RETAIL INFLATION
1. Context
2. What is Inflation?
- It is the rise in prices of goods and services within a particular economy wherein consumers' purchasing power decreases, and the value of the cash holdings erodes.
- In India, the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) measures inflation.
- Some causes that lead to inflation are demand increases, reduction in supply, demand-supply gap, excess circulation of money, increase in input costs, devaluation of the currency, and rise in wages, among others.
3. Retail Inflation
4. How Inflation is measured?
- In India, inflation is primarily measured by two main indices- WPI (Wholesale Price Index) and CPI (Consumer Price Index), Which measures Wholesale and retail-level price changes, respectively.
- The CPI calculates the difference in the price of commodities and services such as food, medical care, education, electronics, etc, which Indian consumers buy for use.
- On the other hand, the goods or services sold by businesses to smaller businesses for selling further are captured by the WPI.
- Both WPI (Wholesale Price Index) and CPI (Consumer Price Index) are used to measure inflation in India.
5. What is the Inflation Target?
- Under Section 45ZA, in consultation with the RBI Act, the Central Government determines the inflation target in terms of the Consumer Price Index (CPI), once in five years and notifies it in the Official Gazette.
- Accordingly, on August 5, 2016, the Central Government notified in the Official Gazette 4 percent Consumer Price Index (CPI) inflation as the target for the period from August 5, 2016, to March 31, 2021, with the upper tolerance limit of 6 percent and the lower tolerance limit of 2 percent.
- On March 31, 2021, the Central Government retained the inflation target and the tolerance band for the next 5-year period-April 1, 2021 to March 31, 2026.
- Section 45ZB of the RBI Act provides for the constitution of a six-member Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) to determine the policy rate required to achieve the inflation target.
6. Monetary Policy Committee (MPC)
- The MPC is a statutory and institutionalized framework under the RBI Act, of 1934, for maintaining price stability, keeping in mind the objective of growth. It was created in 2016.
- It was created to bring transparency and accountability in deciding monetary policy.
- MPC determines the policy interest rate required to achieve the inflation target.
- The committee comprises six members and Governor RBI acts as an ex-officio chairman. Three members are from RBI and three are selected by the government. The inflation target is to be set once every five years. It is set by the Government of India, in consultation with the Reserve Bank of India.
- The current inflation target is pegged at 4% with -2/+2 tolerance till March 31, 2021.
7. What Caused the drop in Inflation?
- Retail Inflation or price gains based on the Consumer Price Index, slowed to 6.77 % last month, from September's 7.41%, aided by an appreciable deceleration in food price inflation.
- The year-on-year inflation based on the Consumer Food Price Index eased by almost 160 basis points in October, to 7.01%, from the preceding month's 8.60%, helped by a 'decline in prices of vegetables, fruits, pulses and oils, and fats', the Government said.
- With the food and beverages sub-index representing almost 46% of the CPI's weight, the slowdown in food price gains understandably steered overall inflation lower even as price gains in three other essential categories, namely clothing, and footwear, housing, and health remained either little changed from September or quickened.
- Inflation at the Wholesale Prices Level also continued to decelerate, with the headline reading easing into single digits for the first time in 19 months. A favorable base effect along with a distinct cooling in international prices of commodities including crude oil and steel amid gathering uncertainty in advanced economies was largely instrumental in tempering wholesale price gains.
8. Recent Measures by the Government
For Prelims & Mains
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For Prelims: Inflation, MPC, CPI, WPI, food Inflation, RBI, Headline inflation, Core inflation For Mains:
1. Explain the concept of inflation and its impact on an economy. Discuss the various causes of inflation and the measures that can be taken to control it, with specific reference to India. (250 Words)
2. What are the challenges and opportunities associated with managing inflation in India? Evaluate the effectiveness of recent policy measures in addressing inflationary pressures and maintaining price stability. Suggest strategies for sustainable economic growth while managing inflation risks. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2021)
1. The Governor of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is appointed by the Central Government.
2. Certain provisions in the Constitution of India give the Central Government the right to issue directions to the RBI in the public interest.
3. The Governor of the RBI draws his natural power from the RBI Act.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
2. Concerning the Indian economy, consider the following: (UPSC 2015)
Which of the above is/are component(s) of Monetary Policy? (a) 1 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1 and 2 (d) 1, 3 and 4
3. An increase in Bank Rate generally indicates: (UPSC 2013) (a) Market rate of interest is likely to fall.
(b) Central bank is no longer making loans to commercial banks.
(c) Central bank is following an easy money policy.
(d) Central bank is following a tight money policy.
4. Which of the following statements is/are correct regarding the Monetary Policy Committee (MPC)? (UPSC 2017) 1. It decides the RBI's benchmark interest rates.
