whereas the 74th Amendment became effective on 1 June 1993.
• The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 inserted Part IX (Articles 243 to 243-O) into the Constitution and added the Eleventh Schedule, which contains 29 subjects that may be devolved to Panchayats.
• The amendment established Panchayati Raj Institutions as the third tier of government in rural India and sought to strengthen democratic decentralization.
• It envisages a three-tier Panchayati Raj system, consisting of the Gram Panchayat at the village level, the Panchayat Samiti at the intermediate or block level, and the Zila Parishad at the district level. However, states with a population of less than twenty lakh are not required to establish the intermediate tier.
• An important feature of the 73rd Amendment is the recognition of the Gram Sabha as the foundation of village democracy.
• The Gram Sabha comprises all registered voters in a village and serves as the primary forum through which people participate directly in local governance.
• The amendment also mandates direct elections to all seats in Panchayats and provides for the reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in proportion to their population.
• Additionally, it reserves not less than one-third of the total seats and offices of Chairpersons for women, although several states have subsequently increased this reservation to fifty percent.
• To ensure continuity and accountability, the amendment fixes the tenure of Panchayats at five years and requires fresh elections to be held within six months if a Panchayat is dissolved prematurely.
• It also provides for the establishment of an independent State Election Commission to supervise, direct, and conduct elections to Panchayats.
• Furthermore, every state is required to constitute a State Finance Commission every five years to recommend the distribution of financial resources between the State Government and local bodies, thereby strengthening their financial autonomy.
• The 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 extended similar constitutional recognition to Urban Local Bodies by inserting Part IXA (Articles 243P to 243ZG) into the Constitution and adding the Twelfth Schedule, which lists 18 subjects related to urban governance.
• The amendment aims to make urban local institutions more democratic, representative, and accountable while enabling them to manage the increasing challenges of urbanization effectively.
• The amendment provides for three categories of urban local bodies depending on the size and nature of the urban area.
• A Nagar Panchayat is established for transitional areas moving from rural to urban status, a Municipal Council is constituted for smaller urban areas, and a Municipal Corporation is created for larger urban areas.
• Members of these bodies are elected directly by the people. Similar to the provisions under the 73rd Amendment, seats are reserved for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and not less than one-third of the seats for women, ensuring inclusive participation in urban governance.
• The 74th Amendment also prescribes a five-year tenure for Municipalities and requires elections to be conducted within six months if a municipality is dissolved before completing its term.
• It entrusts the State Election Commission with the responsibility of conducting municipal elections and requires the State Finance Commission to recommend measures for improving the financial position of urban local bodies.
• Recognizing the need for coordinated planning, the amendment provides for the constitution of District Planning Committees (DPCs) to integrate rural and urban development plans at the district level.
• It also mandates the establishment of Metropolitan Planning Committees (MPCs) in metropolitan areas to prepare comprehensive development plans by integrating the plans prepared by various municipalities and Panchayats within the metropolitan region.

3. Structure of Local Governance in India

• India's constitutional framework establishes a well-defined multi-level system of local governance in which citizens elect their representatives directly at different tiers. This arrangement is intended to deepen democratic participation by bringing decision-making closer to the people.
• In urban areas, local administration is carried out through Municipal Corporations, Municipal Councils, and Nagar Panchayats, each catering to different categories of urban settlements based on their size and stage of development.
• In rural areas, governance is organised through a three-tier Panchayati Raj system consisting of the Gram Panchayat at the village level, the Block Development Council (or Panchayat Samiti) at the intermediate level, and the Zila Parishad at the district level. Together, these institutions are responsible for addressing local developmental needs and promoting participatory governance.
• To ensure integrated planning at the district level, Article 243ZD of the Constitution provides for the establishment of a District Planning Committee (DPC). The DPC is entrusted with the responsibility of consolidating development plans prepared by both Panchayats and Municipalities and formulating a coordinated development strategy for the entire district.
• Rather than functioning as an independent executive body, the District Planning Committee serves as a coordinating institution that harmonises the priorities and proposals emerging from elected rural and urban local bodies.
• Its primary purpose is to encourage decentralised planning by incorporating local aspirations into district-wide development plans, thereby reinforcing the principles of democratic decentralisation.
• Despite the constitutional importance accorded to District Planning Committees, their performance has varied considerably across states. In many parts of the country, DPCs have remained weak or inactive, limiting their effectiveness in district planning.
• However, some states, particularly Kerala, have demonstrated more effective utilisation of these committees by integrating local planning with broader developmental objectives.

