FOREIGN CONTRIBUTION REGULATION ACT (FCRA)
1. Context
On June 22, the Union Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) notified the Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Amendment Rules, 2026, to amend the Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Rules, 2011.This is the tenth amendment to the Rules under the Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act, 2010 (FCRA).
2. Foreign Contribution Regulation Act
- The law sought to regulate foreign donations to individuals and associations so that they functioned "in a manner consistent with the values of a sovereign democratic republic".
- Foreign funding in India is regulated under the FCRA act. Individuals are permitted to accept foreign contributions without the permission of MHA. However, the monetary limit for acceptance of such foreign contributions shall be less than Rs. 25,000.
- It is implemented by the Ministry of Home Affairs. The FCRA was enacted during the Emergency in 1976 amid apprehensions that foreign powers were interfering in India's affairs by pumping money into the country through independent organizations. These concerns were, in fact, even older- they had been expressed in Parliament as early as 1969.
3. Provisions of the Act
- The FCRA requires every person or NGO wishing to receive foreign donations to be registered under the act, to open a bank account for the receipt of foreign funds in the statute Bank of India, Delhi, and to utilize those funds only for which they have been received, and as stipulated in the act.
- They are also required to file annual returns, and they must not transfer the funds to another NGO.
- The Act prohibits the receipt of foreign funds by candidates for elections, journalists or newspapers and media broadcast companies, judges and government servants, members of the legislature and political parties or their office-bearers, and organizations of a political nature.
4. Key Highlights of the 2020 Amendment
- It bars public servants from receiving foreign contributions. It prohibits the transfer of foreign contributions to any other person.
- Aadhar number is mandatory for all office bearers, directors, or key functionaries of a person receiving foreign contributions, as an identification document.
- The foreign contribution must be received only in an account designated by the bank as an FCRA account in such branches of the State Bank of India, New Delhi.
- No funds other than foreign contributions should be received or deposited in this account.
- It allowed the government to restrict the usage of unutilized foreign contributions. This may be done if, based on an inquiry the government believes that such a person has contravened provisions of the FCRA.
- While NGOs earlier could use up to 50 percent of funds for administrative use, the new amendment restricted this use to 20 percent.
5. Registration under FCRA
- NGOs that want to receive foreign funds must apply online in a prescribed format with the required documentation. FCRA registrations are granted to individuals or associations that have definite cultural, economic, educational, religious, and social programs.
- Following the application, the MHA makes inquiries through the Intelligence Bureau into the antecedents of the applicant and accordingly processes the application. The MHA is required to approve or reject the application within 90 days-failing which is expected to inform the NGO of the reasons for the same.
- Once granted, FCRA registration is valid for five years. NGOs are expected to apply for renewal within six months of the date of expiry of registration. In case of failure to apply for renewal, the registration is deemed to have expired.
6. Who can receive foreign contribution?
Under the Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act, 2010 (FCRA), only certain persons and organizations are permitted to receive foreign contributions. The Act regulates foreign funding to ensure it is used for legitimate purposes and does not adversely affect national interests.
The following categories can receive foreign contribution:
- Individuals can receive foreign contributions, provided they comply with the provisions of the FCRA. If the contribution is for a definite cultural, educational, economic, religious, or social programme, they generally need FCRA registration or prior permission, unless a statutory exemption applies.
- Associations, NGOs, Trusts, and Societies established for cultural, educational, religious, economic, or social purposes may receive foreign contributions after obtaining either:
- FCRA Registration, or
- Prior Permission from the Ministry of Home Affairs for a specific donor and project.
- Section 8 Companies (non-profit companies registered under the Companies Act, 2013) can also receive foreign contributions after complying with FCRA requirements.
7. Who cannot receive foreign contribution?
Under the Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act, 2010 (FCRA), Section 3 specifies the categories of persons who are prohibited from accepting foreign contributions.
The following cannot receive foreign contribution:
- Candidates for election.
- Correspondents, columnists, cartoonists, editors, owners, printers, or publishers of a registered newspaper.
- Judges.
- Government servants and employees of any corporation or any other body controlled or owned by the Government.
- Members of any Legislature (Members of Parliament, Members of State Legislatures, etc.).
- Political parties and office-bearers of political parties.
- Organizations of a political nature, as may be specified by the Central Government.
- Associations or companies engaged in the production or broadcast of audio news, audio-visual news, or current affairs programmes through any electronic mode or other mass communication media.
- Correspondents, columnists, cartoonists, editors, owners, or publishers associated with such electronic news or current affairs media.
8. What is Non-governmental Organizations?
- A Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) is a voluntary, non-profit organization established by individuals or groups of citizens to work for the welfare of society.
- As the name suggests, an NGO is not a part of the government and functions independently in its decision-making and administration.
- Its primary objective is to serve the public by addressing social, economic, educational, cultural, environmental, religious, or humanitarian issues rather than earning profits.
- Although NGOs operate independently, they may collaborate with governments, international organizations, and private institutions to achieve their objectives.
- There is no single legal definition of an NGO in India. Instead, the term generally refers to organizations that are formed for charitable or developmental purposes and are registered under different laws depending on their organizational structure.
- An NGO may be registered as a Trust, a Society under the Societies Registration Act, 1860, or a Section 8 Company under the Companies Act, 2013.
- Regardless of the form in which they are registered, all NGOs share the common goal of promoting public welfare.
- The need for NGOs arises because governments alone often find it difficult to address every social and developmental challenge.
- India, with its vast population and geographical diversity, faces issues such as poverty, illiteracy, unemployment, malnutrition, environmental degradation, gender inequality, and inadequate healthcare.
- NGOs work alongside the government by reaching vulnerable communities, creating awareness, mobilizing local participation, and implementing developmental programmes at the grassroots level.
- In many cases, NGOs are able to reach remote and marginalized populations more effectively because of their flexibility and close engagement with local communities.
- NGOs undertake a wide range of activities. In the field of education, they establish schools, provide scholarships, and conduct literacy campaigns. In healthcare, they organize medical camps, vaccination drives, and awareness programmes on diseases and sanitation.