2. It is a 12-member body including the Governor of RBI and is reconstituted every year.
3. It functions under the chairmanship of the Union Finance Minister.
Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1 only B. 1 and 2 only C. 3 only D. 2 and 3 only 5. Read the following passage and answer the question that follows. Your answers to these items should be based on the passage only.
Policymakers and media have placed the blame for skyrocketing food prices on a variety of factors, including high fuel prices, bad weather in key food producing countries, and the diversion of land to non-food production. Increased emphasis, however, has been placed on a surge in demand for food from the most populous emerging economics. It seems highly probable that mass consumption in these countries could be well poised to create a food crisis.
With reference to the above passage, the following assumptions have been made: (UPSC 2021)
1. Oil producing countries are one of the reasons for high food prices.
2. If there is a food crisis in the world in the near future, it will be in the emerging economies. Which of the above assumptions is/are valid?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
6. India has experienced persistent and high food inflation in the recent past. What could be the reasons? (UPSC 2011)
1. Due to a gradual switchover to the cultivation of commercial crops, the area under the cultivation of food grains has steadily decreased in the last five years by about 30.
2. As a consequence of increasing incomes, the consumption patterns of the people have undergone a significant change.
3. The food supply chain has structural constraints.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
7. With reference to inflation in India, which of the following statements is correct? (UPSC 2015)
A. Controlling the inflation in India is the responsibility of the Government of India only
B. The Reserve Bank of India has no role in controlling the inflation
C. Decreased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation
D. Increased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation
8. With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2016)
1. The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN and it will go into effect in 2017
2. The Agreement aims to limit greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2°C or even 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.
3. Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility in global warming and committed to donate $ 1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries to cope with climate change.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1 and 3 only B. 2 only C. 2 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answers: 1-C, 2-C, 3-D, 4-A, 5-D, 6-B, 6-C, 7-B
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GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP)
There are three primary ways to calculate GDP:
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Production Approach (GDP by Production): This approach calculates GDP by adding up the value-added at each stage of production. It involves summing up the value of all final goods and services produced in an economy.
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Income Approach (GDP by Income): This approach calculates GDP by summing up all the incomes earned in an economy, including wages, rents, interests, and profits. The idea is that all the income generated in an economy must ultimately be spent on purchasing goods and services.
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Expenditure Approach (GDP by Expenditure): This approach calculates GDP by summing up all the expenditures made on final goods and services. It includes consumption by households, investments by businesses, government spending, and net exports (exports minus imports).
3. Measuring GDP
GDP can be measured in three different ways:
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Nominal GDP: This is the raw GDP figure without adjusting for inflation. It reflects the total value of goods and services produced at current prices.
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Real GDP: Real GDP adjusts the nominal GDP for inflation, allowing for a more accurate comparison of economic performance over time. It represents the value of goods and services produced using constant prices from a specific base year.
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GDP per capita: This is the GDP divided by the population of a country. It provides a per-person measure of economic output and can be useful for comparing the relative economic well-being of different countries.
The GDP is a useful measure of economic health, but it has some limitations. For example, it does not take into account the distribution of income in an economy. It also does not take into account the quality of goods and services produced.
Despite its limitations, the GDP is a widely used measure of economic health. It is used by economists, policymakers, and businesses to track the performance of an economy and to make decisions about economic policy
4. Gross Value Added (GVA)
Gross Value Added (GVA) is a closely related concept to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and is used to measure the economic value generated by various economic activities within a country. GVA represents the value of goods and services produced in an economy minus the value of inputs (such as raw materials and intermediate goods) used in production. It's a way to measure the contribution of each individual sector or industry to the overall economy.
GVA can be calculated using the production approach, similar to one of the methods used to calculate GDP. The formula for calculating GVA is as follows:
GVA = Output Value - Intermediate Consumption
Where:
- Output Value: The total value of goods and services produced by an industry or sector.
- Intermediate Consumption: The value of inputs used in the production process, including raw materials, energy, and other intermediate goods.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Gross National Product (GNP) are both important economic indicators used to measure the size and health of an economy, but they focus on slightly different aspects of economic activity and include different factors. Here are the key differences between GDP and GNP:
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Definition and Scope:
- GDP: GDP measures the total value of all goods and services produced within a country's borders, regardless of whether the production is done by domestic or foreign entities. It only considers economic activities that take place within the country.
- GNP: GNP measures the total value of all goods and services produced by a country's residents, whether they are located within the country's borders or abroad. It takes into account the production of residents, both domestically and internationally.
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Foreign Income and Payments:
- GDP: GDP does not consider the income earned by residents of a country from their economic activities abroad, nor does it account for payments made to foreigners working within the country.
- GNP: GNP includes the income earned by a country's residents from their investments and activities abroad, minus the income earned by foreign residents from their investments within the country.
