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DAILY CURRENT AFFAIRS, 01 MAY 2025

SIMLA AGREEMENT

 
 
1. Context
 
In response to India’s decision to suspend the 1960 Indus Waters Treaty in the aftermath of the Pahalgam terror attack, Pakistan’s government said it could hold the 1972 Simla Agreement and “all other bilateral agreements with India” in abeyance
 
2. Simla Agreement
 
  • The Simla Agreement was signed on July 2, 1972, in Shimla after three days of discussions between Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, fresh from her victory in the 1971 Bangladesh War, and Pakistani Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, who was grappling with the defeat and the partition of Pakistan.
  • The groundwork for these negotiations had been largely prepared by the Soviet Union, with Indian and Pakistani diplomats engaging in preliminary talks in Moscow.
  • The discussions centered on two key matters: shaping the future relationship between India and Pakistan, including the repatriation of over 93,000 Pakistani prisoners of war, and addressing the Kashmir issue.
  • Both sides agreed to resolve their disputes peacefully, either through direct bilateral talks or through mutually acceptable methods.
  • Additionally, the Simla Agreement marked the first instance where Bangladesh was formally acknowledged as an independent nation in a bilateral treaty
 
The Simla Agreement led to severe criticism of Mrs. Gandhi in India, for not forcing Pakistan to make the ceasefire line the International Border, instead renaming it the Line of Control (LoC); and of Mr. Bhutto in Pakistan for agreeing to resolve the dispute peacefully and without recourse to the United Nations or other third-party mediators. In Srinagar, Sheikh Abdullah’s criticisms stemmed from the fact that neither side had consulted the Kashmiri people.
 
3. Violations of the Pact
 
 
  • In the years following the Simla Agreement, Pakistan repeatedly breached its terms by supporting and arming militant groups in Kashmir and by sending troops across the Line of Control (LoC), which culminated in the Kargil conflict of 1999.
  • Pakistan also sought international intervention, including appealing to the United Nations and other countries, actions that contradicted the bilateral framework agreed upon in Simla.
  • Meanwhile, India’s 1994 Parliamentary resolution declaring the entire region of Kashmir, including Pakistan-Occupied Kashmir, as an integral part of the country, along with the 2019 abrogation of Article 370, have further diminished the relevance of the Simla Agreement.
4.Other agreements which are to be affected
 
  • Although Pakistan did not explicitly mention any specific agreement, the Shehbaz Sharif government’s reference to "all other" bilateral accords could encompass a range of treaties signed between India and Pakistan following their multiple armed conflicts, from the first Kashmir war in 1948 to the Kargil conflict in 1999.
  • Among these is the Nehru-Liaquat Pact of 1950, which focused on safeguarding minority rights in both nations. Another significant accord is the 1974 Bilateral Protocol on Visits to Religious Shrines, which facilitates the travel of hundreds of Hindu and Sikh pilgrims to 15 sites in Pakistan and allows Muslim pilgrims to visit five mosques and shrines in India.
  • For now, both countries have suggested that the Kartarpur Corridor agreement, finalized in 2019 between the Narendra Modi and Imran Khan administrations, will continue.
  • However, other agreements aimed at building confidence and sharing information may come under strain. In 1988, India and Pakistan signed a pact to exchange lists of their nuclear installations annually on January 1.
  • This was followed in 1991 by agreements on advance notification of ballistic missile tests and measures to prevent airspace violations. Since February 2021, both sides have adhered to a ceasefire agreement, originally established in 2003.
  • Any military action by India against terror camps or other targets in Pakistan — actions against which Pakistan has vowed retaliation — could jeopardize the ceasefire.
  • Furthermore, India’s move to suspend its participation in the Indus Waters Treaty could escalate tensions, with Pakistan threatening legal action internationally and framing any disruption of water flow as an "act of war."
  • India, while an upper riparian to Pakistan and Bangladesh, is also a lower riparian state in relation to China, which has at times withheld hydrological cooperation. Consequently, India’s decisions regarding the Indus Waters Treaty are likely to be watched closely not just by Pakistan, but by other neighboring countries as well
5. India-Pakistan relationship over the Years
 
  • Partition and Independence (1947):
    The division of British India in 1947 marked a turning point, leading to the establishment of two new nations: India, founded as a secular state, and Pakistan, envisioned as a theocratic state. Initially, the Maharaja of Kashmir aimed to maintain independence; however, following Pakistan's invasion of Kashmir, he chose to accede to India, triggering the first Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–48.
  • Wars, Agreements, and Rise of Terrorism:
    The 1965 conflict, sparked by border clashes, escalated into a full-fledged war but concluded with a UN-brokered ceasefire, resulting in no significant territorial changes.
    In 1971, India played a decisive role in supporting East Pakistan's independence movement, leading to the creation of Bangladesh.
  • The Simla Agreement of 1972, signed in the aftermath of the war, formalized the Line of Control (LoC) in Kashmir.
    By 1989, Pakistan began backing an armed insurgency in Kashmir, which resulted in extensive violence and widespread human rights violations.
  • The Kargil conflict of 1999 erupted when Pakistan-supported forces infiltrated positions on the Indian side of the LoC, culminating in a military victory for India but deepening mutual hostility.
  • The 2008 Mumbai attacks, orchestrated by Pakistan-based militant group Lashkar-e-Taiba, resulted in the deaths of 166 civilians and drastically worsened bilateral relations, drawing global condemnation and demands for Pakistan to combat terrorism.
    While both countries have periodically pursued dialogue and confidence-building measures, these efforts have often been derailed by incidents like the Pulwama attack in 2019 and subsequent military confrontations, underscoring the persistent volatility of peace initiatives.
  • Contemporary Situation (2023–2024):
    Political instability within Pakistan, along with the persistence of militant activities and ongoing border tensions, continues to fuel distrust and violence between the two nations.
    Adding to this complex scenario is China’s growing regional influence, including its close strategic ties with Pakistan and its territorial disputes with India, further complicating the already fragile Indo-Pakistani relationship
 