- In rural development, they promote sustainable agriculture, livelihood opportunities, and self-help groups. Many NGOs work towards women's empowerment by providing vocational training, legal assistance, and financial literacy.
- Others focus on child welfare, environmental conservation, human rights, disaster relief, skill development, and the protection of vulnerable sections such as tribal communities and persons with disabilities.
- To carry out these activities, NGOs require financial resources. They receive funds from various sources, including donations from individuals, grants from governments, contributions from companies under Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), membership fees, and support from international organizations.
- If an NGO intends to receive funds from foreign sources, it must comply with the provisions of the Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act, 2010 (FCRA).
- Under this law, eligible NGOs must obtain FCRA registration or prior permission from the Ministry of Home Affairs before accepting foreign contributions
|
For Prelims: FCRA, Rajiv Gandhi Foundation, Rajiv Gandhi Charitable Trust, NGO, Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA). For Mains: 1. What is the Foreign contribution regulation act and discuss the new restrictions introduced by the Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Amendment Act, 2020. |
|
Previous Year Questions
1.Examine critically the recent changes in the rules governing foreign funding of NGOs under the Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act (FCRA), 1976. (Please refer GS-II Paper, 2015) |
Source: The Indian Express
COLLEGIUM
1. Context
Justice P.S. Narasimha is set to become a member of the Supreme Court Collegium following Justice J.K. Maheshwari’s retirement on Sunday.
2. Collegium System
- The Collegium system is not rooted in the Constitution. Instead, it has evolved through judgments of the Supreme Court.
- Under the system, the Chief Justice of India along with four senior-most Supreme Court judges recommend appointments and transfers of judges.
- A High Court Collegium, meanwhile, is led by the incumbent Chief Justice and the two senior-most judges of that court.
- In this system, the government’s role is limited to getting an inquiry conducted by the Intelligence Bureau (IB) if a lawyer is to be elevated as a judge in a High Court or the Supreme Court.
- The government can also raise objections and seek clarifications regarding the Collegium’s choices, but, if the Collegium reiterates the same names, the government is bound, under Constitution Bench judgments, to appoint them to the post.
3. Evolution of Collegium System
The system evolved in the three Judge's cases:
- In the First Judges case, the court held that the consultation with the CJI should be "full and effective".
- The Second Judges Case introduced the collegium system in 1993, as they ordered the CJI to consult a collegium of his two senior judges in the apex court on judicial appointments, such a "collective opinion" of the collegium would have primacy over the government.
- The Third Judges case in 1998, expanded the judicial collegium to its present composition of the CJI and four of its senior-most judges.
4. Constitutional Provisions for Appointment of Judges
Article 124(2)
Every Judge of the Supreme Court shall be appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal after consultation with such of the Judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts in the States as the President may deem necessary for the purpose and shall hold office until he attains the age of sixty-five years.
Article 217
Every Judge of a High Court shall be appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal after consultation with the Chief Justice of India, the Governor of the state, and, in the case of appointment of a Judge other than the Chief Justice, the Chief Justice of the High court, and shall hold office, in the case of an additional or acting Judge, as provided in Article 224, and in any other case, until he attains the age of sixty-two years.
5. Procedure for replacement of Collegium System
- Replacing the Collegium system calls for a Constitutional Amendment Bill.
- It requires a majority of not less than two-thirds of MPs (Members of Parliament) present and voting in Lok Sabha as well as Rajya Sabha.
- It also needs the ratification of legislatures of not less than one-half of the states.
6. What are the concerns associated with the Collegium system?
- Constitutional Status: The Collegium is not prescribed in the Constitution. Article 124 mentions consultation, which the SC interpreted as ‘concurrence’ in Second Judges Case (1993). During the hearing against the NJAC, the then SC Bar President had argued that the Constituent Assembly had considered a proposal for making Judges’ appointment ‘in concurrence’ with the CJI but had eventually rejected it.
- Transparency: There is no official procedure for selection or any written manual for the functioning of the Collegium. The parameters considered for selection (or rejection) are not available in the public domain.
- Accountability: The selection of Judges by the Judges is considered undemocratic. Judges are not accountable to the people or any other organ of the State (Legislature or Executive). It can add an element of arbitrariness in functioning.
- Criticism by Judges: Many retired Judges have criticized the working of the Collegium, especially the lack of transparency. Several controversial appointments have been made despite objections by the member-Judges of the Collegium.
- No Checks: There are no checks on the process. Nor has there been any review regarding the effectiveness of the process. Critics of the system argue the phenomena of ‘Uncle Judges’ wherein near relatives, kith, and kin of sitting Judges are appointed to the higher judiciary leading to nepotism. Law Commission in its 230th Report (2012) recommended that that the Judges, whose kith and kin are practicing in a High Court, should not be appointed in the same High Court. The absence of transparency, accountability, and external checks creates space for subjectivity and individual bias in appointments. In some cases, the principle of seniority has been ignored.
- No Reforms: The Supreme Court did not amend the contentious provisions of the NJAC Act or added safeguards to the Act. Instead, it struck down the whole Act. The Supreme Court reverted to the old Collegium System. However, the Court did not take any steps to address the concerns associated with the Collegium System.
7. What is National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC)
- The Constitution (99th Amendment) Act, which established the NJAC and the NJAC Act, was passed by Parliament in 2014 to set up a commission for appointing judges,
replacing the Collegium system. - This would essentially increase the government’s role in the appointment of judges.
- The laws were repealed in October 2015 after the Supreme Court struck them down.
7.1 Composition of NJAC
- The Chief Justice of India as the ex officio Chairperson.
- Two senior-most Supreme Court Judges as ex officio members.
- The Union Minister of Law and Justice as ex officio members.
- Two eminent persons from civil society (one of whom would be nominated by a committee consisting of the CJI, Prime Minster, and the Leader of Opposition in the Lok Sabha, and the other would be nominated from the SC/ST/OBC/minority communities or women.
|
For Prelims: Collegium system, National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC), Supreme court, High court, Intelligence Bureau (IB), First Judges case, Second Judges Case, Third Judges Case, Article 124(2), Article 217, Law Commission, and 99th Constitutional Amendment Act.