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Net Factor Income from Abroad:
- GDP: GDP does not account for net factor income from abroad, which is the difference between income earned by domestic residents abroad and income earned by foreign residents domestically.
- GNP: GNP includes net factor income from abroad as part of its calculation.
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Foreign Direct Investment:
- GDP: GDP does not directly consider foreign direct investment (FDI) flowing into or out of a country.
- GNP: GNP considers the impact of FDI on the income of a country's residents, both from investments made within the country and from investments made by residents abroad.
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Measurement Approach:
- GDP: GDP can be calculated using three different approaches: production, income, and expenditure approaches.
- GNP: GNP is primarily calculated using the income approach, as it focuses on the income earned by residents from their economic activities.
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For Prelims: GDP, GVA, FDI, GNP
For Mains: 1.Discuss the recent trends and challenges in India's GDP growth
2.Examine the role of the service sector in India's GDP growth
3.Compare and contrast the growth trajectories of India's GDP and GNP
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Previous Year Questions
1.With reference to Indian economy, consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE, 2015)
1. The rate of growth of Real Gross Domestic Product has steadily increased in the last decade. 2. The Gross Domestic Product at market prices (in rupees) has steadily increased in the last decade. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer (b)
2.A decrease in tax to GDP ratio of a country indicates which of the following? (UPSC CSE, 2015) 1. Slowing economic growth rate 2. Less equitable distribution of national income Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer (a)
Previous year UPSC Mains Question Covering similar theme: Define potential GDP and explain its determinants. What are the factors that have been inhibiting India from realizing its potential GDP? (UPSC CSE GS3, 2020) Explain the difference between computing methodology of India’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) before the year 2015 and after the year 2015. (UPSC CSE GS3, 2021) |
MANGROVES
- Mangroves are a special category of vegetation made up of salt-tolerant trees and shrubs that typically grow in coastal zones where freshwater from rivers and streams mixes with seawater — specifically in estuarine and intertidal environments.
- These plants are known for their specialized breathing or aerial roots and thick, waxy leaves, and they belong to the category of flowering plants.
- Mangroves flourish in regions that receive high annual rainfall ranging from 1,000 to 3,000 mm and have temperatures between 26°C and 35°C.
- A remarkable feature of mangroves is their method of reproduction. Their seeds, called propagules, begin germinating while still attached to the parent plant — a process termed vivipary.
- Once matured, these seedlings fall into the water and eventually establish themselves in muddy, sediment-rich environments. This adaptation enhances their survival in highly saline and unstable coastal conditions.
- Species like the red mangrove (Rhizophora), Avicennia marina, and the grey mangrove are among the commonly found varieties. These ecosystems are typically found in marshes and swamps and are classified as littoral forests, thriving in saline or brackish waters along coastal belts.
Mangrove Distribution in India
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- Mangrove forests are found across 123 countries and territories, predominantly within tropical and subtropical latitudes.
- According to the Indian State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2023, India’s mangrove cover stands at approximately 4,992 square kilometers, making up about 0.15% of the nation’s total geographical area.
- West Bengal leads with the most extensive mangrove area, particularly in the Sundarbans. Gujarat ranks second, with about 1,177 sq. km, especially concentrated around the Gulf of Kutch and Gulf of Khambhat. Within Gujarat, Kutch district alone accounts for nearly 794 sq. km, the highest in the state.
- Other Indian states with significant mangrove ecosystems include Andhra Pradesh (notably in the Godavari-Krishna delta), Kerala, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
- The Sundarbans, extending across India and Bangladesh, represent the largest continuous mangrove forest on the planet and have been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
- This biodiverse region is home to iconic species such as the Royal Bengal tiger and Gangetic dolphin. In contrast, Bhitarkanika, the second largest mangrove area in India, is well known for hosting Olive Ridley turtles and saltwater crocodiles, both considered ecologically significant and vulnerable species
- Coastal Protection (Natural Bio-shields):
Mangroves serve as a natural buffer against coastal hazards. Often termed ‘bio-shields’, these dense root systems absorb and reduce the intensity of storm surges, tidal waves, and high winds. They effectively minimize soil erosion and protect vulnerable coastlines from the impacts of climate-induced disasters. - Carbon Sequestration:
These forests are highly effective carbon sinks, meaning they absorb more carbon dioxide than they emit. According to UNESCO, one hectare of mangrove can store approximately 3,754 tonnes of carbon, equivalent to removing over 2,650 vehicles from the road for a year. - Unlike other trees that release stored carbon when they die, mangroves trap carbon in the underlying soil, where it can remain locked for thousands of years, even if the vegetation above is destroyed. This makes mangroves uniquely effective in combating global warming and contributing to long-term climate stability
- Livelihood and Economic Contributions:
Being located in coastal areas, mangroves are closely tied to the livelihoods of local communities. Activities such as fishing, aquaculture, collection of honey, non-timber forest produce, and small-scale boating are directly supported by these ecosystems. - Furthermore, mangroves support the growth of commercially valuable species like fish, shrimps, and prawns, making them critical for the blue economy
- Biodiversity Hotspots:
Mangrove ecosystems are teeming with life and support complex, interdependent communities. They act as nursery grounds for marine species, shelter for terrestrial animals like monkeys, deer, and birds, and feeding grounds for a variety of organisms. - Their flowers provide nectar for honeybees, while the dense vegetation offers refuge for endangered and migratory species alike. Some mangrove zones even support unusual inhabitants such as kangaroos in other parts of the world
- As per UNESCO, mangrove forests—despite their ecological and economic importance—are vanishing at a rate three to five times faster than other global forest types. This alarming trend has far-reaching environmental and socio-economic consequences. Over the past four decades, global mangrove cover has been reduced by half.