6. Way Forward
 
It is important to highlight that the statement released by the Pakistan Prime Minister’s Office on April 24 declared that "Pakistan shall exercise the right to hold all bilateral agreements with India, including but not limited to the Simla Agreement, in abeyance." However, it remains unclear whether Islamabad has formally communicated this decision through an official notification. So far, India has not received any formal correspondence from Pakistan regarding the matter. The immediate implications are likely to emerge concerning the Jammu and Kashmir issue, particularly regarding whether Pakistan will now reject the Line of Control (LoC), which was first officially referenced in the Simla Agreement. Experts believe that if Pakistan were to violate the LoC, India might also no longer feel bound by it and could potentially undertake military operations to reclaim areas currently under Pakistan-occupied Kashmir
 

For Prelims: Simla Agreement, 1971 Indo-Pakistani War, Kashmir issue, Line of Control (LoC), Nuclear tests, Kargil War, Article 370, 

For Mains: India-Pakistan relations, Significance of Simla agreement 
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 

1.With reference to the Indus river system, of the following four rivers, three of them pour into one of them which joins the Indus directly. Among the following, which one is such a river that joins the Indus direct? (2021)

(a) Chenab

(b) Jhelum

(c) Ravi

(d) Sutlej

Answer (d)

Mains
 

1. "Increasing cross border terrorist attacks in India and growing interference in the internal affairs of several member states by Pakistan are not conducive for the future of SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation)." Explain with suitable examples. (2016)

2. Terrorist activities and mutual distrust have clouded India – Pakistan relations. To what extent the use of soft power like sports and cultural exchanges could help generate goodwill between the two countries? Discuss with suitable examples. (2015)
 
 
Source: The Hindu
 

UNIFIED PAYMENT INTERFACE (UPI)

 
 
1. Context
 
In March and April, the Unified Payments Interface (UPI) system went down three times, causing significant disruptions in payments on apps like GPay and PhonePe, which rely on the system. One of the downtimes was caused by individual banks flooding the National Payments Corporation of India’s (NPCI) systems with transaction status checks
 
2.Unified Payments Interface (UPI)
 
  • The Unified Payments Interface (UPI) stands as a remarkable testament to India's digital transformation journey. Launched in 2016 by the National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI), UPI was envisioned as a simple, seamless, and secure system to unify multiple bank accounts into a single mobile application, merging various banking features and services under one umbrella.
  • Over the years, it has evolved into the backbone of India's booming digital payments ecosystem, making financial transactions more accessible, faster, and inclusive.
  • At its core, UPI enables instant money transfers between bank accounts through a mobile platform, without the need for complex bank details. Users can simply link their accounts to UPI apps using a unique Virtual Payment Address (VPA), removing the traditional barriers associated with online banking.
  • The platform operates round the clock, 24x7, every day of the year, offering real-time settlement of funds—an essential feature that traditional banking systems struggled to provide.
  • One of UPI's most transformative aspects is its role in democratizing digital payments. It has empowered millions of Indians, even in remote corners of the country, to participate in the digital economy.
  • From street vendors and small businesses to large corporations, UPI's ease of use and minimal transaction costs have made it the preferred mode of payment across socioeconomic strata. In doing so, it has significantly contributed to India's ambitious vision of a cashless economy, reinforcing the government's push for financial inclusion.
  • The evolution of UPI has also been marked by innovation. New features like UPI 2.0 introduced enhancements such as overdraft facilities, one-time mandates for recurring payments, and invoice attachments to strengthen its utility for businesses and consumers alike.
  • Moreover, the recent move to allow UPI transactions through feature phones—without the need for internet connectivity—further underlines its commitment to inclusivity.
  • Today, UPI handles billions of transactions monthly, outpacing many global payment systems in terms of volume and ease of use. Its growing popularity has also caught international attention, with countries such as Singapore, the UAE, and France signing agreements for cross-border UPI transactions, positioning India as a leader in digital payments innovation on the world stage.
  • However, the story of UPI is not without its challenges. Concerns over cybersecurity, digital literacy, and operational risks persist, especially as the system continues to scale.
  • Addressing these issues requires constant technological upgradation, regulatory oversight, and public awareness initiatives to ensure that the system remains resilient and trustworthy.
  • Nevertheless, UPI symbolizes more than just a payment platform—it represents a silent revolution that has redefined how India thinks about money, commerce, and technology.
  • In a rapidly digitalizing world, UPI stands as an inspiring model of how homegrown innovation can drive widespread economic empowerment and create a blueprint for the future of finance
 
3. How does a UPI Work?
 
  • The Unified Payments Interface (UPI) operates on a framework that evolved from the Immediate Payment Service (IMPS). For a UPI transaction to occur, a bank must become part of the UPI network, enabling customers to access their accounts via a mobile number linked to a Payment Service Provider (PSP) application, such as PhonePe or Google Pay. Today, almost all commercial banks in India, whether public or private, are integrated into the UPI ecosystem.
  • One of UPI’s key strengths lies in its interoperability, which allows users to register their bank accounts on any UPI-supported app, and even across multiple apps simultaneously.
  • Although it appears to function as a decentralized, peer-to-peer system with direct interaction between banks, in reality, most transactions are processed through the National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI).
  • According to Srikanth Lakshmanan from the Cashless Consumer project, the NPCI plays a crucial role by securely encrypting the user’s PIN — known only to the bank — and forwarding the payment request to the payer’s bank to complete the transaction.
  • However, this centralization also means that any disruption at the NPCI’s end could halt transactions entirely, making it a potential single point of failure
 
