• The BrahMos missile is a supersonic cruise missile jointly developed by India's Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and Russia's NPO Mashinostroyeniya. Its name is a portmanteau of the Brahmaputra and Moskva rivers.
• BrahMos is known for its speed and versatility. It is the fastest cruise missile in the world, capable of reaching speeds of up to Mach 3 (three times the speed of sound). This makes it extremely difficult for enemy defenses to intercept.
• The missile has both land-attack and anti-ship capabilities, meaning it can target both land-based targets and naval vessels. Its precision and range make it a potent weapon for both offensive and defensive purposes. It's deployed across various platforms including land, sea, and air.
• The BrahMos missile has become a significant asset in the Indian military's arsenal, providing a formidable deterrent and offensive capability. It's continuously being upgraded to enhance its capabilities and adapt it to different platforms and operational requirements

3. Evolution of Brahmos

• During the early 1980s, Dr. A P J Abdul Kalam spearheaded the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme, initiating the creation of various indigenous missiles such as Prithvi, Agni, Trishul, Akash, and Nag, each with diverse capabilities and operational ranges.
• In the early 1990s, India's strategic leadership recognized the necessity for cruise missiles—guided projectiles maintaining nearly constant speeds throughout their trajectories—to deliver sizable warheads with pinpoint accuracy over extensive distances.
• This requirement emerged prominently following the deployment of cruise missiles during the 1991 Gulf War.
• In 1998, an Inter-Governmental Agreement was formalized in Moscow between Dr. Kalam, then heading the DRDO, and N V Mikhailov, Russia's Deputy Defence Minister at the time.
• This agreement laid the foundation for BrahMos Aerospace, a collaborative venture between DRDO and the Russian space company NPO Mashinostroyenia (NPOM), with the Indian side holding 50.5% ownership and the Russians 49.5%. The venture derived its name from two rivers—Brahmaputra in India and Moskva in Russia.
• Subsequently, in 1999, the development of missiles commenced within the laboratories of DRDO and NPOM after BrahMos Aerospace secured funding from both governments. The first successful test launch occurred in 2001 from a specifically engineered land-based launcher

4.Significance of Brahmos

• The BrahMos missile is equipped with a solid propellant booster engine, comprising two stages. Initially, the first stage accelerates the missile to supersonic speeds, after which it detaches. Subsequently, the liquid ramjet, constituting the second stage, propels the missile to nearly three times the speed of sound during its cruise phase.
• Notably, the missile exhibits a minimal radar signature, enhancing its stealth capabilities, and can follow various trajectories.
• As a "fire and forget" weapon, it can maintain a cruising altitude of 15 km and descend to as low as 10 meters to effectively strike its target.
• Classified as "standoff range weapons," cruise missiles like BrahMos are launched from a distance substantial enough to evade defensive countermeasures, a feature common among the arsenals of major militaries worldwide.
• Compared to subsonic cruise missiles, BrahMos boasts three times the speed, 2.5 times the flight range, and extended operational capabilities. With export versions available, BrahMos serves as a crucial asset in defense diplomacy initiatives.
• In 2022, an air-launched variant of BrahMos underwent testing from a frontline SU-30MKI aircraft, while an advanced sea-to-sea variant was also tested from the INS Visakhapatnam during the same year.
• However, BrahMos was embroiled in controversy in 2022 when Pakistan alleged that an unarmed Indian missile had inadvertently landed within its territory on March 9, 2022. The Ministry of Defence attributed the incident to a technical malfunction resulting in accidental firing.
• Though the government initiated a high-level inquiry, the specific missile involved was not officially disclosed. Nonetheless, experts inferred from its trajectory that it bore the hallmarks of BrahMos