For Mains: 1. What are the two systems of the appointment of Judges that has triggered the fresh debate on the Judicial system in India? (250 Words).
|
|
Previous year Question
1. With reference to the Indian judiciary, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2021)
1. Any retired judge of the Supreme Court of India can be called back to sit and act as a Supreme Court judge by the Chief Justice of India with the prior permission of the President of India.
2. A High Court in India has the power to review its own judgment as the Supreme Court does.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: A
2. In India, Judicial Review implies (UPSC 2017)
A. the power of the Judiciary to pronounce upon the constitutionality of laws and executive orders
B. the power of the Judiciary to question the wisdom of the laws enacted by the Legislatures
C. the power of the Judiciary to review all the legislative enactments before they are assented to by the President
D. the power of the Judiciary to review its own judgments given earlier in similar or different cases
Answer: A
3. Consider the following statements:
1. The motion to impeach a Judge of the Supreme Court of India cannot be rejected by the Speaker of the Lok Sabha as per the Judges (Inquiry) Act, 1968.
2. The Constitution of India defines and gives details of what constitutes 'incapacity and proved misbehavior' of the Judges of the Supreme Court of India
3. The details of the process of impeachment of the Judges of the Supreme Court of India are given in the Judges (Inquiry) Act, of 1968.
4. If the motion for the impeachment of a Judge is taken up for voting, the law requires the motion to be backed by each House of the Parliament and supported by a majority of the total membership of that House and by not less than two-thirds of total members of that House present and voting.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2
B. 3 only
C. 3 and 4 only
D. 1, 3 and 4
Answer: C
|
Source: The Indian Express
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
1. Context
Supreme Court recognised walking on demarcated footpaths as a fundamental right and urged the government to introduce a law that declares this right. The two-judge bench’s ruling came in a case involving the death of a schoolboy in a road accident.
2. What are the Fundamental Rights?
- Fundamental Rights are the basic human rights guaranteed by the Constitution of India to all citizens (and, in some cases, to all persons). They are contained in Part III (Articles 12–35) of the Constitution.
- These rights protect the dignity, liberty, equality, and freedom of individuals against arbitrary actions of the State. They also ensure the establishment of a democratic and welfare-oriented society.
- Fundamental Rights form the cornerstone of the Indian Constitution by balancing individual liberty with societal interests. They guarantee equality, freedom, justice, and human dignity while ensuring that governmental power remains subject to constitutional limitations.
- Through judicial interpretation, particularly under Article 21, these rights have evolved into dynamic instruments for protecting civil liberties and promoting constitutional morality, making them indispensable to India's democratic framework
3. What are the constitutional articles related to it?
- Right to Equality (Articles 14–18)
- Equality before the law
- Prohibition of discrimination
- Equality of opportunity in public employment
- Abolition of untouchability
- Abolition of titles
- Right to Freedom (Articles 19–22)
- Freedom of speech and expression
- Freedom of assembly
- Freedom to form associations
- Freedom of movement
- Freedom to reside anywhere in India
- Freedom to practice any profession
- Protection in respect of conviction for offences
- Protection of life and personal liberty
- Protection against arbitrary arrest and detention
- Right against Exploitation (Articles 23–24)
- Prohibition of human trafficking and forced labour
- Prohibition of child labour in hazardous occupations
- Right to Freedom of Religion (Articles 25–28)
- Freedom of conscience and religion
- Freedom to manage religious affairs
- Freedom from certain religious taxes
- Freedom from religious instruction in certain educational institutions
- Cultural and Educational Rights (Articles 29–30)
- Protection of the interests of minorities
- Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions
- Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32)
- Right to approach the courts for enforcement of Fundamental Rights. B. R. Ambedkar called this the "heart and soul" of the Constitution.
4. Fundamental Rights Available Only to Citizens
- The Constitution of India guarantees several Fundamental Rights under Part III (Articles 12–35). While many of these rights are available to all persons, including foreigners, certain rights are reserved exclusively for Indian citizens.
- These rights recognize the special legal and political relationship between the State and its citizens.
- They primarily relate to equality, freedom, participation in public affairs, and the protection of India's cultural and educational heritage.
- The Fundamental Rights available only to citizens are contained in Articles 15, 16, 19, 29, and 30.
|
5. Fundamental Rights and Duties Difference
- The Fundamental Rights and Fundamental Duties are two essential features of the Constitution of India.
- While Fundamental Rights guarantee certain freedoms and protections to individuals against arbitrary State action, Fundamental Duties remind citizens of their moral and civic obligations towards the nation. Together, they seek to establish a balance between individual liberty and social responsibility, thereby strengthening Indian democracy.
- Fundamental Rights are contained in Part III (Articles 12–35) of the Constitution, whereas Fundamental Duties are contained in Part IVA (Article 51A).
- The Fundamental Duties were inserted by the Forty-second Amendment of the Constitution of India on the recommendation of the Swaran Singh Committee.
- Later, the Eighty-sixth Amendment of the Constitution of India added the eleventh Fundamental Duty, requiring parents or guardians to provide educational opportunities to children between the ages of six and fourteen years.
|
Fundamental Rights and Fundamental Duties are complementary rather than contradictory. Rights enable citizens to enjoy freedom and dignity, while duties ensure that these freedoms are exercised responsibly without harming society or the nation. For example:
|
6. Way Forward
The Supreme Court on 19th June held that the right to walk on secured footpaths is a fundamental right and urged the government to bring a law that declares this right and recognises the duty of municipal authorities and local bodies to build, demarcate, and maintain necessary pedestrian infrastructure
|
For Premins: Indian Polity and Governance, Fundamental rights, Fundamental Duties
For Mains: General Studies II: Indian Constitution—historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure.
|
Source: Indianexpress
MADDEN-JULIAN OSCILLATION
1. Context
After remaining largely inactive for more than a week, the monsoon finally picked some strength and momentum beginning Monday. Maharashtra, for instance, received its first good rainfall of the season on Tuesday.