• The District Development Councils (DDCs) in Jammu and Kashmir were created through an executive order rather than by a legislative enactment.
• Although the government describes DDCs as directly elected institutions intended to deepen democratic participation at the grassroots, their structure has generated considerable debate regarding their compatibility with the existing system of local governance.
• One of the principal criticisms is that the DDC framework operates alongside, rather than through, constitutionally recognised local institutions such as Zila Parishads and Urban Local Bodies.
• In contrast, the District Planning Committee (DPC), envisaged under Article 243ZD of the Constitution, is designed to consolidate development plans prepared by Panchayats and Municipalities into a unified district development strategy.
• The DPC functions primarily as a coordinating body and does not exercise independent executive authority.
• By comparison, DDCs have been vested with administrative and developmental responsibilities, creating a parallel layer of governance that alters the conventional relationship between elected local institutions and decision-making powers.
• Another significant distinction lies in their approach to decentralisation. The DPC represents a bottom-up planning mechanism, where district-level priorities emerge from plans prepared by local elected bodies.
• DDCs, on the other hand, are often viewed as following a top-down model, with authority flowing from higher levels of administration.
• Critics contend that this arrangement places DDCs in competition with existing local institutions and reinforces bureaucratic oversight instead of promoting genuine democratic decentralisation.
• Questions have also been raised regarding the principle of equal representation within the DDC system. Each district is allotted the same number of DDC constituencies irrespective of population size, resulting in disparities in the value of individual votes across districts.
• For example, Srinagar, with a population of approximately 12 lakh, and Kishtwar, with nearly 2.5 lakh residents, are represented by an identical number of DDC members.
• As a result, citizens in smaller districts enjoy relatively greater representation than those living in more populous districts, leading to concerns about unequal political representation.
• Some analysts have likened DDCs to the Special Purpose Vehicles (SPVs) established under the Smart Cities Mission.
• According to this view, while both structures appear to promote decentralised governance, they are largely administered through bureaucratic mechanisms and may override or sideline initiatives approved by elected local bodies. Consequently, DDCs are perceived by some as replacing, rather than complementing, constitutionally recognised local institutions.
• The establishment of 280 elected DDC members across Jammu and Kashmir has also been interpreted by some observers as creating a parallel representative structure at the district level.
• Historically, in regions experiencing political instability, higher levels of government have sometimes relied on district-based institutions to reduce the influence of state-level representative bodies.
• In the context of Jammu and Kashmir, where the Legislative Assembly remained absent or functionally weakened for an extended period, critics argue that the DDC framework enabled several planning, developmental, and financial functions that would ordinarily be exercised by elected state representatives and local self-government institutions to remain under the influence of the Union administration.

ETHANOL BLENDING

 

1. Context

Amid a raging backlash over a rapid increase in the use of ethanol in petrol from 10% to 20% in just three years, the government is likely to push back the proposed shift to a higher blend of ethanol fuel E25 comprising 75% petrol and 25% ethanol.

 

2. Ethanol

• Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol, is a type of alcohol commonly used as a biofuel and a key ingredient in alcoholic beverages.
• It is a clear, colorless liquid with a characteristic odor and a slightly sweet taste.
• Ethanol has a wide range of applications and is produced through the fermentation of sugars by yeast or other microorganisms.

3. Ethanol Blending

• Ethanol blending refers to the practice of mixing ethanol with gasoline or other fuels to create a blended fuel.
• Ethanol is a biofuel derived from renewable sources such as sugarcane, corn, or other plant materials.
• It is commonly used as an additive to gasoline in various parts of the world to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote cleaner fuel options.
• In the context of transportation, the most common form of ethanol blending is with gasoline, creating a blend known as ethanol-gasoline blend or gasohol.
• The most common ethanol-gasoline blends are E10 and E15, indicating the percentage of ethanol in the mixture. For example, E10 contains 10% ethanol and 90% gasoline, while E15 contains 15% ethanol and 85% gasoline.

 

4. What does 100% blending mean?

• 100% blending refers to the use of pure ethanol as fuel. Compared to ethanol, petrol has a higher energy density, meaning one litre of petrol can deliver nearly 45–55% more energy than the same quantity of ethanol.