- Multiple human-induced pressures such as deforestation, pollution, and the construction of dams significantly endanger these ecosystems.
- Additionally, climate change has emerged as a critical threat, intensifying the risks through rising sea levels and the increased frequency of extreme weather events like storms and cyclones.
- Studies suggest that as sea levels rise, mangroves naturally migrate inland. However, this landward shift is increasingly being obstructed by urban development, human settlements, and industrial infrastructure, leaving the mangroves with no space to adapt.
- This "coastal squeeze" could eventually lead to their irreversible decline, hampering both conservation and restoration efforts.
- According to research based on the IUCN Red List of Ecosystems, nearly one-third (33%) of the world’s mangrove habitats are currently at risk due to the impacts of climate change.
- The study highlights that preserving healthy mangrove ecosystems is vital to climate resilience, as they can better adapt to rising seas and provide natural protection to inland areas from storm surges, hurricanes, and cyclones
- Mangrove ecosystems are under significant stress due to rapid urban expansion, conversion of coastal areas for agriculture and shrimp farming, and the detrimental effects of rising sea surface temperatures. Additionally, unsustainable tourism activities have further exacerbated the degradation of these fragile habitats.
- On a positive note, the role of mangroves in climate change mitigation and adaptation is increasingly being acknowledged worldwide. Among notable international efforts are the Mangroves for the Future (MFF) initiative and the Mangrove Alliance for Climate, both of which focus on conservation and resilience-building.
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Government Initiatives In India, several government-led programmes have emerged to promote mangrove protection. These include:
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Despite these efforts, there is a pressing need to go beyond schemes and adopt a multi-pronged conservation strategy. This includes:
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6. Way forward
Identifying local and regional challenges is essential to developing targeted solutions. Ultimately, there is a need for a unified global action plan with clearly defined objectives to ensure the long-term survival of mangrove ecosystems and promote a sustainable and climate-resilient future
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For Prelims: IUCN Red List of Ecosystems, Mangroves for the Future (MFF), Mangrove Ecosystems and Their Distribution in India
For Mains: GS III - Environment and ecology
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Previous Year Questions
1.Which one of the following regions of India has a combination of mangrove forest, evergreen forest and deciduous forest? (UPSC CSE 2015) (a) North Coastal Andhra Pradesh (b) South-West Bengal (c) Southern Saurashtra (d) Andaman and Nicobar Islands
2.With reference to the mangroves, consider the following statements: 1. They act as a buffer between the ocean and the land. 2. They prevent erosion by absorbing wave action. 3. Mangroves require carbon dioxide for their roots to survive. 4. Pichavaram Mangrove Forest is located in West Bengal. How many of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) All four 3.With reference to the Sundarbans mangrove forest, consider the following statements: 1. It lies on the delta of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers on the Bay of Bengal. 2. It is a World Heritage site which was inscribed in 1987. 3. It lies on the India-Myanmar border. 4. It is the world’s second-largest contiguous mangrove forest. How many of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) All four Answers: 1-d 2-b 3-b Mains Discuss the causes of depletion of mangroves and explain their importance in maintaining coastal ecology. (UPSC CSE 2019) |
BRAHMOS MISSILE
- The BrahMos missile is a supersonic cruise missile jointly developed by India's Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and Russia's NPO Mashinostroyeniya. Its name is a portmanteau of the Brahmaputra and Moskva rivers.
- BrahMos is known for its speed and versatility. It is the fastest cruise missile in the world, capable of reaching speeds of up to Mach 3 (three times the speed of sound). This makes it extremely difficult for enemy defenses to intercept.
- The missile has both land-attack and anti-ship capabilities, meaning it can target both land-based targets and naval vessels. Its precision and range make it a potent weapon for both offensive and defensive purposes. It's deployed across various platforms including land, sea, and air.