5. Types of  BrahMos

• The BrahMos missile system is strategically deployed across various fronts, encompassing land-based formations along border regions, BrahMos-equipped Sukhoi-30 aircraft stationed in both the Northern and Southern theaters, and ships and submarines fitted with BrahMos capabilities in naval operations. This integrated setup constitutes a formidable triad, adept at addressing evolving demands in multidimensional warfare scenarios.
• To adapt to dynamic warfare requirements, ongoing efforts are focused on upgrading the BrahMos system, with emphasis on enhancing range, maneuverability, and accuracy.
• Current development initiatives include testing versions with extended ranges of up to 350 km, surpassing the original's 290 km limit. Furthermore, plans are underway for versions with even greater ranges, potentially reaching up to 800 km, and featuring hypersonic speeds. Concurrently, endeavors are directed towards reducing the size and radar signature of existing iterations while augmenting their overall capabilities.
• Across all three branches of the Armed Forces, BrahMos variants are subject to regular testing, including those presently in development.
• Land-Based: The land-based BrahMos setup comprises mobile autonomous launchers, typically housing four to six launchers, each armed with three missiles capable of near-simultaneous firing.
• These batteries are strategically deployed along India's land borders in various theaters. Upgraded versions of the land attack variant, capable of cruising at 2.8 Mach, boast precision striking capabilities with ranges of up to 400 km.
• Advanced iterations with enhanced range and speeds of up to 5 Mach are reportedly in the developmental pipeline. Notably, the ground systems of BrahMos are lauded for their streamlined design and minimal componentry.
• Ship-Based: Since 2005, the Navy has been inducting BrahMos missiles on its frontline warships, enhancing their ability to engage sea-based targets beyond the radar horizon. The naval variant has demonstrated efficacy in both sea-to-sea and sea-to-land engagements.
• These missiles can be deployed individually or in salvos of up to eight, with staggered firing intervals. This capability enables them to effectively target groups of frigates equipped with modern missile defense systems.
• Air-Launched: The successful flight testing of BrahMos from a Sukhoi-30MKI against a sea-based target in the Bay of Bengal on November 22, 2017, marked a significant milestone. Subsequent tests have validated its effectiveness.
• The BrahMos-equipped Sukhoi-30 aircraft, boasting a range of 1,500 km without mid-air refueling, serve as a pivotal strategic deterrent along both land borders and the strategically vital Indian Ocean Region. The Indian Air Force is actively integrating BrahMos with 40 Sukhoi-30 fighter jets across various airbases.
• Submarine-Launched: This variant can be launched from depths of approximately 50 meters below the water surface. The missile, stored in a canister, is vertically launched from the pressure hull of the submarine, employing distinct configurations for underwater and surface flights. Successful testing of this version was first conducted in March 2013 from a submerged platform off the coast of Visakhapatnam

6. Brahmos Missile Series

The BrahMos missile series is a family of supersonic cruise missiles developed jointly by India and Russia. Named after the Brahmaputra River in India and the Moskva River in Russia, the BrahMos series is renowned for its speed, precision, and versatility.

Here are some key variants within the BrahMos missile series:

• BrahMos Block-I: The initial variant of the BrahMos missile, featuring a range of approximately 290 km. It is capable of striking both land-based and naval targets with high accuracy.

• BrahMos Block-II: An upgraded version with enhanced capabilities, including improved range and accuracy. It incorporates advanced technologies to further enhance its effectiveness in various operational scenarios.

• BrahMos Block-III: This variant features additional upgrades aimed at improving its range, maneuverability, and stealth capabilities. It is designed to overcome evolving threats and maintain its position as a potent deterrent.

• BrahMos-A: The air-launched variant of the BrahMos missile, integrated onto Sukhoi Su-30MKI fighter aircraft of the Indian Air Force. It significantly extends the reach of the missile, allowing for precision strikes against ground and naval targets.

• BrahMos-N: The naval variant of the BrahMos missile, deployed on Indian Navy warships. It provides a formidable anti-ship and land-attack capability, enhancing the offensive capabilities of naval fleets.

• BrahMos-ER: The extended-range variant of the BrahMos missile, currently under development, aimed at achieving ranges beyond the existing capabilities. It will further enhance the strategic reach of the BrahMos series, allowing for precision strikes at longer distances.

• BrahMos-NG: A next-generation variant of the BrahMos missile, featuring reduced size and weight while maintaining high performance. It is designed for compatibility with a wider range of platforms, including aircraft, submarines, and surface vessels

COAL GASIFICATION

 

 

 

1. Context

 

 

In a roadshow promoting surface coal gasification, Union Coal and Mines Minister G. Kishan Reddy said the technology, which can also yield a range of downstream products, has the potential to substitute imports worth up to ₹3 lakh crore. To encourage coal gasification, the Union Cabinet approved a ₹37,500-crore incentive package.