2. What is the Madden-Julian oscillation?
- The Madden–Julian Oscillation (MJO) is one of the most important atmospheric phenomena in the tropical region of the Earth. It is a large-scale pattern of atmospheric circulation characterized by alternating periods of enhanced and suppressed rainfall that travels eastward around the equator.
- Unlike cyclones, which are localized weather systems, or seasonal climate phenomena such as the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), the MJO is an atmospheric disturbance that continuously moves across the tropical oceans, influencing weather conditions over vast geographical areas.
- The phenomenon was first identified in 1971 by meteorologists Roland Madden and Paul Julian, after whom it is named. Their research showed that tropical rainfall and atmospheric pressure exhibit a recurring pattern that moves eastward around the globe over a period of about one to two months.
- The MJO originates most frequently over the tropical Indian Ocean, where warm ocean waters provide the energy necessary for the development of deep convection.
- The system then moves eastward across the maritime continent, including Indonesia, into the tropical Pacific Ocean and, on some occasions, continues into the Atlantic Ocean before gradually weakening. The entire cycle generally takes between 30 and 60 days, although it may sometimes extend to nearly 90 days.
- The MJO consists of two distinct phases: the active (enhanced) phase and the suppressed phase. During the active phase, warm, moist air rises from the Earth's surface, leading to the formation of extensive cloud cover, heavy rainfall, and intense thunderstorm activity.
- This upward movement of air releases large amounts of latent heat, strengthening atmospheric circulation. In contrast, the suppressed phase is characterized by sinking air, which inhibits cloud formation and results in clear skies, reduced rainfall, and relatively dry weather conditions.
- As the MJO moves eastward, these two phases travel together, causing alternating wet and dry periods in tropical regions.
- One of the reasons the MJO is scientifically important is that it serves as a bridge between short-term weather events and long-term climate variability.
- While ordinary weather systems usually last for only a few days, and climate phenomena like ENSO persist for several months or even years, the MJO operates on an intra-seasonal timescale, making it highly valuable for forecasting weather several weeks in advance.
- The MJO has a profound influence on the Indian monsoon. When its active phase is located over the tropical Indian Ocean and surrounding regions, convection increases significantly, leading to enhanced monsoon rainfall over India.
- This often results in active monsoon spells with widespread precipitation. Conversely, when the suppressed phase dominates the region, rainfall decreases, leading to weak or break monsoon conditions.
- Therefore, meteorologists closely monitor the MJO to improve monsoon forecasts and assess the likelihood of heavy rainfall or prolonged dry spells.
- The influence of the MJO is not limited to the Indian monsoon. It also plays a major role in the formation and intensification of tropical cyclones over the Indian Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, and even parts of the Atlantic Ocean.
- During its active phase, the atmosphere becomes more unstable, humidity increases, and vertical wind conditions become more favourable for cyclone development. As a result, periods of increased cyclone activity often coincide with the passage of the active MJO phase.
- Apart from affecting tropical weather, the MJO also influences atmospheric circulation in higher latitudes through a process known as teleconnection.
- Changes in tropical convection caused by the MJO can alter jet stream patterns, influencing winter storms, cold waves, heat waves, and heavy rainfall events in regions far away from the tropics, including North America, Europe, and East Asia. Thus, despite being a tropical phenomenon, its impacts extend across the globe.
- The MJO is often confused with the El Niño–Southern Oscillation, but the two are fundamentally different.
- The MJO is a moving atmospheric disturbance that travels continuously around the globe and lasts only a few weeks to a couple of months. ENSO, on the other hand, is a coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon centred over the equatorial Pacific Ocean and typically persists for several months to two years or more.
- While ENSO changes sea surface temperatures significantly, the MJO primarily affects atmospheric circulation and rainfall without producing major long-term changes in ocean temperatures.
- An easy way to understand the MJO is to imagine the tropical atmosphere as a giant circular race track. The active phase of the MJO resembles a moving cluster of rain-bearing clouds that travels steadily around this track, bringing heavy rainfall and thunderstorms wherever it passes.
- Behind this active phase follows the suppressed phase, which brings relatively dry and clear weather. This continuous movement creates alternating periods of wet and dry conditions across tropical regions
3. How does the Madden-Julian oscillation affect India?
- The Madden–Julian Oscillation (MJO) has a significant influence on India's weather, particularly the Southwest Monsoon, tropical cyclones, and extreme rainfall events.
- Since the MJO is a moving region of enhanced and suppressed convection (thunderstorm activity), its position relative to India determines whether the country experiences increased rainfall or dry conditions.
- The MJO usually originates over the tropical Indian Ocean and moves eastward across the maritime continent and the Pacific Ocean. When the active phase of the MJO is located over the Indian Ocean and the region surrounding India, it strengthens the upward movement of warm, moist air.
- This leads to increased cloud formation, widespread thunderstorms, and heavy rainfall over many parts of the country. As a result, the southwest monsoon becomes more vigorous, producing active monsoon conditions and above-normal rainfall.
- On the other hand, when the suppressed phase of the MJO moves over the Indian Ocean, the atmosphere experiences downward movement of air, reducing cloud formation and rainfall.
- During this period, India often witnesses breaks in the monsoon, where rainfall decreases significantly for several days despite the monsoon season being in progress. Such breaks can affect agricultural activities by reducing soil moisture and delaying crop growth.
- The MJO also influences the onset and progress of the southwest monsoon. A strong active MJO phase over the Indian Ocean during late May or early June can support the timely onset and rapid advancement of the monsoon across the Indian subcontinent.
- Conversely, if the active phase is located far away over the Pacific Ocean during this period, the onset may be delayed or the monsoon may initially remain weak.
- Another important impact of the MJO is on extreme rainfall events. When its active phase coincides with other favourable weather systems such as low-pressure areas or monsoon depressions over the Bay of Bengal or the Arabian Sea, rainfall intensity can increase dramatically.