4. National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI)
 
  • The National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) is the invisible yet indispensable backbone of India's digital payments landscape. Established in 2008 under the joint initiative of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and the Indian Banks’ Association (IBA), NPCI was created with the vision of consolidating and integrating various payment systems across the country, with a focus on making digital transactions seamless, secure, and accessible to all sections of society.
  • In many ways, NPCI has been the quiet architect behind India's rapid transition to a cashless economy. It manages and operates some of the country’s most critical payment infrastructures, including services like the Immediate Payment Service (IMPS), RuPay card network, Bharat Bill Payment System (BBPS), and, most notably, the Unified Payments Interface (UPI).
  • Each of these innovations has fundamentally reshaped how Indians interact with money, whether it’s withdrawing cash, paying bills, or transferring funds with the tap of a smartphone.
  • Perhaps NPCI's most celebrated contribution is the development of UPI, a groundbreaking platform that enabled instant, interoperable transactions between banks, redefining digital commerce in India.
  • By fostering collaboration between banks, fintech companies, and consumers, NPCI created a payments ecosystem that is not only inclusive but also globally admired for its scale, efficiency, and innovation.
  • NPCI’s role goes beyond technological innovation; it embodies the idea of public digital infrastructure. As a not-for-profit organization owned by a consortium of major Indian banks, it operates with the mandate to serve public interest rather than to maximize profits.
  • This governance model has allowed it to prioritize reliability, affordability, and widespread access over commercial gain—a crucial factor behind the democratization of digital payments in India.
  • However, NPCI’s journey is not without its challenges. As digital transactions surge into billions each month, concerns around scalability, security, and operational resilience have come to the forefront.
  • With UPI becoming nearly ubiquitous in urban and increasingly rural India, NPCI must constantly upgrade its systems and safeguard against systemic risks, especially since it represents a single point of failure in India's digital payment architecture.
  • Nonetheless, the National Payments Corporation of India remains a stellar example of what focused public-private collaboration can achieve. It stands today not just as a financial utility, but as a symbol of India’s digital aspirations—a testament to how technology, when driven by the public good, can empower millions and redefine a nation's economic future
 
5. Way Forward
 
 
According to the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), banks typically bear a cost of around ₹0.80 for each transaction, primarily due to expenses related to SMS notifications — fees collected by telecom providers for sending commercial messages — along with the ongoing costs of maintaining and updating transaction records. Despite these expenses, banks are prohibited from levying a Merchant Discount Rate (MDR) to recover their costs, leaving them with limited motivation to ensure high uptime and service reliability. As a result, individual banks experience service disruptions more frequently than the National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) itself, often leading to a rise in transaction failures
 
 
 
For Prelims: Unified Payments Interface, National Payments Corporation of India, Application Supported by Blocked Amount, IPO, Google Pay, Punjab National Bank, Capital Markets, Mutual Funds, Loan repayment, P2P,  P2M, 
For Mains: 
1. What is Unified Payments Interface (UPI)? Discuss the need for limits on UPI transactions. (250 Words)
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1. Which of the following is a most likely consequence of implementing the 'Unified Payments Interface (UPI)'? (UPSC 2017)
A. Mobile wallets will not be necessary for online payments.
B. Digital currency will totally replace the physical currency in about two decades.
C. FDI inflows will drastically increase.
D. Direct transfer of subsidies to poor people will become very effective.
 
Answer: A
 
2. With reference to digital payments, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2018)
1. BHIM app allows the user to transfer money to anyone with a UPI-enabled bank account.
2. While a chip-pin debit card has four factors of authentication, BHIM app has only two factors of authentication.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?  
A. 1 only      B. 2 only           C. Both 1 and 2          D.  Neither 1 nor 2
 
Answer: A
 
Source: The Hindu
 

PANCHAYAT RAJ INSTITUTIONS

 
 
1. Context
 
Recognising the significant role of panchayats in local governance, the government on April 9 launched the Panchayat Advancement Index (PAI) – “a key metric for assessing progress at the grassroots level and aiding in the formulation of localised strategies and targets for inclusive rural development”
 
2. Evolution of Panchayat raj institutions
 
  • Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) play a pivotal role in promoting grassroots democracy and decentralised governance across rural India. These bodies, which represent the foundation of local self-governance, were formally recognised and empowered through the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments in 1992, granting constitutional status to panchayats in rural areas and municipalities in urban regions.
  • However, the concept of local governance in India is not new—it has deep roots in the country's ancient traditions, with references found in the Vedas, Kautilya’s Arthashastra, the Mauryan period, and other historical texts.
  • Throughout India’s history, especially before and after gaining independence, the Panchayati Raj system has seen various transformations. During British rule, decentralisation efforts began with Lord Mayo’s 1870 resolution, which supported devolving financial and administrative powers to local levels for village and town development.
  • This was further advanced by Lord Ripon in 1882, whose reforms laid the groundwork for local self-government by suggesting that smaller administrative units be managed by local boards.
  • The Royal Commission on Decentralisation in 1909, led by Sir Henry William, evaluated the operations of these boards and highlighted major shortcomings like limited representation and insufficient authority.
  • The commission’s recommendations eventually influenced the Government of India Act of 1919. Post-independence, there was a renewed focus on decentralised governance to strengthen local self-rule.
  • On November 25, 1948, K. Santhanam, a Gandhian and a member of the Constituent Assembly, urged the Drafting Committee’s Chairman to incorporate provisions that supported this vision.
  • Consequently, the Indian Constitution included Article 40 under the Directive Principles of State Policy in Part IV. This article directs the state to facilitate the establishment of village panchayats and to empower them appropriately so that they may function as effective units of self-governance
 