 

 

2. What is coal gasification?

 

 

• Imagine coal as a solid fuel made mostly of carbon, along with hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and other impurities. Traditionally, coal is burned directly in the presence of oxygen to produce heat.
• Coal gasification, however, follows a different approach. Instead of completely burning the coal, it is converted into a combustible gas mixture called syngas (synthesis gas).
• In a coal gasification plant, coal is heated at very high temperatures (typically 1,000–1,500°C) in a controlled environment where there is only a limited amount of oxygen and often steam is added.
• Because oxygen is insufficient for complete combustion, the coal does not simply burn away. Instead, a series of chemical reactions break down the coal and transform its carbon and hydrogen into gases.
• A simple way to understand coal gasification is to think of it as turning a solid fuel into a gaseous fuel. Just as crude oil is refined into useful products, coal is chemically transformed into syngas, which is much more versatile than raw coal.
• Once produced, syngas can be cleaned of impurities such as sulfur compounds, ash, and mercury.
• The cleaned gas can then be used in several ways. It can be burned in gas turbines to generate electricity, converted into chemicals like ammonia and methanol, or transformed into synthetic fuels such as synthetic diesel and aviation fuel.
• For India, coal gasification is particularly important because the country possesses large coal reserves but imports significant quantities of natural gas, crude oil, and fertilizers. By converting domestic coal into syngas, India can produce chemicals, fertilizers, and fuels within the country, reducing import dependence.
• However, coal gasification is not completely free from environmental concerns. Although it allows easier removal of pollutants before combustion and can facilitate carbon capture, it still relies on coal and can generate substantial carbon dioxide emissions unless carbon capture and storage technologies are used.

 

The main products of this process are carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H₂), which together form syngas. Smaller quantities of methane, carbon dioxide, water vapor, and other gases may also be present. The basic reactions can be represented as: C+H2O→CO+H2​ and C+O2→CO2​ followed by reactions that convert carbon dioxide and steam into additional carbon monoxide and hydrogen.

 

 

 

3. Benefits of Coal Gasification

 

 

• Coal gasification is often promoted not merely as a way of using coal, but as a method of extracting greater value from it.
• When coal is directly burned, its primary purpose is to generate heat and electricity. Through gasification, however, the same coal can be transformed into a versatile raw material for multiple industries.
• One of the biggest advantages is energy security. Countries with abundant coal reserves, such as India, can convert domestic coal into syngas and use it to produce fertilizers, chemicals, synthetic natural gas, methanol, and transportation fuels. This reduces dependence on imports of crude oil, natural gas, and chemical feedstocks.
• Another important benefit is higher efficiency in power generation. The syngas produced can be used in advanced power plants, such as Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) systems, which generally achieve higher efficiencies than conventional coal-fired thermal plants. Higher efficiency means more electricity can be generated from the same quantity of coal.
• Coal gasification also offers better pollution control. Since contaminants are removed from the gas before it is burned, pollutants such as sulfur compounds, particulate matter, and certain heavy metals can be captured more easily than in traditional coal combustion. This helps reduce emissions responsible for acid rain and air pollution.
• A further advantage is the production of valuable industrial chemicals. The hydrogen and carbon monoxide in syngas serve as building blocks for manufacturing ammonia (used in fertilizers), methanol, synthetic fuels, plastics, and many other chemical products. Thus, coal becomes not just a fuel but also an industrial feedstock.
• Gasification can also support the hydrogen economy. Hydrogen can be separated from syngas and used in refineries, fertilizer plants, and potentially as a clean energy carrier in the future. This gives coal-producing countries another pathway for utilizing their resources.
• From an environmental perspective, coal gasification can facilitate carbon capture and storage (CCS). Because carbon dioxide is produced in a concentrated stream during gasification, it is often easier and potentially less expensive to capture than from conventional coal-fired power plants.
• For countries with large reserves of low-grade coal, gasification provides an opportunity to utilize resources that may not be ideal for direct combustion. This is especially relevant for India, where a significant portion of coal has high ash content.