- This may result in widespread flooding, landslides in mountainous regions, and urban flooding in major cities. Many episodes of exceptionally heavy monsoon rainfall in India have been linked to a strong active phase of the MJO.
- The MJO also plays a crucial role in the formation and intensification of tropical cyclones over the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. During its active phase, the atmosphere becomes more unstable, humidity increases, and vertical wind conditions become more favourable for cyclone development.
- Consequently, the probability of cyclogenesis and cyclone intensification rises when the active MJO is present over the northern Indian Ocean. In contrast, the suppressed phase generally inhibits cyclone formation by creating less favourable atmospheric conditions.
- India's agricultural sector is particularly sensitive to the MJO because agriculture depends heavily on the distribution of monsoon rainfall.
- An active MJO phase can provide beneficial rainfall for crops such as rice, cotton, sugarcane, and pulses. However, if the rainfall becomes excessive, it may damage standing crops through flooding and waterlogging. Similarly, an extended suppressed phase can reduce rainfall, leading to moisture stress and lower agricultural productivity.
- The MJO also affects temperature patterns across India. During the active phase, increased cloud cover and rainfall generally reduce daytime temperatures and provide relief from heat. During the suppressed phase, clear skies allow greater solar heating, often resulting in hotter daytime conditions and, in some seasons, the development of heat waves.
- Meteorologists in India, especially at the India Meteorological Department, closely monitor the MJO because it is one of the most reliable indicators for extended-range weather forecasting.
- Since the MJO evolves over several weeks, it helps forecasters predict active and weak phases of the monsoon, the likelihood of heavy rainfall, and the potential for tropical cyclone formation about two to four weeks in advance.
- This information is valuable for agriculture, water resource management, disaster preparedness, and reservoir operations.
4. What is the difference between Madden-Julian oscillation and ENSO?
- The Madden–Julian Oscillation (MJO) and the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) are two of the most important climate phenomena affecting global weather.
- Although both originate in the tropical regions and influence rainfall, temperature, monsoons, and tropical cyclones, they differ significantly in their nature, duration, movement, and impacts.
- Understanding these differences is essential for interpreting weather and climate variations across the world.
- The Madden–Julian Oscillation is primarily an atmospheric phenomenon. It consists of a moving zone of enhanced and suppressed cloud formation and rainfall that travels eastward around the equator.
- The MJO originates over the tropical Indian Ocean and usually moves across the maritime continent, the tropical Pacific Ocean, and sometimes into the Atlantic Ocean. The complete cycle generally takes 30 to 60 days, making it an intra-seasonal weather phenomenon.
- In contrast, ENSO is a coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon. It develops due to changes in sea surface temperatures and atmospheric pressure across the equatorial Pacific Ocean. ENSO has three phases: El Niño, La Niña, and the neutral phase.
- Unlike the MJO, ENSO does not move continuously around the globe. Instead, it remains centred over the equatorial Pacific Ocean and influences global climate through changes in ocean temperatures and atmospheric circulation.
- An ENSO event typically lasts 9 to 12 months, although some events may continue for nearly two years.
- Another major difference lies in the timescale. The MJO is a short-term oscillation that affects weather patterns over several weeks. Meteorologists use it to forecast rainfall, tropical cyclones, and monsoon activity two to four weeks in advance.
- ENSO, on the other hand, operates over much longer periods and is used for seasonal climate forecasting, helping predict rainfall and temperature anomalies several months ahead.
- The movement of these two phenomena also differs considerably. The MJO is a travelling disturbance that continuously propagates eastward around the equator.
- Wherever its active phase passes, it enhances cloud formation, thunderstorms, and rainfall, while the following suppressed phase brings drier conditions.
- ENSO does not travel in this manner. Instead, it represents large-scale warming (El Niño) or cooling (La Niña) of the central and eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean, with atmospheric circulation adjusting to these ocean temperature changes.
- The influence of the two systems on the Indian monsoon is also different. A favourable active phase of the MJO over the Indian Ocean can strengthen the southwest monsoon for several weeks, leading to active monsoon spells and heavy rainfall.
- However, once the MJO moves away, its influence diminishes. ENSO affects the overall seasonal strength of the monsoon. During El Niño years, India often experiences weaker monsoon rainfall and an increased likelihood of drought, while La Niña years generally favour stronger monsoon rainfall and wetter-than-normal conditions.
- Although this relationship is not absolute, it remains one of the most important factors influencing India's seasonal rainfall.
- The MJO also has a strong influence on tropical cyclone formation because its active phase creates favourable atmospheric conditions for cyclone development over the Indian Ocean, western Pacific, and other tropical basins.
- ENSO also affects cyclone activity, but mainly by altering ocean temperatures and large-scale wind patterns over an entire cyclone season rather than over a few weeks.
- An important distinction is that the MJO is primarily driven by changes in atmospheric convection, whereas ENSO is driven by interactions between the ocean and the atmosphere, especially variations in sea surface temperatures and trade winds across the Pacific Ocean.
- Although they are different phenomena, the MJO and ENSO can interact with each other. For example, repeated strong MJO events can sometimes influence the evolution of El Niño or La Niña conditions by affecting westerly wind bursts over the Pacific Ocean.
- Similarly, the background conditions created by ENSO can modify the strength and behaviour of the MJO.
5. Why is the Southwest Monsoon critical for Kharif agriculture in India?
- The Southwest Monsoon is the backbone of India's agricultural economy and plays a decisive role in the success of the Kharif cropping season. Kharif crops are sown with the onset of the monsoon, generally during June and July, and harvested between September and October.
- Since a large proportion of India's cultivated land is still dependent on rainfall rather than irrigation, the timing, amount, and distribution of monsoon rainfall directly determine agricultural productivity, food security, and rural livelihoods.
- The southwest monsoon provides nearly 70–75% of India's annual rainfall, making it the primary source of water for agriculture.
- As the monsoon winds reach the Indian subcontinent from the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, they bring widespread rainfall across most parts of the country.
- This rainfall replenishes soil moisture, enabling farmers to prepare fields and sow Kharif crops such as rice, maize, cotton, soybean, groundnut, millets, pulses, and sugarcane.