- The BrahMos missile has become a significant asset in the Indian military's arsenal, providing a formidable deterrent and offensive capability. It's continuously being upgraded to enhance its capabilities and adapt it to different platforms and operational requirements
3. Evolution of Brahmos
- During the early 1980s, Dr. A P J Abdul Kalam spearheaded the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme, initiating the creation of various indigenous missiles such as Prithvi, Agni, Trishul, Akash, and Nag, each with diverse capabilities and operational ranges.
- In the early 1990s, India's strategic leadership recognized the necessity for cruise missiles—guided projectiles maintaining nearly constant speeds throughout their trajectories—to deliver sizable warheads with pinpoint accuracy over extensive distances.
- This requirement emerged prominently following the deployment of cruise missiles during the 1991 Gulf War.
- In 1998, an Inter-Governmental Agreement was formalized in Moscow between Dr. Kalam, then heading the DRDO, and N V Mikhailov, Russia's Deputy Defence Minister at the time.
- This agreement laid the foundation for BrahMos Aerospace, a collaborative venture between DRDO and the Russian space company NPO Mashinostroyenia (NPOM), with the Indian side holding 50.5% ownership and the Russians 49.5%. The venture derived its name from two rivers—Brahmaputra in India and Moskva in Russia.
- Subsequently, in 1999, the development of missiles commenced within the laboratories of DRDO and NPOM after BrahMos Aerospace secured funding from both governments. The first successful test launch occurred in 2001 from a specifically engineered land-based launcher
4.Significance of Brahmos
- The BrahMos missile is equipped with a solid propellant booster engine, comprising two stages. Initially, the first stage accelerates the missile to supersonic speeds, after which it detaches. Subsequently, the liquid ramjet, constituting the second stage, propels the missile to nearly three times the speed of sound during its cruise phase.
- Notably, the missile exhibits a minimal radar signature, enhancing its stealth capabilities, and can follow various trajectories.
- As a "fire and forget" weapon, it can maintain a cruising altitude of 15 km and descend to as low as 10 meters to effectively strike its target.
- Classified as "standoff range weapons," cruise missiles like BrahMos are launched from a distance substantial enough to evade defensive countermeasures, a feature common among the arsenals of major militaries worldwide.
- Compared to subsonic cruise missiles, BrahMos boasts three times the speed, 2.5 times the flight range, and extended operational capabilities. With export versions available, BrahMos serves as a crucial asset in defense diplomacy initiatives.
- In 2022, an air-launched variant of BrahMos underwent testing from a frontline SU-30MKI aircraft, while an advanced sea-to-sea variant was also tested from the INS Visakhapatnam during the same year.
- However, BrahMos was embroiled in controversy in 2022 when Pakistan alleged that an unarmed Indian missile had inadvertently landed within its territory on March 9, 2022. The Ministry of Defence attributed the incident to a technical malfunction resulting in accidental firing.
- Though the government initiated a high-level inquiry, the specific missile involved was not officially disclosed. Nonetheless, experts inferred from its trajectory that it bore the hallmarks of BrahMos
5. Types of BrahMos
- The BrahMos missile system is strategically deployed across various fronts, encompassing land-based formations along border regions, BrahMos-equipped Sukhoi-30 aircraft stationed in both the Northern and Southern theaters, and ships and submarines fitted with BrahMos capabilities in naval operations. This integrated setup constitutes a formidable triad, adept at addressing evolving demands in multidimensional warfare scenarios.
- To adapt to dynamic warfare requirements, ongoing efforts are focused on upgrading the BrahMos system, with emphasis on enhancing range, maneuverability, and accuracy.
- Current development initiatives include testing versions with extended ranges of up to 350 km, surpassing the original's 290 km limit. Furthermore, plans are underway for versions with even greater ranges, potentially reaching up to 800 km, and featuring hypersonic speeds. Concurrently, endeavors are directed towards reducing the size and radar signature of existing iterations while augmenting their overall capabilities.
- Across all three branches of the Armed Forces, BrahMos variants are subject to regular testing, including those presently in development.
- Land-Based: The land-based BrahMos setup comprises mobile autonomous launchers, typically housing four to six launchers, each armed with three missiles capable of near-simultaneous firing.
- These batteries are strategically deployed along India's land borders in various theaters. Upgraded versions of the land attack variant, capable of cruising at 2.8 Mach, boast precision striking capabilities with ranges of up to 400 km.
- Advanced iterations with enhanced range and speeds of up to 5 Mach are reportedly in the developmental pipeline. Notably, the ground systems of BrahMos are lauded for their streamlined design and minimal componentry.
- Ship-Based: Since 2005, the Navy has been inducting BrahMos missiles on its frontline warships, enhancing their ability to engage sea-based targets beyond the radar horizon. The naval variant has demonstrated efficacy in both sea-to-sea and sea-to-land engagements.
- These missiles can be deployed individually or in salvos of up to eight, with staggered firing intervals. This capability enables them to effectively target groups of frigates equipped with modern missile defense systems.