3. Community development programme
 
 
  • The Community Development Programme, launched during India's First Five-Year Plan (1951–55), served as an early foundation for the later establishment of Panchayati Raj Institutions.
  • In the years following independence, the country confronted multiple socio-economic issues such as food shortages, widespread poverty, and high unemployment. This programme was introduced as a strategy to promote rural development by encouraging active participation from all sections of rural society.
  • Even before this initiative, India had experimented with several rural development efforts. Noteworthy examples include the Sriniketan Institute of Rural Reconstruction started by Rabindranath Tagore in 1922, Dr. Spencer Hatch’s Marthandam Project conducted through the YMCA in Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu, and the Firka Development Scheme introduced by T. Prakasam in 1946 in the Madras Presidency.
  • The Community Development Programme aimed to improve agriculture (through land reforms and distribution of fertilisers and pesticides), expand irrigation (like well construction), build infrastructure such as roads, and control the spread of diseases. However, the programme fell short of expectations. Key obstacles included limited community involvement, excessive bureaucratic procedures, and widespread corruption.
  • A Planning Commission review revealed that the initiative failed to benefit small artisans and disproportionately favored regions with established irrigation and large landholders
 
4. Three-tier System
 
 
  • In response to the shortcomings of earlier rural development efforts, the government established a committee in 1957 led by Balwant Rai Mehta to propose reforms. The committee recommended devolving administrative authority across multiple levels—from villages up to districts.
  • It introduced a three-tier framework comprising Village Panchayats at the base, Panchayat Samitis at the intermediate (block or taluk) level, and Zilla Parishads at the district level. Rajasthan was the first state to adopt this model on October 2, 1959, followed by Andhra Pradesh in November of the same year.
  • Despite these steps, issues persisted in the implementation and effectiveness of the system. To address these, another committee was set up in 1977 under the leadership of Ashok Mehta during the Janata Party’s rule—the first non-Congress government. This committee suggested replacing the three-tier model with a two-tier arrangement consisting of Mandal Panchayats at the grassroots and Zilla Parishads at the district level.
  • The Ashok Mehta Committee also emphasized the need to reserve seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in proportion to their population to ensure their fair representation.
  • A key recommendation was allowing political parties to participate in Panchayati Raj governance. However, these proposals saw limited execution, mainly due to challenges like financial constraints and the complexity of ensuring uniformity in a diverse nation.
  • In the years that followed, various other committees were set up to periodically review the state of Panchayati Raj Institutions. These included the Hanumantha Rao Committee (1983), G.V.K. Rao Committee (1985), L.M. Singhvi Committee (1986), P.K. Thungan Committee (1989), and Harlal Singh Kharra Committee (1990)
 
5. Evolution of Local Governance
 
 
  • Starting in the late 1980s, the government made multiple efforts to constitutionally empower the Panchayati Raj Institutions. Although constitutional amendment bills were introduced in 1989, 1990, and 1991, it was only during Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao’s administration that success was achieved. In December 1992, both Houses of Parliament passed the constitutional amendment, which was subsequently ratified by 17 state legislatures.
  • This historic development led to the inclusion of two new sections in the Indian Constitution: Part IX, dedicated to 'The Panchayats,' and Part IX-A, addressing 'The Municipalities.' As per the Ministry of Panchayati Raj's Annual Report for 2024–25, the country currently has 2,55,397 gram panchayats, 6,742 block-level panchayats, and 665 zilla (district) panchayats.
  • To measure how effectively Panchayati Raj Institutions are functioning across states, the government developed the Panchayat Devolution Index. This index evaluates local governance performance based on criteria like financial management, transparency, institutional capacity, and more.
  • Initially based on a concept by V.N. Alok and Laveesh Bhandari in 2004, the index focused on three key aspects: Functions, Finances, and Functionaries (the 3Fs). It was later expanded to include Capacity Building, Accountability, and Institutional Framework.
  • In the most recent edition of the Panchayat Devolution Index, Karnataka emerged as the leading state, with Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and others following closely.
  • The Ministry of Panchayati Raj released these rankings based on research conducted by the Indian Institute of Public Administration (IIPA). The findings also highlighted persistent issues such as limited financial independence, funding shortages, lack of transparency, human resource gaps, challenges in conducting elections, and updating electoral rolls.
  • To improve the operational efficiency of Panchayats, the Ministry also launched the e-Gram Swaraj platform. However, low levels of digital literacy among stakeholders have limited the platform’s effectiveness.
  • Such barriers continue to impede the full potential of Panchayati Raj Institutions in executing government-led socio-economic development initiatives at the grassroots level
 
 
For Prelims: Panchayat Raj institutions, Local Governance
 
For Mains: GS II - Indian Polity & Governance
 

 

Previous year Question

 
1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2016)
1. The minimum age prescribed for any person to be a member of Panchayat is 25 years.
2. A Panchayat reconstituted after premature dissolution continues only for the remainder period.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: B
 