- The onset of the southwest monsoon marks the beginning of the Kharif agricultural season.
- A timely arrival allows farmers to sow seeds at the optimum time, ensuring proper germination and healthy crop establishment. If the monsoon is delayed, sowing operations are postponed, shortening the growing season and often reducing crop yields. In severe cases, farmers may have to shift to short-duration or drought-resistant crop varieties.
- Apart from the onset, the distribution of rainfall throughout the season is equally important. Crops require water at different stages of growth, including germination, vegetative growth, flowering, and grain filling.
- Well-distributed rainfall ensures a continuous supply of moisture during these critical stages.
- However, prolonged dry spells or breaks in the monsoon can lead to moisture stress, poor plant growth, and lower productivity.
- Conversely, excessive rainfall within a short period can cause waterlogging, flooding, and root damage, affecting crop health and yield.
- The southwest monsoon is particularly important because nearly half of India's net sown area remains rain-fed, despite significant expansion of irrigation facilities. Farmers in these regions rely almost entirely on monsoon rainfall.
- Consequently, a good monsoon generally leads to higher agricultural production, while a weak or deficient monsoon often results in drought, crop failure, and financial distress among farming communities.
- Monsoon rainfall also replenishes reservoirs, lakes, rivers, ponds, and groundwater aquifers, which provide irrigation water during the later stages of the Kharif season and for the subsequent Rabi cropping season. Adequate reservoir storage ensures sufficient water availability for irrigation, drinking water, hydropower generation, and industrial use throughout the year.
- The performance of the Kharif season has a significant impact on India's food security. Crops such as rice and pulses constitute staple food items for millions of people.
- A successful monsoon leads to higher food grain production, improved food availability, and stable market supplies. In contrast, poor monsoon performance may reduce agricultural output, creating supply shortages and increasing dependence on buffer stocks or imports.
- The southwest monsoon also influences the Indian economy. Agriculture supports a substantial share of the country's population, particularly in rural areas. A normal monsoon generally increases farm incomes, boosts rural demand for goods and services, and supports overall economic growth.
- Conversely, a deficient or erratic monsoon can reduce agricultural income, lower rural consumption, and adversely affect sectors such as fertilizers, farm machinery, consumer goods, and banking.
- The monsoon has an important bearing on inflation, especially food inflation. Good rainfall usually leads to abundant production of cereals, vegetables, fruits, and pulses, helping stabilize food prices. On the other hand, deficient rainfall often reduces agricultural output, leading to higher food prices and contributing to overall inflationary pressures in the economy.
- The southwest monsoon also supports allied activities such as animal husbandry, fisheries, and horticulture. Adequate rainfall improves pasture availability for livestock, replenishes ponds used in inland fisheries, and provides favourable conditions for the cultivation of fruits, vegetables, and plantation crops. Thus, its benefits extend well beyond crop production.
6. Way Forward
An IMD bulletin on Wednesday forecast low to moderate rainfall activity in the areas covered by the monsoon — which is only around half of the country’s landmass. Around this time in June, the monsoon normally covers almost the entire country.
|
For Prelims: Indian and World Geography
For Mains: eneral Studies I: Important Geophysical phenomena such as earthquakes, Tsunami, Volcanic activity, cyclone etc
|
|
Previous Year Questions
1.With reference to Ocean Mean Temperature (OMT), which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC CSE, 2020)
1. OMT is measured up to a depth of 26ºC isotherm which is 129 meters in the south-western Indian Ocean during January-March. 2. OMT collected during January-March can be used in assessing whether the amount of rainfall in monsoon will be less or more than a certain long-term mean. Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer (b)
|
Source: Indianexpress
ECOLOGICALLY SENSITIVE AREA (ESA)
1. Context
Twelve years after it issued the first draft notification, the Centre is finally ready to finalise and notify the demarcation of Ecologically Sensitive Areas (ESA) in the Western Ghats region, at least in the three states in which contentious issues have more or less been resolved
2. What is an ecologically sensitive area?
- An Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA) is a region that possesses unique and fragile environmental characteristics and therefore requires special protection from activities that could cause irreversible ecological damage.
- These areas are rich in biodiversity, provide important ecosystem services, and often support rare or endangered species of plants and animals.
- Because of their ecological significance, any developmental activities in such regions need to be carefully regulated to ensure that economic growth does not come at the cost of environmental degradation.
- The idea behind declaring an area as ecologically sensitive is not to completely stop human activities, but to strike a balance between conservation and development.
- Certain activities that can have severe environmental impacts—such as mining, quarrying, large-scale industries, thermal power plants, or extensive deforestation—are either prohibited or strictly regulated.
- At the same time, sustainable activities like agriculture, horticulture, eco-tourism, and traditional livelihoods are generally encouraged so that local communities can continue to benefit from the resources without destroying them.
- In India, the concept of Ecologically Sensitive Areas derives from the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. The Central Government can notify such areas to provide them with an additional layer of protection.
- A notable example is the Western Ghats, one of the world's eight “hottest hotspots” of biodiversity.
- Parts of the Western Ghats have been proposed and notified as Ecologically Sensitive Areas to preserve their rich flora and fauna, maintain water security, regulate climate, and ensure the long-term sustainability of the ecosystem
3. Which state has the highest number of ecologically sensitive zones in India?
- Maharashtra has the highest number of Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZs) in India. The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) has identified and notified the maximum number of ecologically sensitive zones in the state under the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
- This is primarily because Maharashtra has a large number of protected areas, including national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and tiger reserves, many of which lie within the biodiversity-rich Western Ghats.
- The state's varied landscapes and rich flora and fauna necessitate the creation of numerous buffer zones to protect these ecosystems from harmful developmental activities
4. Who declares ecologically sensitive areas?
- The Forest Survey of India (FSI) is the apex national institution functioning under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) and is entrusted with the periodic assessment and monitoring of the country’s forest resources.
- Besides conducting forest inventories, the organization also undertakes training, research, and extension activities.