• Most conventional petrol engines are designed and approved only for E20 fuel, which contains 20% ethanol blending. Older vehicles generally support even lower ethanol content.
• In contrast, fuels such as E85 or E100 require flex-fuel engines that are specifically engineered to operate with varying ethanol concentrations.
• At present, flex-fuel vehicles are not commonly available in India. Toyota has launched a flex-fuel version of the Toyota Innova Hycross, priced around ₹3–4 lakh higher than its petrol counterpart.
• Maruti Suzuki and Hyundai are also reportedly developing prototype models. These vehicles require specialised features such as corrosion-resistant fuel systems, advanced sensors, and finely calibrated engine control units to handle higher ethanol blends efficiently

5. Benefits of Ethanol Blending

• Ethanol is considered a renewable fuel because it is derived from plant materials that absorb carbon dioxide during their growth. When blended with gasoline, ethanol can help reduce the carbon footprint of transportation fuels, as it emits fewer greenhouse gases compared to pure gasoline.
• By blending ethanol with gasoline, countries can reduce their reliance on imported fossil fuels and promote energy security.
• Ethanol has a higher octane rating than gasoline, which can improve engine performance and increase fuel efficiency.
• Ethanol production often relies on agricultural feedstocks, providing economic benefits to farmers and rural communities.
• Ethanol-gasoline blends can help reduce harmful pollutants such as carbon monoxide and volatile organic compounds, contributing to improved air quality.
• Mixing 20 percent ethanol in petrol can potentially reduce the auto fuel import bill by a yearly $4 billion, or Rs 30,000 crore. 
• Another major benefit of ethanol blending is the extra income it gives to farmers. Ethanol is derived from sugarcane and also foodgrains. Hence, farmers can earn extra income by selling their surplus produce to ethanol blend manufacturers.

6. What is E20 Fuel?

• E20 fuel is a type of blended fuel that contains 20% ethanol and 80% gasoline.
• It is an ethanol-gasoline blend, similar to other common blends like E10 (10% ethanol) and E15 (15% ethanol).
• The percentage of ethanol in the blend is denoted by the "E" followed by the percentage of ethanol content.
• E20 fuel is considered a higher ethanol blend compared to E10 and E15, which are more widely available in various countries.
• The use of E20 is part of efforts to promote renewable fuels and reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the transportation sector.

 

7. India and Ethanol Blending

• In India, ethanol is primarily manufactured using sugarcane, which is known to consume large quantities of water.
• Excessive diversion of sugarcane for ethanol production may affect sugar supply, thereby influencing food prices and availability.
• To address this concern, the government has been encouraging the production of second-generation ethanol derived from agricultural waste such as rice straw and other crop residues. This approach is also expected to help reduce stubble burning by farmers.

• However, producing ethanol is still not cheaper than manufacturing petrol, making government support and regulated pricing necessary. There are also environmental and economic concerns associated with ethanol production.
• Although ethanol releases lower levels of carbon monoxide and particulate pollutants during combustion compared to petrol, sugarcane-based ethanol production involves significant land usage, high water consumption, and dependence on agricultural inputs such as fertilizers
• India has been attempting to strengthen its energy security by diversifying its energy sources. This includes exploring alternative crude oil suppliers, securing additional uranium resources, and promoting renewable energy through various incentives.
• Some efforts to access global energy resources have faced challenges due to sanctions imposed by the United States.
• At the same time, domestic manufacturing capabilities in the energy sector remain limited, and attempts to significantly boost indigenous oil and gas production have achieved only modest success.
• According to Nitin Gadkari, India must eventually reduce hydrogen production costs to nearly $1 per kilogram if it aims to emerge as an energy-exporting nation. Currently, global hydrogen production costs range between $3 and $6 per kilogram.
• The National Green Hydrogen Mission has been launched with this objective in mind. Nevertheless, the hydrogen sector still faces major obstacles, particularly the absence of commercially viable systems for hydrogen transport and storage

 

8. Significance of E20 fuel

• Reduced Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Ethanol is derived from renewable plant sources, and blending it with gasoline can help reduce the carbon footprint of transportation fuels, contributing to efforts to combat climate change.
• Energy Security: By using more domestically produced ethanol, countries can reduce their dependence on imported fossil fuels and enhance energy security.
• Improved Engine Performance: Ethanol's higher octane rating can enhance engine performance and increase fuel efficiency in certain vehicles.
• Support for Agriculture: Ethanol production often relies on agricultural feedstocks, supporting farmers and rural economies.