- Air-Launched: The successful flight testing of BrahMos from a Sukhoi-30MKI against a sea-based target in the Bay of Bengal on November 22, 2017, marked a significant milestone. Subsequent tests have validated its effectiveness.
- The BrahMos-equipped Sukhoi-30 aircraft, boasting a range of 1,500 km without mid-air refueling, serve as a pivotal strategic deterrent along both land borders and the strategically vital Indian Ocean Region. The Indian Air Force is actively integrating BrahMos with 40 Sukhoi-30 fighter jets across various airbases.
- Submarine-Launched: This variant can be launched from depths of approximately 50 meters below the water surface. The missile, stored in a canister, is vertically launched from the pressure hull of the submarine, employing distinct configurations for underwater and surface flights. Successful testing of this version was first conducted in March 2013 from a submerged platform off the coast of Visakhapatnam
6. Brahmos Missile Series
The BrahMos missile series is a family of supersonic cruise missiles developed jointly by India and Russia. Named after the Brahmaputra River in India and the Moskva River in Russia, the BrahMos series is renowned for its speed, precision, and versatility.
Here are some key variants within the BrahMos missile series:
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BrahMos Block-I: The initial variant of the BrahMos missile, featuring a range of approximately 290 km. It is capable of striking both land-based and naval targets with high accuracy.
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BrahMos Block-II: An upgraded version with enhanced capabilities, including improved range and accuracy. It incorporates advanced technologies to further enhance its effectiveness in various operational scenarios.
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BrahMos Block-III: This variant features additional upgrades aimed at improving its range, maneuverability, and stealth capabilities. It is designed to overcome evolving threats and maintain its position as a potent deterrent.
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BrahMos-A: The air-launched variant of the BrahMos missile, integrated onto Sukhoi Su-30MKI fighter aircraft of the Indian Air Force. It significantly extends the reach of the missile, allowing for precision strikes against ground and naval targets.
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BrahMos-N: The naval variant of the BrahMos missile, deployed on Indian Navy warships. It provides a formidable anti-ship and land-attack capability, enhancing the offensive capabilities of naval fleets.
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BrahMos-ER: The extended-range variant of the BrahMos missile, currently under development, aimed at achieving ranges beyond the existing capabilities. It will further enhance the strategic reach of the BrahMos series, allowing for precision strikes at longer distances.
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BrahMos-NG: A next-generation variant of the BrahMos missile, featuring reduced size and weight while maintaining high performance. It is designed for compatibility with a wider range of platforms, including aircraft, submarines, and surface vessels
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Previous Year Questions
1.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE Prelims 2023)
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Answer: (d) |
RARE EARTH ELEMENTS
| The 17 rare earths are cerium (Ce), dysprosium (Dy), erbium (Er), europium (Eu), gadolinium (Gd), holmium (Ho), lanthanum (La), lutetium (Lu), neodymium (Nd), praseodymium (Pr), promethium (Pm), samarium (Sm), scandium (Sc), terbium (Tb), thulium (Tm), ytterbium (Yb), and yttrium (Y) |
- These elements are important in technologies of consumer electronics, computers and networks, communications, clean energy, advanced transportation, healthcare, environmental mitigation, and national defence, among others
- Scandium is used in televisions and fluorescent lamps, and yttrium is used in drugs to treat rheumatoid arthritis and cancer
- Rare earth elements are used in space shuttle components, jet engine turbines, and drones
- Cerium, the most abundant rare earth element, is essential to NASA’s Space Shuttle Programme
- In recent years, rare earths have become even more important because there has been an increase in demand for green energy
- Elements like neodymium and dysprosium, which are used in wind turbine motors, are sought-after more than ever as wind mills across the world continue to grow
- Moreover, the push for switching from internal combustion cars to electric vehicles has also led to a rise in demand for rare earth magnets made from neodymium, boron, and iron and batteries
- China has imposed restrictions on the export of seven rare earth elements (REEs) — dysprosium, gadolinium, lutetium, samarium, scandium, terbium, and yttrium — which are part of the 17 REEs.
- The country dominates the global refining of heavy REEs, giving it substantial control over critical supply chains, ranging from consumer electronics to defense. Although these measures do not constitute a complete export ban, they may cause temporary supply disruptions, as exporters navigate the permit process.
- India may not face an immediate disruption due to these restrictions. Despite government efforts to enhance domestic manufacturing of semiconductors and defense systems, the more sophisticated phases of production largely take place abroad, particularly in China and Japan. Japan, in anticipation of such issues, has already built stockpiles to buffer against REE-related supply shocks.
- Recognizing the strategic importance of REEs, India is aware that it holds around 6% of global deposits. However, the country’s capacity for mining and refining is minimal, largely due to the environmental challenges associated with such operations.