- Established on June 1, 1981, FSI replaced the Pre-investment Survey of Forest Resources (PISFR), which had been launched in 1965 by the Government of India with support from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
- In November 2013, acting on the recommendations of the Kasturirangan Committee, the Central Government invoked the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 to restrict the establishment and expansion of activities such as mining, quarrying, sand extraction, thermal power projects, large-scale construction, townships, and highly polluting red-category industries.
- The issuance of final Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA) notifications further strengthens the legal framework aimed at safeguarding these environmentally fragile regions.
5. Which are the states where the areas to be demarcated as ESA?
The proposed Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA) in the Western Ghats spans six states. Based on the recommendations of the Kasturirangan Committee, approximately 56,825 sq. km of the Western Ghats has been identified for demarcation as ESA. These states are:
- Gujarat
- Maharashtra
- Goa
- Karnataka
- Kerala
- Tamil Nadu
Among these, the largest proposed ESA area lies in Karnataka (20,668 sq. km), followed by Maharashtra (17,340 sq. km) and Kerala (about 9,993 sq. km)
6. Where do the Western Ghats stretch from?
- The Western Ghats, also known as the Sahyadri Hills, form a continuous mountain chain running parallel to the western coast of India.
- They stretch for about 1,600 kilometres from the Tapti (Tapi) River valley in Gujarat in the north to Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu at the southern tip of the Indian peninsula.
- Along their course, they pass through six states—Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.
- The mountain range covers an area of approximately 1,60,000 sq. km and acts as a major watershed, giving rise to several important peninsular rivers such as the Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, and Tungabhadra.
- Owing to their exceptional biodiversity and high degree of endemism, the Western Ghats are recognized as one of the world's eight "hottest hotspots" of biodiversity and have been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site
7. Significance of Western Ghats
The Western Ghats, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, hold immense ecological, climatic, cultural, and economic significance:
- The Western Ghats are one of the world's eight "hottest hotspots" of biological diversity. They host over 7,400 species of flowering plants, 139 mammal species, 508 bird species, 179 amphibian species, 6,000 insect species, and 290 freshwater fish species, many of which are endemic.
- A significant proportion of the species found in the Western Ghats are endemic, meaning they are not found anywhere else in the world. This includes many unique species of plants, animals, and microorganisms
- The region provides crucial ecosystem services, such as water purification, climate regulation, soil stabilization, and carbon sequestration
- The Western Ghats play a critical role in the Indian monsoon system. They intercept the moisture-laden winds from the southwest, causing heavy rainfall on the western side, which supports lush forests and agriculture
- The forests of the Western Ghats act as a climate buffer, moderating temperatures and maintaining regional climate stability
- The Western Ghats are the source of numerous rivers, including the Godavari, Krishna, and Cauvery, which provide water to millions of people in peninsular India. These rivers are crucial for drinking water, irrigation, and hydropower
- The Western Ghats are home to numerous indigenous communities and tribal groups who have lived in harmony with the environment for centuries. These communities have rich cultural traditions and knowledge systems linked to the forests and biodiversity
- Many areas in the Western Ghats are considered sacred by local communities and host numerous temples, shrines, and pilgrimage sites.
- The Western Ghats support diverse agricultural systems, including spice plantations (pepper, cardamom), tea, coffee, and rubber. These crops are economically significant both domestically and for export
8.Way forward
Though the negotiations with Kerala and Karnataka are continuing, the Centre is learnt to be preparing to notify the ESA in the states where an agreement on this issue has either been achieved, or is close to being finalised. This is different from the previous attempts in which the Centre had issued draft notifications for ESAs in all the states together
|
For Prelims: Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Landslides, Flash floods
For Mains: GS 1 - Indian Geography
|
Previous year questions1. Which of the following statements in respect of landslides are correct? (NDA 2022) 1. These occur only on gentle slopes during rain.
2. They generally occur in clay-rich soil.
3. Earthquakes trigger landslides.
Select the correct answer using the code given below. A. 1 and 2 B. 2 and 3 C. 1 and 3 D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: (B) For Mains: 1. Describe the various causes and the effects of landslides. Mention the important components of the National Landslide Risk Management Strategy. (250 words) (2021)
|
Source: indianexpress
LOGISTICS SUPPORT AGREEMENT (LSA)
1. Context
The India-Russia bilateral Logistics Support Agreement (LSA), termed the Reciprocal Exchange of Logistics Agreement (RELOS), which had been dragging on for several years, was operationalised in January this year. There was a flutter on social media recently with claims that it allows the stationing of 3,000 Russian troops on Indian soil or vice versa, painting it as a military alliance. However, it is like any LSA, the likes of which India has signed with other countries.
2. What are Logistics Support Agreements?
- Logistics Support Agreements (LSAs) are basic defence cooperation arrangements between countries that facilitate the mutual use of military facilities such as bases and ports for refuelling, repairs, replenishment, and other logistical requirements.
- These agreements are primarily administrative in nature and specify the circumstances under which such support may be extended, including joint military exercises, training activities, naval port visits, humanitarian assistance, and disaster relief operations.
- With growing military-to-military engagement and strategic partnerships, LSAs help streamline procedures and minimise bureaucratic hurdles.
- For example, India and the United States signed the Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA) in 2016, which was India’s first logistics support pact of this kind.
- The agreement establishes a framework for reciprocal access to logistics, supplies, and services during activities such as joint exercises, training programmes, and humanitarian or disaster relief missions.
- Clarifying the scope of the agreement, then Minister of State for Defence Subhash Bhamre informed Parliament in February 2017 that LEMOA does not permit the establishment of military bases or any permanent basing arrangements.
- Some exaggerated interpretations suggest that logistics agreements allow countries to station troops on each other’s territory.
- Applying this logic, it is sometimes argued that if India and Russia could deploy forces on each other’s soil, India and the United States could do the same under LEMOA. However, such claims are incorrect.