 

4. India's Position on technology and gasification

 

 

• The large-scale adoption of coal gasification in India depends on overcoming several technical challenges. Indian coal is characterized by high ash content, fluctuating calorific value, and complex mineral composition, all of which can adversely affect gasification efficiency.
• Consequently, fluidised-bed gasification is regarded as the most suitable technology for Indian conditions. In this process, a stream of gas suspends coal particles above the ash layer, enabling efficient conversion of coal into syngas through high-temperature reactions.
• The distinctive properties of Indian coal also mean that the technologies used in countries such as China, Australia, and the United States cannot be directly replicated in India. China, despite being a global leader in coal gasification, predominantly utilizes coal with characteristics that differ significantly from Indian reserves.
• A critical factor influencing the expansion of coal gasification is the availability of indigenous technology. These projects require substantial upfront investment and typically involve long development timelines.
• A techno-economic study conducted by the Chintan Research Foundation in March 2026 highlighted that capital expenditure represents the largest component of syngas production costs in India, contributing nearly 30% of the total cost.
• This underscores the importance of ensuring financial viability through government support. In this context, the recent incentive package, which covers up to 20% of plant and machinery costs, is expected to play a significant role in encouraging investments.
• India has already made notable progress in developing domestic capabilities. Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL) has designed a pressurised fluidised-bed gasifier specifically engineered to process Indian coal with high ash content and variable quality.
• According to NITI Aayog, BHEL’s network of 16 manufacturing facilities can produce all the major components required for coal gasification plants.
• In the private sector, companies such as Jindal Steel and Greta Energy & Metal have achieved localisation levels of approximately 80–90% in their operations.
• Industry experts note that greater indigenisation could lower overall project costs by 30–40%, thereby enhancing competitiveness.
• Despite these advancements, the sector may continue to depend on imported technologies during its developmental phase. For this reason, industry stakeholders have requested relaxation of certain Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT) provisions to facilitate the acquisition of critical technologies, particularly from China.
• Government officials have indicated that while regulatory requirements will remain in place, the Ministry is prepared to assist project developers in obtaining the necessary approvals for technology imports

 

5. Way Forward

 

 

The coal-based ammonia-urea facility at Talcher is projected to commence operations in FY 2027–28. Meanwhile, a range of other coal gasification projects—covering the production of syngas, ammonium nitrate, direct reduced iron, ethanol, and hydrogen—are anticipated to be commissioned by FY 2029–30. The Ministry had also indicated in April, while responding to a query from The Hindu, that further project approvals are expected in the months ahead

 

 

For Prelims: Coal gasification, synthetic natural gas (SNG), Bharat Heavy Electricals and Gas Authority of India   For Mains: GS III - Industrial Policy

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Consider the following statements: (2019) Coal sector was nationalized by the Government of India under Indira Gandhi. Now, coal blocks are allocated on lottery basis. Till recently, India imported coal to meet the shortages of domestic supply, but now India is self-sufficient in coal production. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer (a) 2. Which of the following is/are the characteristic/characteristics of Indian coal? (2013) High ash content Low sulphur content Low ash fusion temperature Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer (a)

 

Source: The Hindu

 

 

INFLATION

 

 

1. Context

 

 

Consumption demand in India may face headwinds in the coming months with economic conditions beginning to show the impact of the conflict in West Asia, the Ministry of Finance said on Saturday, warning that while the near-term outlook is one of “cautious resilience”, policy will need to “remain agile across monetary, fiscal, and structural dimensions” to tackle the ongoing uncertainty and that inflation developments warrant “vigilance”. 

 

 

2. What is Inflation?

• It is the rise in prices of goods and services within a particular economy wherein consumers' purchasing power decreases, and the value of the cash holdings erodes.
• In India, the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) measures inflation.
• Some causes that lead to inflation are demand increases, reduction in supply, demand-supply gap, excess circulation of money, increase in input costs, devaluation of the currency, and rise in wages, among others.

 

3. How is Food Inflation measured in India?

Food inflation in India is measured using various indices and indicators. The primary indices used to measure food inflation in India include the Consumer Price Index (CPI) and the Wholesale Price Index (WPI). Both indices provide insights into the overall price movements of goods and services, including food items, but they differ in terms of their coverage and methodology.