- India does extract some light REEs through its state-run firm, Indian Rare Earths Ltd, including monazite from coastal sands in Kerala. Nonetheless, imports still play a role.
- According to a recent statement by the Ministry of Mines in the Lok Sabha, India imported approximately 2,270 tonnes of REEs in 2023–24. Consequently, the national approach involves a mix of increasing domestic output and maintaining import channels
To support the strategic use of essential resources such as rare earth elements, India has launched the National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM). This initiative aims to strengthen the country’s supply chain for critical minerals by boosting domestic production and establishing alternative international supply partnerships. According to a presentation by the Ministry of Mines in January, global events like China’s export restrictions, the Russia–Ukraine conflict, and other geopolitical factors have exposed vulnerabilities in the global critical mineral supply, underscoring the urgency of diversifying sources.
As part of the NCMM, the Indian government plans to oversee or support around 1,200 mineral exploration projects. It also intends to offer exploration licenses to encourage private sector participation and conduct auctions for additional critical mineral blocks
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For Prelims: Applications of rare earths, rare earth elements
For Mains:
1.Europe’s largest known deposit of rare earth elements found in Sweden: Could the discovery change geopolitics?
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Previous Year Questions
1.Recently, there has been a concern over the short supply of a group of elements called ‘rare earth metals’. Why? (2012)
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only Answer (c)
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BRAHMOS MISSILE
- The BrahMos missile is a supersonic cruise missile jointly developed by India's Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and Russia's NPO Mashinostroyeniya. Its name is a portmanteau of the Brahmaputra and Moskva rivers.
- BrahMos is known for its speed and versatility. It is the fastest cruise missile in the world, capable of reaching speeds of up to Mach 3 (three times the speed of sound). This makes it extremely difficult for enemy defenses to intercept.
- The missile has both land-attack and anti-ship capabilities, meaning it can target both land-based targets and naval vessels. Its precision and range make it a potent weapon for both offensive and defensive purposes. It's deployed across various platforms including land, sea, and air.
- The BrahMos missile has become a significant asset in the Indian military's arsenal, providing a formidable deterrent and offensive capability. It's continuously being upgraded to enhance its capabilities and adapt it to different platforms and operational requirements
3. Evolution of Brahmos
- During the early 1980s, Dr. A P J Abdul Kalam spearheaded the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme, initiating the creation of various indigenous missiles such as Prithvi, Agni, Trishul, Akash, and Nag, each with diverse capabilities and operational ranges.
- In the early 1990s, India's strategic leadership recognized the necessity for cruise missiles—guided projectiles maintaining nearly constant speeds throughout their trajectories—to deliver sizable warheads with pinpoint accuracy over extensive distances.
- This requirement emerged prominently following the deployment of cruise missiles during the 1991 Gulf War.
- In 1998, an Inter-Governmental Agreement was formalized in Moscow between Dr. Kalam, then heading the DRDO, and N V Mikhailov, Russia's Deputy Defence Minister at the time.
- This agreement laid the foundation for BrahMos Aerospace, a collaborative venture between DRDO and the Russian space company NPO Mashinostroyenia (NPOM), with the Indian side holding 50.5% ownership and the Russians 49.5%. The venture derived its name from two rivers—Brahmaputra in India and Moskva in Russia.
- Subsequently, in 1999, the development of missiles commenced within the laboratories of DRDO and NPOM after BrahMos Aerospace secured funding from both governments. The first successful test launch occurred in 2001 from a specifically engineered land-based launcher
4.Significance of Brahmos
- The BrahMos missile is equipped with a solid propellant booster engine, comprising two stages. Initially, the first stage accelerates the missile to supersonic speeds, after which it detaches. Subsequently, the liquid ramjet, constituting the second stage, propels the missile to nearly three times the speed of sound during its cruise phase.
- Notably, the missile exhibits a minimal radar signature, enhancing its stealth capabilities, and can follow various trajectories.
- As a "fire and forget" weapon, it can maintain a cruising altitude of 15 km and descend to as low as 10 meters to effectively strike its target.
- Classified as "standoff range weapons," cruise missiles like BrahMos are launched from a distance substantial enough to evade defensive countermeasures, a feature common among the arsenals of major militaries worldwide.
- Compared to subsonic cruise missiles, BrahMos boasts three times the speed, 2.5 times the flight range, and extended operational capabilities. With export versions available, BrahMos serves as a crucial asset in defense diplomacy initiatives.
- In 2022, an air-launched variant of BrahMos underwent testing from a frontline SU-30MKI aircraft, while an advanced sea-to-sea variant was also tested from the INS Visakhapatnam during the same year.
- However, BrahMos was embroiled in controversy in 2022 when Pakistan alleged that an unarmed Indian missile had inadvertently landed within its territory on March 9, 2022. The Ministry of Defence attributed the incident to a technical malfunction resulting in accidental firing.