2. In areas covered under the Panchayat (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996, what is the role/power of Gram Sabha? (UPSC 2012)
1. Gram Sabha has the power to prevent the alienation of land in the Scheduled Areas.
2. Gram Sabha has the ownership of minor forest produce.
3. Recommendation of Gram Sabha is required for granting a prospecting license or mining lease, for any minerals in the Scheduled Areas.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 1 and 2 only
C. 2 and 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
 
3.The Government enacted the Panchayat Extension to Scheduled Areas (PESA) Act in 1996. Which one of the following is not identified as its objective? (UPSC 2013)
A. To provide self-governance
B. To recognize traditional rights
C. To create autonomous regions in tribal areas
D. To free tribal people from exploitation
Answer: C
 
 
Source: The Hindu
 
 

JAL JEEVAN MISSION

 
 
1. Context
 
The Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM), the government’s flagship scheme to provide tap connections to rural households, has encountered budgeting difficulties. The Jal Shakti Ministry had requested a staggering Rs 2.79 lakh crore from the Centre to complete the remaining 25% of its target by December 2028. However, in a setback for the mission, an expenditure panel, which appraises projects, has approved only half of the funds proposed by the ministry.
 
2. Jal Jeevan Mission
 

  • The Jal Jeevan Mission, launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi on August 15, 2019, was envisioned to ensure tap water access to approximately 16 crore rural households, with the goal of achieving universal coverage by 2024.

  • However, in just over five years, only 75% of the target has been met. To cover the remaining 4 crore households, the government now plans to extend the mission’s deadline to December 31, 2028.

  • The Ministry of Jal Shakti had sought Rs 2.79 lakh crore from the Centre to finish the project. But according to sources, the Expenditure Finance Committee (EFC)—headed by the Expenditure Secretary—reviewed the proposal on March 13 and recommended a revised funding of only Rs 1.51 lakh crore. The committee also slashed the total project cost by Rs 41,000 crore, approving an outlay of Rs 8.69 lakh crore instead of the Rs 9.10 lakh crore originally proposed.

  • Since the Jal Jeevan Mission is co-financed equally by the Centre and the states, this cut in Central funding could shift a greater financial burden onto state governments

Government Schemes related to Water
 
Among the various initiatives under the Ministry of Jal Shakti, the Namami Gange Programme and river interlinking projects hold significant importance. Hence, it is essential for aspirants to not only be familiar with these schemes but also grasp the concept of river interlinking itself. In fact, a previous Prelims question was based on the Godavari-Krishna river interlinking, highlighting the relevance of such topics. As a result, gaining a clear understanding of the Ken-Betwa river linking project is also crucial for exam preparation
 
3. Namami Ganga Programme
 

  • The Namami Gange Programme is a comprehensive river conservation initiative launched as a flagship mission by the Union Government in June 2014. It aims to achieve two primary goals: the reduction of pollution and the revival and preservation of the Ganga River, recognized as India’s national river.

  • The programme is built on several core components, which include:

    • Development of sewage treatment infrastructure

    • Revitalization of riverfront areas

    • Cleaning of the river surface to remove floating waste

    • Promotion and protection of biodiversity

    • Expansion of afforestation along the river basin

    • Enhancing public engagement and awareness

    • Monitoring of industrial waste discharge

    • Transformation of villages along the Ganga into model Ganga Grams

 
4. Interlinking of rivers (Ken-betwa river)
 
 

  • River interlinking refers to a large-scale water resource management approach where water is deliberately redirected from regions with excess availability to those facing water scarcity.

  • This method typically involves connecting river basins using infrastructure such as canals, reservoirs, and pipelines. These inter-basin water transfer (IBWT) projects are designed to improve irrigation capacity, support flood management, and boost water availability in areas prone to drought.

  • On December 25, 2024, Prime Minister Narendra Modi inaugurated the Ken-Betwa Link Project (KBLP) in Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, marking the 100th birth anniversary of former PM Atal Bihari Vajpayee.

  • The project’s primary goal is to irrigate the drought-prone Bundelkhand region by channeling excess water from the Ken River in Madhya Pradesh to the Betwa River in Uttar Pradesh. Both rivers eventually feed into the Yamuna River, and are classified as its right-bank tributaries.

  • The Union Cabinet approved a budget of Rs 44,605 crore for the KBLP. It will be implemented in two phases:

    • Phase I includes the construction of the Daudhan Dam, a 221-km-long Ken-Betwa Link Canal, and associated infrastructure.

    • Phase II will involve the development of the Lower Orr Dam, the Bina Complex Project, and the Kotha Barrage.

  • A section of the proposed infrastructure will pass through the Panna Tiger Reserve, raising environmental concerns due to the potential submergence of a part of this ecologically sensitive tiger habitat.

  • Significantly, the KBLP is the first river interlinking project to be implemented under the National Perspective Plan, which was introduced in 1980. This larger plan includes 16 river links in the Peninsular region, and another 14 links proposed under the Himalayan component

 
Yamuna river
 
Yamuna is a tributary of River Ganga. It has four main tributaries in the Himalayan region: Rishi Ganga, Hanuman Ganga, Tons, and Giri. In the plains, the main tributaries are Hindon, Chambal, Sind, Betwa and Ken. Tons is the largest tributary of Yamuna. Other small tributaries of the Yamuna River include the Uttangan, Sengar and the Rind.
 
 
5. Constitution on Water
 

Right to Water as a Fundamental Right in India

The right to access clean and safe drinking water in India is considered part of the fundamental rights framework, particularly under Article 21 of the Constitution, which guarantees the Right to Life. This interpretation is derived from connected rights such as the right to food, right to health, and the right to a clean environment.