9. Challenges in Ethanol Blending Programme

While ethanol blending in transportation fuels offers various benefits, there are several challenges that countries may face in implementing and sustaining a successful ethanol blending program. Some of these challenges include:

• Infrastructure and Distribution: Establishing the necessary infrastructure for blending and distributing ethanol-gasoline blends can be a significant challenge. This includes ensuring that fuel stations have the proper storage facilities and compatible pumps to dispense blended fuels.
• Compatibility with Vehicles: Not all vehicles are designed to run on high ethanol blends like E20 or E85. Older vehicles or vehicles from certain manufacturers may not be compatible with these blends, leading to potential engine damage or decreased performance.
• Fuel Quality and Standards: Maintaining consistent fuel quality is essential to prevent engine damage and ensure consumer confidence. Governments and fuel suppliers must adhere to strict quality standards and monitor the blending process to avoid issues with fuel performance.
• Feedstock Availability and Cost: The production of ethanol relies on agricultural feedstocks, such as corn, sugarcane, or other biomass. The availability and cost of these feedstocks can vary, affecting the overall cost of ethanol production and blending.
• Land Use and Food Security Concerns: Utilizing agricultural land for ethanol production can raise concerns about competing with food production and potentially impacting food security in some regions.
• Competing Uses for Ethanol: Ethanol has various applications beyond fuel blending, such as in the production of alcoholic beverages, pharmaceuticals, and industrial chemicals. Competing uses can influence the availability and cost of ethanol for blending.

10. National Biofuel Policy

• India has a National Policy on Biofuels, which was first introduced in 2009 and later revised in 2018.  The policy aims to promote the use of biofuels to reduce the country's dependence on fossil fuels, enhance energy security, promote sustainable development, and mitigate greenhouse gas emissions.
• The policy encourages the blending of biofuels with conventional fossil fuels to create biofuel blends. It focuses on the production and utilization of first-generation biofuels like ethanol and biodiesel, as well as advanced biofuels made from non-food feedstock.
• The policy sets targets for blending biofuels with conventional fuels in the transportation sector. For instance, the policy aimed for a 20% ethanol blending in petrol and a 5% biodiesel blending in diesel by 2030.
• The policy emphasizes the development and promotion of second-generation biofuels, which are produced from non-food feedstock, such as agricultural residues, waste, and non-edible oils. This helps avoid competition with food crops and ensures sustainability.
• The policy supports research and development initiatives in the biofuels sector, aimed at improving production processes, enhancing feedstock availability, and developing cost-effective technologies for biofuel production.
• The policy focuses on creating a robust supply chain for biofuels, from feedstock cultivation and collection to biofuel production, distribution, and marketing. This helps in ensuring a smooth and efficient supply of biofuels across the country.

11. Can ethanol be used as an aviation fuel?

 

• The aviation sector remains one of the most difficult industries to decarbonise because large commercial aircraft currently cannot rely on batteries or hydrogen technology at scale.
• As a result, Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) is considered one of the main solutions for meeting global emission reduction targets in aviation.
• For ethanol to be suitable for aircraft engines, it must undergo a specialised conversion process known as alcohol-to-jet (ATJ).
• During this process, ethanol is dehydrated, its hydrocarbon chains are extended, and it is further treated through hydrogenation.
• This conversion ensures that pure ethanol is not directly used in jet engines, thereby avoiding problems such as reduced engine performance or moisture absorption that could block fuel systems.
• The final ATJ fuel closely resembles conventional kerosene in its chemical composition, allowing it to be used with existing aviation fuel infrastructure.
• ASTM International, which establishes international aviation fuel standards, has approved the ATJ production pathway and currently permits blending of up to 50% ATJ-based fuel in Sustainable Aviation Fuel.
• However, expanding ethanol use for both SAF production and road transport blending could place additional strain on the availability of raw feedstock materials used for ethanol manufacturing

For Prelims: Ethanol Blending, E20 fuel, Greenhouse Gas Emission, National Policy on Biofuels, Food Security, and Gasoline. For Mains: 1. Discuss the benefits and challenges of ethanol blending in transportation fuels as a strategy to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote renewable energy sources. (250 Words).