Consumer Price Index (CPI)

• The CPI is a key indicator used by the Government of India and the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) to monitor inflation, including food inflation.
• The CPI measures the average change over time in the prices paid by urban and rural consumers for a basket of goods and services, including food items, housing, clothing, transportation, and more.
• Within the CPI, food and beverages form a significant component, and food inflation is specifically derived from the changes in food prices within the CPI basket.
• The CPI is released monthly by the Central Statistics Office (CSO) under the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation.

Wholesale Price Index (WPI)

• The WPI is another important index that tracks price changes at the wholesale level for a selected group of commodities, including food products, manufactured goods, fuel, and more.
• The WPI measures price changes from the perspective of producers and wholesalers, providing insights into inflationary pressures in the production and distribution stages.
• Food articles, such as cereals, pulses, vegetables, fruits, and edible oils, are included in the WPI basket for monitoring food inflation.
• The WPI is released weekly by the Office of Economic Adviser under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry.

In addition to these indices, other indicators such as the Food Sub-Index within the CPI and specific price indices for essential food items (like vegetables, pulses, and cereals) are also used to gauge food inflation more accurately. The RBI closely monitors food inflation trends as part of its monetary policy framework to make informed decisions regarding interest rates and economic stability. Overall, the combination of CPI, WPI, and specific food-related indices provides a comprehensive assessment of food inflation in India.

 

4. Headline and Core Inflation

Inflation is a key economic indicator that measures the rate at which prices of goods and services rise over time. In India, two important measures of inflation are headline inflation and core inflation.

• Headline Inflation: Headline inflation refers to the overall rate of inflation in an economy, taking into account the price changes across all goods and services included in the consumer basket. It reflects the broad-based movement in prices, including food, fuel, housing, transportation, and other essential and non-essential items. Headline inflation is typically measured using indices such as the Consumer Price Index (CPI) and the Wholesale Price Index (WPI). Fluctuations in headline inflation can be influenced by various factors, including changes in global commodity prices, government policies, supply chain disruptions, and demand-side pressures.
• Core Inflation: Core inflation, on the other hand, excludes volatile items such as food and energy from the basket of goods used to calculate inflation. By excluding these volatile components, core inflation provides a more stable measure of underlying inflationary trends in the economy. Core inflation is often considered a better gauge of long-term inflationary pressures and helps policymakers in making informed decisions regarding monetary policy. The Reserve Bank of India (RBI), for example, closely monitors core inflation to assess the underlying inflationary trends and formulate appropriate monetary policy responses.

Understanding the distinction between headline and core inflation is essential for policymakers, businesses, and consumers alike. While headline inflation provides a comprehensive view of overall price movements, core inflation offers insights into the underlying inflationary pressures, helping to distinguish between temporary fluctuations and sustained inflation trends. By closely monitoring both measures of inflation, policymakers can effectively manage inflationary risks and maintain price stability, contributing to sustainable economic growth and stability.

 

5. Monetary Policy Committee (MPC)

The Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) is a crucial institutional framework established by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) to formulate and implement monetary policy decisions in India. 

Role

• Formulating Monetary Policy: The primary role of the MPC is to formulate and implement monetary policy in India. This includes setting the key policy interest rates, such as the repo rate, reverse repo rate, and marginal standing facility (MSF) rate, to achieve the objectives of price stability and economic growth.
• Targeting Inflation: The MPC's main objective is to maintain price stability, which is primarily achieved by targeting a specific inflation rate. In India, the RBI has adopted a flexible inflation targeting framework, where the MPC aims to keep the Consumer Price Index (CPI) inflation within a specified target range over the medium term. Currently, the inflation target is set at 4% with a tolerance band of +/- 2%.
• Evaluating Economic Conditions: The MPC assesses various economic indicators, such as GDP growth, inflation expectations, fiscal policy measures, global economic developments, and financial market conditions, to make informed decisions about monetary policy.
• Communication: The MPC communicates its monetary policy decisions, rationale, and outlook for the economy through periodic press releases, statements, and the publication of meeting minutes. This transparency enhances predictability and credibility in monetary policy.