  • In the landmark Narmada Bachao Andolan v. Union of India (2000) case, the Supreme Court emphasized that access to water is a basic human necessity, integral to the right to life. It also stated that the right to a healthy environment and sustainable development are essential components of human rights under Article 21.

  • Similarly, in the State of Karnataka v. State of Andhra Pradesh (2000) case, the Court reiterated that the right to water is part and parcel of the right to life, thus making it a fundamental right

 

Directive Principles Related to Water and Environment

  • Article 39(b) under the Directive Principles of State Policy directs the State to ensure that material resources, including water, are equitably distributed to promote the common good.

  • Article 48A calls upon the State to actively work towards the protection and enhancement of the environment, including forests and wildlife, which indirectly contributes to water conservation

Environmental Duties of Citizens

  • Article 51A(g), which falls under Fundamental Duties, obligates every citizen to safeguard and improve the natural environment, specifically mentioning rivers, lakes, forests, and wildlife. It also encourages compassion for living beings

Legal Provisions for Water Dispute Resolution

  • Article 262 empowers Parliament to enact laws for resolving inter-State river water disputes. According to:

    • Clause (1): Parliament can legislate for the adjudication of conflicts over the use, distribution, or control of inter-State river waters.

    • Clause (2): Parliament may restrict judicial intervention, including that of the Supreme Court, in such matters.

    This article served as the constitutional basis for the enactment of the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956, aimed at resolving such disputes

 

Constitutional Powers over Water – State and Union Roles

  • Entry 17 of the State List (List II), Seventh Schedule grants states the authority to legislate on water-related issues like irrigation, canals, drainage, and water supply, subject to the Union’s jurisdiction under Entry 56 of List I.

  • Entry 56 of the Union List (List I), Seventh Schedule allows the central government to regulate and develop inter-State rivers and river valleys when declared to be in the public interest by Parliament

 
 
For Prelims: Jal jeevan Mission, Directive Principles of State Policy
 
For Mains: GS II - Government Schemes on Water
 
 
Source: Indianexpress
 

CLIMATE CHANGE

1. Context

In November, climate envoys from around the world will converge in Belem, Brazil for the Conference of the Parties of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, an annual endeavour to get countries to raise ambition on tackling climate change

2. Climate change

The periodic modification of Earth's climate brought about due to the changes in the atmosphere as well as the interactions between the atmosphere and various other geological, chemical, biological, and geographical factors within the Earth's system is called Climate Change.
  • Climate change is a global concern and requires a well-coordinated global approach to address it. In simple terms, what needs to be done is to assess and monitor the net stock of GHG (greenhouse gases) present in the atmosphere at any given time, and work out ways to reduce it. Unlike many pollutant gases that have a relatively shorter life span once emitted, GHG can remain in the atmosphere for a fairly long time. For instance, carbon dioxide, the major constituent of GHG, can remain in the atmosphere for as long as a thousand years. 
  • Another aspect of this is the distance GHG can travel from the emitting source in the atmosphere. As compared to pollutant gases like sulfur dioxide, which can at best travel up to a few hundred kilometers, carbon dioxide can travel up to thousands of kilometers.
  • So, while excessive sulfur dioxide emissions could cause acid rain (rainwater containing sulphuric acid) in areas near the emitting source, GHG could potentially impact climate in places far away from the source.

3. Discussions about Climate change

  • The Industrial Revolution in the 19th century and industrialization in the world added to great volumes of GHG in the atmosphere over time. Unfortunately, the realization of their adverse impact o climate came quite late.
  • International Climate change negotiations among different countries under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) framework started only in 1994.
  • GHG targets discussed in the COP meeting under the UNFCCC framework largely focus on containing inflows of new emissions, which would add to the GHG stock already in the atmosphere.
  • To address this, substantial financial resources and the latest technologies are required. Developed countries, which are responsible for creating this mess in the first place and have the better financial capacity and technological capability, have to bear the major burden for this. They need to provide funds for developing countries and facilitate technology transfers. This is the basic philosophy behind the "common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities" principle.
  • In the COP meeting in Copenhagen in 2009, developed countries pledged to channel $ 100 billion a year to developing countries by 2020 to help them adapt to and mitigate climate change. Unfortunately, despite all the talk, this is not happening.

UNFCCC

UNFCCC stands for United Nations Framework on Climate Change.
The UNFCCC secretariat (UN Climate change ) is the United Nations entity tasked with supporting the global response to the threat of climate change. The UNFCCC, signed in 1992 at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development also known as the Earth Summit, the Rio Summit, or the Rio Conference. The UNFCCC entered into force on March 21, 1994.
 

4. Effects of climate change 

  • Excessive hot weather, untimely and excessive rains, flooding, and extreme climatic conditions this year have affected people across the world.
  • The poor and developing countries in Africa, South Asia, and Latin America suffer the most due to a lack of resources to deal with the problem. Even if these countries were to follow the emissions discipline strictly individually, they might still suffer the climate change consequences.
  • When it comes to survival, there is little option for anyone but to take required precautionary or adaptive measures to the best of their capabilities.

5. India's Agenda

  • India with 17.7 percent of the world's population, 30 percent of the world's cattle population, 2.4 percent of the world's surface area, 4 percent of the water resources, 55 percent of energy needs met by coal, and only $2,200 per capita per annum income, has its back against the wall while participating in international forums on climate change negotiations.
  • India has shown leadership in declaring voluntary, ambitious NDCs in Paris, followed by bold commitments in COPs thereafter. This is likely to motivate others, especially developing countries, to follow.
  • India should use its global stature, lobbying power, and leadership to take the bull by its horns- make developed countries do what they should rightly be doing, be it during the COP meetings on climate change or in other forms like G-20. As India takes over the G-20 presidency, this should be our main agenda.