 

Previous year Question 1. According to India's National Policy on Biofuels, which of the following can be used as raw materials for the production of biofuels? (UPSC 2020) 1. Cassava 2. Damaged wheat grains 3. Groundnut seeds 4. Horse gram 5. Rotten potatoes 6. Sugar beet Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1, 2, 5, and 6 only B. 1, 3, 4, and 6 only C. 2, 3, 4, and 5 only D. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 Answer: A

Source: The Indian Express

 

 

BRAHMOS MISSILE

 

 

1. Context

 

As part of a defence agreement, India has agreed to supply Indonesia with two batteries of BrahMos supersonic cruise missiles valued at $200 million

 

2. What are the BrahMos Missile?

 

• The BrahMos missile is a supersonic cruise missile jointly developed by India's Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and Russia's NPO Mashinostroyeniya. Its name is a portmanteau of the Brahmaputra and Moskva rivers.
• BrahMos is known for its speed and versatility. It is the fastest cruise missile in the world, capable of reaching speeds of up to Mach 3 (three times the speed of sound). This makes it extremely difficult for enemy defenses to intercept.
• The missile has both land-attack and anti-ship capabilities, meaning it can target both land-based targets and naval vessels. Its precision and range make it a potent weapon for both offensive and defensive purposes. It's deployed across various platforms including land, sea, and air.
• The BrahMos missile has become a significant asset in the Indian military's arsenal, providing a formidable deterrent and offensive capability. It's continuously being upgraded to enhance its capabilities and adapt it to different platforms and operational requirements

3. Evolution of Brahmos

• During the early 1980s, Dr. A P J Abdul Kalam spearheaded the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme, initiating the creation of various indigenous missiles such as Prithvi, Agni, Trishul, Akash, and Nag, each with diverse capabilities and operational ranges.
• In the early 1990s, India's strategic leadership recognized the necessity for cruise missiles—guided projectiles maintaining nearly constant speeds throughout their trajectories—to deliver sizable warheads with pinpoint accuracy over extensive distances.
• This requirement emerged prominently following the deployment of cruise missiles during the 1991 Gulf War.
• In 1998, an Inter-Governmental Agreement was formalized in Moscow between Dr. Kalam, then heading the DRDO, and N V Mikhailov, Russia's Deputy Defence Minister at the time.
• This agreement laid the foundation for BrahMos Aerospace, a collaborative venture between DRDO and the Russian space company NPO Mashinostroyenia (NPOM), with the Indian side holding 50.5% ownership and the Russians 49.5%. The venture derived its name from two rivers—Brahmaputra in India and Moskva in Russia.
• Subsequently, in 1999, the development of missiles commenced within the laboratories of DRDO and NPOM after BrahMos Aerospace secured funding from both governments. The first successful test launch occurred in 2001 from a specifically engineered land-based launcher

4.Significance of Brahmos

 

• The BrahMos missile is equipped with a solid propellant booster engine, comprising two stages. Initially, the first stage accelerates the missile to supersonic speeds, after which it detaches. Subsequently, the liquid ramjet, constituting the second stage, propels the missile to nearly three times the speed of sound during its cruise phase.
• Notably, the missile exhibits a minimal radar signature, enhancing its stealth capabilities, and can follow various trajectories.
• As a "fire and forget" weapon, it can maintain a cruising altitude of 15 km and descend to as low as 10 meters to effectively strike its target.
• Classified as "standoff range weapons," cruise missiles like BrahMos are launched from a distance substantial enough to evade defensive countermeasures, a feature common among the arsenals of major militaries worldwide.
• Compared to subsonic cruise missiles, BrahMos boasts three times the speed, 2.5 times the flight range, and extended operational capabilities. With export versions available, BrahMos serves as a crucial asset in defense diplomacy initiatives.
• In 2022, an air-launched variant of BrahMos underwent testing from a frontline SU-30MKI aircraft, while an advanced sea-to-sea variant was also tested from the INS Visakhapatnam during the same year.
• However, BrahMos was embroiled in controversy in 2022 when Pakistan alleged that an unarmed Indian missile had inadvertently landed within its territory on March 9, 2022. The Ministry of Defence attributed the incident to a technical malfunction resulting in accidental firing.
• Though the government initiated a high-level inquiry, the specific missile involved was not officially disclosed. Nonetheless, experts inferred from its trajectory that it bore the hallmarks of BrahMos