Composition

• Members: The MPC consists of six members, including three members nominated by the Government of India and three members from the Reserve Bank of India. The Governor of the RBI serves as the ex-officio Chairperson of the MPC.
• Appointment: The members of the MPC are appointed by the Central Government based on their expertise and experience in economics, banking, finance, or related fields. The RBI Governor and Deputy Governor (in charge of monetary policy) are automatic members of the MPC.
• Voting Rights: Each member of the MPC, including the RBI Governor, has one vote in the decision-making process. Decisions are made by a majority vote, with the Governor having the casting vote in case of a tie.
• Terms: Members of the MPC serve fixed terms, typically for four years, with eligibility for reappointment. This ensures continuity and stability in monetary policy formulation.

 

6. The Way Forward

By implementing the measures and fostering collaborative efforts among policymakers, regulators, and stakeholders, India can effectively manage inflationary pressures, maintain price stability, and promote sustainable economic growth and development.

 

For Prelims: Inflation, MPC, CPI, WPI, food Inflation, RBI, Headline inflation, Core inflation For Mains:   1. Explain the concept of inflation and its impact on an economy. Discuss the various causes of inflation and the measures that can be taken to control it, with specific reference to India. (250 Words) 2. What are the challenges and opportunities associated with managing inflation in India? Evaluate the effectiveness of recent policy measures in addressing inflationary pressures and maintaining price stability. Suggest strategies for sustainable economic growth while managing inflation risks. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Consider the following statements:  (UPSC 2021) 1. The Governor of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is appointed by the Central Government. 2. Certain provisions in the Constitution of India give the Central Government the right to issue directions to the RBI in the public interest. 3. The Governor of the RBI draws his natural power from the RBI Act. Which of the above statements is/are correct?  A. 1 and 2 only    B.  2 and 3 only     C. 1 and 3 only     D. 1, 2 and 3     2. Concerning the Indian economy, consider the following: (UPSC 2015) Bank rate Open Market Operations Public debt Public revenue Which of the above is/are component(s) of Monetary Policy? (a) 1 only   (b) 2, 3 and 4    (c) 1 and 2     (d) 1, 3 and 4   3. An increase in Bank Rate generally indicates: (UPSC 2013) (a) Market rate of interest is likely to fall. (b) Central bank is no longer making loans to commercial banks. (c) Central bank is following an easy money policy. (d) Central bank is following a tight money policy.   4. Which of the following statements is/are correct regarding the Monetary Policy Committee (MPC)? (UPSC 2017)  1. It decides the RBI's benchmark interest rates. 2. It is a 12-member body including the Governor of RBI and is reconstituted every year. 3. It functions under the chairmanship of the Union Finance Minister. Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1 only      B.  1 and 2 only      C. 3 only      D. 2 and 3 only   5. Read the following passage and answer the question that follows. Your answers to these items should be based on the passage only. Policymakers and media have placed the blame for skyrocketing food prices on a variety of factors, including high fuel prices, bad weather in key food producing countries, and the diversion of land to non-food production. Increased emphasis, however, has been placed on a surge in demand for food from the most populous emerging economics. It seems highly probable that mass consumption in these countries could be well poised to create a food crisis. With reference to the above passage, the following assumptions have been made: (UPSC 2021) 1. Oil producing countries are one of the reasons for high food prices. 2. If there is a food crisis in the world in the near future, it will be in the emerging economies. Which of the above assumptions is/are valid? A. 1 only        B. 2 only           C. Both 1 and 2         D.  Neither 1 nor 2     6. India has experienced persistent and high food inflation in the recent past. What could be the reasons? (UPSC 2011) 1. Due to a gradual switchover to the cultivation of commercial crops, the area under the cultivation of food grains has steadily decreased in the last five years by about 30. 2. As a consequence of increasing incomes, the consumption patterns of the people have undergone a significant change. 3. The food supply chain has structural constraints. Which of the statements given above are correct?  A. 1 and 2 only          B. 2 and 3 only        C. 1 and 3 only          D. 1, 2 and 3     7. With reference to inflation in India, which of the following statements is correct? (UPSC 2015)  A. Controlling the inflation in India is the responsibility of the Government of India only B. The Reserve Bank of India has no role in controlling the inflation C. Decreased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation D. Increased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation     8. With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2016) 1. The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN and it will go into effect in 2017 2. The Agreement aims to limit greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2°C or even 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. 3. Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility in global warming and committed to donate $ 1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries to cope with climate change. Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1 and 3 only     B.  2 only        C. 2 and 3 only        D. 1, 2 and 3   Answers: 1-C, 2-C, 3-D, 4-A, 5-D, 6-B, 6-C, 7-B

Source: The Indian Express

 

 

EL NINO AND LA NINA

 

 

1. Context

 INDIA is staring at the driest monsoon season in a decade, with the Met office Friday making a downward revision of its earlier forecast and predicting only 90 per cent rain this season.