G-20

The G20 was formed in 1999 against the backdrop of the financial crisis of the late 1990s that hit East Asia and Southeast Asia in particular. It aims to secure global financial stability by involving middle-income countries. Together, the G-20 countries include 60% of the world's population, 80% of the global GDP, and 75% of global trade.
Member countries
Argentina, Australia, Brasil, Canada, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Turkey, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the EU.

For Prelims & Mains

For Prelims: G-20, United nations framework convention on climate change (UNFCCC), Green House Gases (GHG), COP, Earth Summit, Rio Summit.
For Mains: 1. Discuss the challenges posed by climate change in recent times and explain why India is going to choose the G-20 platform to address climate change.
 
Source: The Indian Express
 
 

STARLINK DEVICES

 
 
1. Context
 
Starlink’s regulatory experience in India offers critical insights into the delicate interplay between innovation, law, and sovereignty. It underscores the importance of early, structured dialogue between technology providers and government regulators
 
2. What is Starlink?
 
  • Starlink operates a large network of low Earth orbit satellites to provide broadband internet with fast speeds and low latency. This enables users not only to access essential services but also to stream content, play online games, make video calls, and engage in other data-intensive activities, as stated by the company.
  • It is widely used in remote areas, on sea vessels, in disaster-hit zones, and in regions where internet access is limited or controlled by authoritarian governments.
  • The Starlink system consists of thousands of satellites orbiting Earth at approximately 550 km. While it offers global coverage, SpaceX notes that it is not permitted to provide services in certain regions
  • Starlink is a satellite internet constellation project developed by SpaceX, the private aerospace company founded by Elon Musk. The project aims to provide global internet coverage, particularly to remote or underserved regions that lack reliable broadband infrastructure.
  • Starlink uses a network of low Earth orbit (LEO) satellites, which are placed much closer to the Earth compared to traditional geostationary satellites. This proximity allows Starlink to offer high-speed, low-latency internet services
 
3. Key Features of Starlink
 

  • Global Coverage: Starlink aims to provide internet access anywhere on Earth, especially to rural or remote locations where ground-based internet services are unavailable or expensive.

  • Low Earth Orbit Satellites: Unlike traditional satellite internet, which uses satellites in geostationary orbit (22,000 miles above Earth), Starlink’s satellites orbit at altitudes between 340 km and 1,200 km. This reduces latency (the time it takes for data to travel between the user and the satellite).

  • High-Speed Internet: Starlink provides broadband-level speeds, typically ranging from 50 Mbps to 150 Mbps, with some users reporting speeds of up to 200 Mbps. Latency can be as low as 20-40 milliseconds, which is comparable to or better than traditional cable internet.

  • Affordable Equipment: To access the Starlink service, users need a dish (referred to as the "Starlink Kit") that includes a phased array antenna, a Wi-Fi router, and cables. The setup is designed to be easy and self-installable.

  • Ongoing Expansion: As of 2024, Starlink continues to launch additional satellites to expand its coverage and improve service reliability

 
4. Can Starlink internet be controlled?
 
  • International borders are not rigid, and refining satellite internet coverage to match these borders with exact precision is challenging. This is further complicated by the fact that many borders are disputed or ambiguous, while satellites overhead continuously transmit encrypted signals.
  • This encryption serves to prevent interference from militants or other malicious entities attempting to hack into the service. The central concern is whether militants in regions like Manipur could effectively access Starlink satellite internet in India.
  • If these [Starlink] devices were purchased from outside India, by any means, they could still be used, as the device would then be authorized.
  • The issue is whether the device has a location-tracking feature. If you buy a [Starlink] terminal in the U.S. and bring it to India, it might not work due to the change in geographical location—unless the terminal has an inbuilt location identifier."
5. Latest Controversy
 
  • On December 16, the Spear Corps of the Indian Army posted photos on Elon Musk-owned X, showing guns, ammunition, and homemade mortars seized by army and police units in Manipur.
  • Among the items, X users noticed a small satellite device and a router, which had the SpaceX logo. In response to a claim by an X user that Mr. Musk’s technology was being used by terrorists, the billionaire refuted the accusation, stating, "This is false.
  • Starlink satellite beams are turned off over India." The Starlink device also displayed the markings "RPF/PLA," referring to a Myanmar-based Meitei extremist group banned in India. According to Starlink's website and coverage map, the service availability in Myanmar is not listed.
  • This is not the first instance of SpaceX facing controversy in India. Last month, the Andaman and Nicobar islands police apprehended smugglers with over 6,000 kg of methamphetamine and a Starlink device allegedly used for communication and navigation, despite the service being banned in Indian waters. Additionally, in August, Starlink equipment was found being sold on the B2B platform IndiaMART
 
 
 
 
For Prelims: Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites, Starlink 
 
For Mains: GS II & III - Governance, Cybersecurity and National Security
 
Source: The Hindu
 
 

SPYWARE

1. Context 

Underlining that the security of the nation cannot be compromised or “sacrificed”, the Supreme Court said Tuesday that there is nothing wrong if a country has spyware and employs it for its security, and the only question would be against whom it is used

2. About spyware

  • Spyware is a type of malware that is designed to enter a device without the user's knowledge or consent.
  • Once installed, spyware can gather a variety of information from the device, including the user's location, contacts, call history, text messages, and even the contents of their photos and videos.
  • Spyware is often used by criminals to steal financial information or other sensitive data.
  • It can also be used by governments and law enforcement agencies to track and monitor individuals of interest.