5. Types of  BrahMos

• The BrahMos missile system is strategically deployed across various fronts, encompassing land-based formations along border regions, BrahMos-equipped Sukhoi-30 aircraft stationed in both the Northern and Southern theaters, and ships and submarines fitted with BrahMos capabilities in naval operations. This integrated setup constitutes a formidable triad, adept at addressing evolving demands in multidimensional warfare scenarios.
• To adapt to dynamic warfare requirements, ongoing efforts are focused on upgrading the BrahMos system, with emphasis on enhancing range, maneuverability, and accuracy.
• Current development initiatives include testing versions with extended ranges of up to 350 km, surpassing the original's 290 km limit. Furthermore, plans are underway for versions with even greater ranges, potentially reaching up to 800 km, and featuring hypersonic speeds. Concurrently, endeavors are directed towards reducing the size and radar signature of existing iterations while augmenting their overall capabilities.
• Across all three branches of the Armed Forces, BrahMos variants are subject to regular testing, including those presently in development.
• Land-Based: The land-based BrahMos setup comprises mobile autonomous launchers, typically housing four to six launchers, each armed with three missiles capable of near-simultaneous firing.
• These batteries are strategically deployed along India's land borders in various theaters. Upgraded versions of the land attack variant, capable of cruising at 2.8 Mach, boast precision striking capabilities with ranges of up to 400 km.
• Advanced iterations with enhanced range and speeds of up to 5 Mach are reportedly in the developmental pipeline. Notably, the ground systems of BrahMos are lauded for their streamlined design and minimal componentry.
• Ship-Based: Since 2005, the Navy has been inducting BrahMos missiles on its frontline warships, enhancing their ability to engage sea-based targets beyond the radar horizon. The naval variant has demonstrated efficacy in both sea-to-sea and sea-to-land engagements.
• These missiles can be deployed individually or in salvos of up to eight, with staggered firing intervals. This capability enables them to effectively target groups of frigates equipped with modern missile defense systems.
• Air-Launched: The successful flight testing of BrahMos from a Sukhoi-30MKI against a sea-based target in the Bay of Bengal on November 22, 2017, marked a significant milestone. Subsequent tests have validated its effectiveness.
• The BrahMos-equipped Sukhoi-30 aircraft, boasting a range of 1,500 km without mid-air refueling, serve as a pivotal strategic deterrent along both land borders and the strategically vital Indian Ocean Region. The Indian Air Force is actively integrating BrahMos with 40 Sukhoi-30 fighter jets across various airbases.
• Submarine-Launched: This variant can be launched from depths of approximately 50 meters below the water surface. The missile, stored in a canister, is vertically launched from the pressure hull of the submarine, employing distinct configurations for underwater and surface flights. Successful testing of this version was first conducted in March 2013 from a submerged platform off the coast of Visakhapatnam

6. Brahmos Missile Series

 

The BrahMos missile series is a family of supersonic cruise missiles developed jointly by India and Russia. Named after the Brahmaputra River in India and the Moskva River in Russia, the BrahMos series is renowned for its speed, precision, and versatility.

Here are some key variants within the BrahMos missile series:

• BrahMos Block-I: The initial variant of the BrahMos missile, featuring a range of approximately 290 km. It is capable of striking both land-based and naval targets with high accuracy.

• BrahMos Block-II: An upgraded version with enhanced capabilities, including improved range and accuracy. It incorporates advanced technologies to further enhance its effectiveness in various operational scenarios.

• BrahMos Block-III: This variant features additional upgrades aimed at improving its range, maneuverability, and stealth capabilities. It is designed to overcome evolving threats and maintain its position as a potent deterrent.

• BrahMos-A: The air-launched variant of the BrahMos missile, integrated onto Sukhoi Su-30MKI fighter aircraft of the Indian Air Force. It significantly extends the reach of the missile, allowing for precision strikes against ground and naval targets.

• BrahMos-N: The naval variant of the BrahMos missile, deployed on Indian Navy warships. It provides a formidable anti-ship and land-attack capability, enhancing the offensive capabilities of naval fleets.

• BrahMos-ER: The extended-range variant of the BrahMos missile, currently under development, aimed at achieving ranges beyond the existing capabilities. It will further enhance the strategic reach of the BrahMos series, allowing for precision strikes at longer distances.

• BrahMos-NG: A next-generation variant of the BrahMos missile, featuring reduced size and weight while maintaining high performance. It is designed for compatibility with a wider range of platforms, including aircraft, submarines, and surface vessels

7.Way Forward

 

BrahMos missile series represents a significant technological achievement in the field of missile development, providing India with a potent and versatile deterrent against various threats. Its continuous evolution and upgrades ensure that it remains at the forefront of modern warfare capabilities

 

 

 

Previous Year Questions 1.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE Prelims 2023) Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their flights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 1 only 2 only Both 1 and 2 Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: (d)

Source: Indianexpress