 

2.What are El Niño and La Nina?

 

• El Niño and La Niña, translating to “little boy” and “little girl” in Spanish, are climatic events arising from interactions between the ocean and atmosphere. They influence water temperatures in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, thereby affecting global weather patterns.
• The Earth's rotation from east to west causes winds between 30 degrees north and south of the equator to tilt in their paths. This results in winds flowing southwest in the northern hemisphere and northwest in the southern hemisphere, a phenomenon known as the Coriolis Effect.
• Consequently, trade winds blow westward on either side of the equator. Typically, these winds move west from South America towards Asia, leading to upwelling, where cold water from beneath the ocean surface rises, replacing warmer surface waters.
• Occasionally, weakened trade winds shift back towards South America, preventing upwelling. This leads to warmer-than-normal sea surface temperatures along the equatorial Pacific Ocean, marking the onset of El Niño conditions.
• In contrast, during La Niña, stronger trade winds push warm water towards Asia, enhancing upwelling and bringing cold, nutrient-rich water to South America.
• Thus, El Niño and La Niña represent opposite phases of the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle, which also includes a neutral phase.
• El Niño events are more common than La Niña ones, occurring every two to seven years when neutral ENSO conditions are disrupted by either phase. Recently, La Niña conditions were observed from 2020 to 2023

3.How could the incoming La Nina impact global weather?

 

• Due to ENSO and the associated changes in ocean temperatures, air circulation in the region is also influenced. This, in turn, affects precipitation levels in nearby areas and has an impact on the Indian monsoon.
• The current El Niño event, which started last June, has weakened considerably. It is anticipated that by June, neutral ENSO conditions will be in place. Following this, La Niña conditions are expected to develop, potentially starting to have an impact by August

4.La Nina’s impact on the world

• Like India, countries such as Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, and their neighbors experience abundant rainfall during a La Niña year. This year, Indonesia has already experienced flooding.
• Conversely, droughts are common in the southern parts of North America, where winters tend to be warmer than usual.
• Canada and the northwestern coast of the United States face heavy rainfall and flooding. Southern Africa experiences above-average rainfall, while the eastern regions of the continent receive below-average rainfall.
• ENSO significantly influences hurricane activity over the Atlantic Ocean, with La Niña years typically seeing an increase in hurricanes. For example, in the La Niña year of 2021, the Atlantic Ocean saw a record 30 hurricanes

5.Is climate change affecting ENSO?

• In India, El Niño is known to reduce southwest monsoon rainfall, leading to higher temperatures and more intense heatwaves, as seen this summer.
• Historically, monsoon seasons following an El Niño, such as in 1982-1983 and 1987-1988, saw abundant rainfall in 1983 and 1988. A similar pattern may occur this year.
• From 2020 to 2023, the longest La Niña event of the century took place. This was followed by ENSO neutral conditions, which transitioned to El Niño by June 2023.
• However, El Niño has been weakening since last December. According to Rajeevan, this rapid shift to La Niña is a natural occurrence and has happened many times in the past.
• Scientists suggest that climate change will impact the ENSO cycle. Various studies indicate that global warming may alter the average oceanic conditions in the Pacific Ocean, leading to more frequent El Niño events.
• The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) also predicts that climate change will likely affect the intensity and frequency of extreme weather and climate events associated with El Niño and La Niña

 

For Prelims: Indian and World Geography  For Mains: GS-I, GS-III: Important Geophysical phenomena and environment

 

 

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

 

QUAD

 

1. Context

The recent Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) held in New Delhi, among the foreign ministers of Australia, India, Japan and the USA, came as an assurance that the grouping remains relevant.

2. Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD)

• The Quad, short for the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue, is a strategic forum comprising four major Indo-Pacific countries: the United States, Japan, India, and Australia.
• The Quad was initiated in 2007 but was relatively dormant for several years before experiencing a revival and increased prominence in recent times.