There are four main types of spyware:

  • Trojan spyware disguises itself as a legitimate program to trick the user into installing it.
  • Adware displays unwanted ads on the user's device. Adware can also collect data about the user's browsing habits.
  • Tracking cookies are used to track the user's online activity across different websites.
  • System monitors user's activity on their device and collects data about their usage patterns.

3. Spyware used to surveil political opponents 

  • Spyware has been used to surveil political opponents in many countries around the world.
  • In 2021, the Pegasus Project revealed that the spyware was used to target more than 50,000 phone numbers in 50 countries, including India, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Mexico, Morocco, Rwanda, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE.
  • The Pegasus spyware was also reportedly used by Saudi Arabia to target journalist Jamal Khashoggi's wife months before his death.

4. About Commercial Spyware

  • Commercial spyware is a type of malicious software that is sold by companies to governments and law enforcement agencies.
  • It is designed to be installed on devices without the user's knowledge or consent, and it can be used to gather a wide range of data, including the user's location, contacts, call history, text messages, photos, videos, and even the contents of their conversations.
  • Commercial spyware is often used by governments to spy on political opponents and other individuals of interest.
  • However, it can also be used by criminals to steal financial information or other sensitive data.
  • One example of commercial spyware is the Pegasus spyware from the NSO Group.
  • Pegasus can be installed on iPhones and Android devices without the user's knowledge or consent, and it can be used to gather a wide range of data, including the user's location, contacts, call history, text messages, photos, videos, and even the contents of their conversations.
  • Pegasus can also be used to turn on the device's camera and microphone without the user's knowledge.
  • Another example of commercial spyware is the FinFisher spyware from Gamma International.
  • FinFisher can be installed on Windows, macOS, Linux, Android, and iOS devices.
  • It can be used to gather a wide range of data, including the user's location, contacts, call history, text messages, photos, videos, and even the contents of their conversations.
  • FinFisher can also be used to turn on the device's camera and microphone without the user's knowledge.

5. Devices targeting with commercial spyware

Devices can be targeted with commercial spyware in a variety of ways, including:

Network injection involves injecting spyware into the user's network connection, such as by redirecting the user to a malicious website.
SMS messages Spyware can be delivered via SMS messages that contain malicious links or attachments.
Zero-day vulnerabilities are security vulnerabilities that are unknown to the software vendor.
Spyware developers can exploit these vulnerabilities to install spyware on devices without the user's knowledge or consent.
Zero-click attacks are attacks that do not require the user to take any action, such as clicking on a link or opening an attachment.
Spyware can be installed on devices using zero-click attacks by exploiting vulnerabilities in the software or by exploiting trusted third-party services.

6. Increasing Use of Spyware

  • The use of spyware is on the rise, with at least 74 governments contracting with commercial firms to obtain spyware or digital forensics technology between 2011 and 2023.
  • Autocratic regimes are particularly inclined to procure commercial spyware, accounting for a significant portion of its usage.
  • Backlash and Regulation While there have been efforts to hold spyware firms accountable, including the blacklisting of the NSO Group by the U.S. in 2021, the spyware industry has largely remained resilient.
  • Other companies in the domain have continued to provide similar services, bypassing some of the restrictions.

7. Tech Company Responses

  • Tech giants such as Meta, Google, and Apple have taken proactive steps to address the issue of commercial spyware exploiting vulnerabilities in their software.
  • They have released software updates to fix the bugs exploited by spyware.
  • Additionally, Apple introduced a 'Lockdown Mode' in iOS 16, offering enhanced protection for high-risk individuals.
  • Meta-owned WhatsApp has gone even further by pursuing legal action against the NSO Group. They allege that the spyware firm accessed WhatsApp's servers without permission, which led to the installation of the Pegasus software on victims' mobile devices.
  • The U.S. administration has urged U.S. justices to reject NSO's appeal against the lawsuit.

8. Conclusion

Addressing the pervasive threat of commercial spyware requires global cooperation, robust regulatory frameworks, and continued vigilance from both tech companies and governments. Safeguarding individual privacy and the integrity of democratic institutions hinges on our collective efforts to curb the proliferation of these insidious surveillance tools.
 
For Prelims: Spyware, Commerical spyware, Pegasus spyware, FinFisher spyware, Cytrox's Predator spyware
For Mains: 
1. Summarize the key takeaways and implications of the proliferation of commercial spyware for individual privacy, democracy, and global security. (250 Words)
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1. Match List I with List II (UGC NET 2021)
List I                                      List II
Security threats                  Meaning
A. Hacking                        I. 'Clog-up' a user's inbox with unwanted emails
B. Phishing                       II. Gives the originator access to all data entered by the keyboard
C. Spyware                       III. Identify fraud
D. Spam                            IV. Illegal use of personal data
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
1. A - I, B - III, C - II, D - IV           
2. A - II, B - IV, C - III, D - I
3. A - IV, B - I, C - III, D - II
4. A - IV, B - III, C - II, D - I
 
Answer: D
 
2. In which country, the Pegasus spyware has been developed? (67th BPSC 2022)
A. Israel   B.  Brazil    C. Russia   D.  China    E. None of the above/More than one of the above
 
Answer: A
 
3. _______ is the term used to describe malware that multiplies rapidly to use all the available resources in the system. (OSSC BSSO 2022) 
A. Rabbit          B. CMOS       C. Companion          D. Trap
 
Answer: A
 
4. What does Malware stand for? (OSSC CGL 2022)
A. Male standing Virus     B. Malicious Virus    C. Maletrious Virus     D. Malicious Software
 
Answer: D
 
Source: The Hindu
 
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