- As clarified by the Defence Ministry, logistics support agreements merely facilitate logistical cooperation and do not authorise the permanent deployment or stationing of troops, a principle that applies to all LSA
3. What is the Agreement with Russia?
- Similar to other logistics support arrangements, the Reciprocal Exchange of Logistics Support (RELOS) agreement lays down the framework for providing assistance to military units, facilitating port visits by naval vessels, enabling the use of airspace and airfield infrastructure by military aircraft, and organising logistical and technical support for warships, aircraft, and other military equipment of both countries.
- The agreement was concluded in Moscow on February 18, 2025, and was formally ratified after Russian President Vladimir Putin approved the corresponding federal law on December 15, 2025.
- According to the Kremlin, the pact establishes procedures governing the deployment of military contingents, naval port calls, and the use of aviation infrastructure and airspace by the armed forces of India and Russia.
- In broad terms, RELOS encompasses cooperation during joint exercises, training programmes, humanitarian assistance and disaster relief (HADR) operations, repair and maintenance facilities, medical assistance, supply of food and technical materials, and reciprocal access to military installations, including ports and airbases, to support personnel operating ships and aircraft.
- The agreement specifies an upper ceiling of 3,000 personnel, which serves as a broad limit considering the size of military contingents and the number of ships or aircraft involved in mutually agreed engagements.
- It remains in force for five years and allows for modifications in the future to accommodate evolving requirements. The duration for the deployment of personnel and equipment would depend on the nature and schedule of visits agreed upon by both countries.
- In practice, India’s defence engagements with several countries are much more extensive. For example, Indian armed forces regularly participate in exercises with the United States and other partners.
- Officials have clarified that RELOS does not provide for the permanent deployment of troops or military assets.
- Its provisions are intended to be implemented only during agreed activities such as joint exercises, port visits, or other mutually approved engagements. No arrangement for permanent or long-term stationing forms part of the agreement.
- A notable feature of RELOS is that it grants India access to Russian military facilities in the Arctic region.
- This assumes greater significance as both countries seek to deepen cooperation in the Arctic, particularly in view of emerging navigation routes made increasingly accessible by climate change and global warming
4. Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA)
- The Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA) is a bilateral logistics support arrangement signed between India and the United States in 2016.
- It establishes a framework that enables the armed forces of both countries to access each other’s military facilities for refuelling, replenishment, repairs, and other logistical requirements on a reciprocal basis.
- The agreement is intended to facilitate cooperation during joint military exercises, training activities, port visits, and humanitarian assistance and disaster relief (HADR) operations.
- LEMOA simplifies administrative procedures and enhances interoperability between the two militaries by providing access to logistics supplies and services when required.
- However, the agreement does not permit the establishment of military bases or permanent basing arrangements on each other’s territory.
- This clarification was provided by the Government of India, which emphasized that the pact is purely logistical in nature and does not involve the stationing of troops or military assets.
- As one of the key foundational defence agreements between India and the United States, LEMOA has strengthened strategic cooperation and improved the ability of both countries to undertake coordinated operations and respond effectively to regional and humanitarian contingencies
5. Logistics Support Agreements (LSAs) Signed by India with Various Countries
India has entered into several Logistics Support Agreements (LSAs) with strategic partners such as the United States, France, Australia, Japan, Singapore, and South Korea. These arrangements facilitate reciprocal access to military facilities and enhance defence cooperation, interoperability, and maritime security.
- India–United States
As part of efforts to deepen defence relations, India and the United States have concluded three key foundational agreements:
- Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA), signed in 2016, enables the armed forces of both countries to access each other’s logistics infrastructure for refuelling, replenishment, maintenance, and other support services. The agreement significantly expands the operational reach of the Indian Navy. For instance, access to American facilities such as Guam enhances India's ability to sustain operations across distant waters.
- Communications Compatibility and Security Agreement (COMCASA) was concluded in 2018. It facilitates the use of secure and encrypted communication systems, thereby enabling the effective deployment of advanced military platforms, including the P-8I maritime surveillance aircraft operated by the Indian Navy.
- Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement (BECA), signed in November 2020, provides India with access to U.S. geospatial intelligence and satellite data. This improves the precision and targeting capability of long-range weapons and strengthens situational awareness.
- India–France
- The logistics agreement between India and France seeks to enhance strategic cooperation and contribute to peace and stability in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It also enables closer collaboration between the two navies, including the exchange of maritime intelligence and improved operational coordination.
- India–Australia
- India and Australia signed the Mutual Logistics Support Agreement (MLSA) on June 4, 2020. Notably, it was the first bilateral agreement concluded through a virtual summit. The pact reflects the shared commitment of both countries to strengthening maritime cooperation and maintaining a free, open, and inclusive Indo-Pacific region.
- India–Japan
- In September 2020, India and Japan signed the Acquisition and Cross-Servicing Agreement (ACSA). The agreement facilitates reciprocal logistical support between the armed forces of the two nations and promotes closer defence cooperation in the Indo-Pacific.
- India–Singapore
- India and Singapore concluded a logistics support agreement on June 1, 2020. The arrangement covers a broad spectrum of military assets, including warships, submarines, aircraft, and shipborne helicopters, thereby enhancing naval cooperation between the two countries.
- India–South Korea
- India signed a Mutual Logistics Support Agreement with South Korea in September 2019. The agreement has expanded the operational footprint of the Indian Navy, extending its access and presence towards the northern reaches of the South China Sea and strengthening maritime engagement in East Asia.
7. Way Forward
Overall, these logistics agreements have enhanced India's military interoperability with partner countries, expanded the operational reach of its armed forces, and reinforced its strategic presence across the Indo-Pacific region.
Although the partner countries differ, the underlying framework and objectives of these arrangements remain largely identical. They are intended to facilitate joint exercises, training activities, port visits, and other forms of military cooperation by simplifying access to logistical resources and support services.
In addition, India has a logistics support arrangement with Oman, which operates within the broader framework of the bilateral defence cooperation agreement between the two countries. Together, these agreements have enhanced the operational reach of the Indian armed forces and strengthened India's strategic partnerships across different regions.
|
For Prelims: Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA), Logistics Support Agreement (LSA), India and Russia
For Mains: GS II - International relations
|
Source: The Hindu