- Though the government initiated a high-level inquiry, the specific missile involved was not officially disclosed. Nonetheless, experts inferred from its trajectory that it bore the hallmarks of BrahMos
5. Types of BrahMos
- The BrahMos missile system is strategically deployed across various fronts, encompassing land-based formations along border regions, BrahMos-equipped Sukhoi-30 aircraft stationed in both the Northern and Southern theaters, and ships and submarines fitted with BrahMos capabilities in naval operations. This integrated setup constitutes a formidable triad, adept at addressing evolving demands in multidimensional warfare scenarios.
- To adapt to dynamic warfare requirements, ongoing efforts are focused on upgrading the BrahMos system, with emphasis on enhancing range, maneuverability, and accuracy.
- Current development initiatives include testing versions with extended ranges of up to 350 km, surpassing the original's 290 km limit. Furthermore, plans are underway for versions with even greater ranges, potentially reaching up to 800 km, and featuring hypersonic speeds. Concurrently, endeavors are directed towards reducing the size and radar signature of existing iterations while augmenting their overall capabilities.
- Across all three branches of the Armed Forces, BrahMos variants are subject to regular testing, including those presently in development.
- Land-Based: The land-based BrahMos setup comprises mobile autonomous launchers, typically housing four to six launchers, each armed with three missiles capable of near-simultaneous firing.
- These batteries are strategically deployed along India's land borders in various theaters. Upgraded versions of the land attack variant, capable of cruising at 2.8 Mach, boast precision striking capabilities with ranges of up to 400 km.
- Advanced iterations with enhanced range and speeds of up to 5 Mach are reportedly in the developmental pipeline. Notably, the ground systems of BrahMos are lauded for their streamlined design and minimal componentry.
- Ship-Based: Since 2005, the Navy has been inducting BrahMos missiles on its frontline warships, enhancing their ability to engage sea-based targets beyond the radar horizon. The naval variant has demonstrated efficacy in both sea-to-sea and sea-to-land engagements.
- These missiles can be deployed individually or in salvos of up to eight, with staggered firing intervals. This capability enables them to effectively target groups of frigates equipped with modern missile defense systems.
- Air-Launched: The successful flight testing of BrahMos from a Sukhoi-30MKI against a sea-based target in the Bay of Bengal on November 22, 2017, marked a significant milestone. Subsequent tests have validated its effectiveness.
- The BrahMos-equipped Sukhoi-30 aircraft, boasting a range of 1,500 km without mid-air refueling, serve as a pivotal strategic deterrent along both land borders and the strategically vital Indian Ocean Region. The Indian Air Force is actively integrating BrahMos with 40 Sukhoi-30 fighter jets across various airbases.
- Submarine-Launched: This variant can be launched from depths of approximately 50 meters below the water surface. The missile, stored in a canister, is vertically launched from the pressure hull of the submarine, employing distinct configurations for underwater and surface flights. Successful testing of this version was first conducted in March 2013 from a submerged platform off the coast of Visakhapatnam
6. Brahmos Missile Series
The BrahMos missile series is a family of supersonic cruise missiles developed jointly by India and Russia. Named after the Brahmaputra River in India and the Moskva River in Russia, the BrahMos series is renowned for its speed, precision, and versatility.
Here are some key variants within the BrahMos missile series:
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BrahMos Block-I: The initial variant of the BrahMos missile, featuring a range of approximately 290 km. It is capable of striking both land-based and naval targets with high accuracy.
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BrahMos Block-II: An upgraded version with enhanced capabilities, including improved range and accuracy. It incorporates advanced technologies to further enhance its effectiveness in various operational scenarios.
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BrahMos Block-III: This variant features additional upgrades aimed at improving its range, maneuverability, and stealth capabilities. It is designed to overcome evolving threats and maintain its position as a potent deterrent.
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BrahMos-A: The air-launched variant of the BrahMos missile, integrated onto Sukhoi Su-30MKI fighter aircraft of the Indian Air Force. It significantly extends the reach of the missile, allowing for precision strikes against ground and naval targets.
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BrahMos-N: The naval variant of the BrahMos missile, deployed on Indian Navy warships. It provides a formidable anti-ship and land-attack capability, enhancing the offensive capabilities of naval fleets.
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BrahMos-ER: The extended-range variant of the BrahMos missile, currently under development, aimed at achieving ranges beyond the existing capabilities. It will further enhance the strategic reach of the BrahMos series, allowing for precision strikes at longer distances.
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BrahMos-NG: A next-generation variant of the BrahMos missile, featuring reduced size and weight while maintaining high performance. It is designed for compatibility with a wider range of platforms, including aircraft, submarines, and surface vessels
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Previous Year Questions
1.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE Prelims 2023)
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Answer: (d) |