3. Objectives

• The Quad aims to promote a free, open, and inclusive Indo-Pacific region. Its core objectives include ensuring regional security, stability, and economic prosperity.
• It seeks to uphold the rules-based international order and address common challenges such as maritime security, infrastructure development, economic connectivity, and disaster response.

4. Member Countries

• United States: As a major Pacific power, the U.S. plays a central role in the Quad, emphasizing its commitment to the Indo-Pacific region's security and stability.
• Japan: Japan is a key member, contributing its economic and technological prowess, and advocating for a rules-based international order.
• India: India brings its strategic location and growing influence in the Indo-Pacific to the Quad, strengthening regional security cooperation.
• Australia: Australia is a significant player, contributing to maritime security efforts and championing economic development in the Indo-Pacific.

5. Meetings and Engagement

• The Quad holds regular meetings at various levels, including ministerial meetings and consultations among senior officials.
• It engages in dialogues on a wide range of regional and global issues, from security and defense to infrastructure development and technology cooperation.

Regional Implications:

• The Quad has been viewed as a response to China's rising influence in the Indo-Pacific. However, member countries emphasize that it is not an alliance against any specific country but rather a platform for cooperation on shared interests.
• Some view the Quad as a potential counterbalance to China's assertive behavior in the South China Sea and its Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) infrastructure projects.

Expanding Partnerships:

• The Quad has sought to expand its partnerships with other countries in the Indo-Pacific, including Southeast Asian nations. This approach reflects its commitment to inclusivity and regional engagement.

6. Significance of QUAD for India

The Quad holds significant importance for India due to several strategic, economic, and geopolitical reasons:

Countering Regional Challenges:

• The Quad provides India with a platform to collaborate with like-minded countries, such as the United States, Japan, and Australia, to address common regional challenges. These challenges include maritime security, territorial disputes, and economic concerns in the Indo-Pacific.

Strengthening Regional Security:

• As a member of the Quad, India gains access to enhanced security cooperation, intelligence sharing, and joint exercises. This bolsters its ability to protect its interests and contribute to regional stability in the face of security threats.

Balancing China's Influence:

• India views the Quad as a mechanism to balance China's growing influence in the Indo-Pacific. It helps deter aggressive actions and assertive behavior by China, particularly in areas like the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean region.

Economic Opportunities:

• The Quad promotes economic connectivity and infrastructure development in the Indo-Pacific. India can leverage these initiatives to enhance its trade, investment, and connectivity in the region, which is vital for its economic growth.

Strengthening Ties with Key Allies:

• The Quad allows India to deepen its strategic partnerships with key allies, such as the United States and Japan. These relationships have resulted in increased defense cooperation, technology sharing, and economic collaboration.

Regional Leadership Role:

• Participation in the Quad elevates India's status as a regional leader in the Indo-Pacific. It aligns with India's "Act East" policy, reinforcing its commitment to the stability and prosperity of the broader region.

7. Challenges

• China's Territorial Claims: China claims that it has historical ownership over nearly the entire region of the South China Sea, which gives it the right to manufacture islands. However, the International Court of Arbitration rejected the claim in 2016.
• China's Closeness to ASEAN: The ASEAN countries also have a well-knit relationship with China. The Regional Cooperation Economic Partnership (RCEP) is a recent example of China's increasing influence over ASEAN nations.
• Economic Power of China: Considering the economic might of China and the dependence of QUAD nations like Japan and Australia on China, the QUAD nations can not afford to have strained relations with it.
• Convergence among Quad Nations: The nations in the Quad grouping have different aspirations, and aims at balancing their own interest. Therefore, coherence in the vision of the Quad nation as a grouping is absent.

8. Way forward

The Quad represents a forum for strategic cooperation among four major Indo-Pacific nations, with a focus on regional security, economic development, and upholding the rules-based international order. Its evolving role in the region will likely be a subject of ongoing geopolitical interest and debate.

 

For Prelims: Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD), South China Sea, Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), Indo-Pacific region, ASEAN, and Regional Cooperation Economic Partnership (RCEP). For Mains: 1. Discuss the evolution, objectives, and geopolitical significance of the Quad (Quadrilateral Security Dialogue) in the context of the Indo-Pacific region. Analyze the challenges and opportunities it presents for the member countries, particularly India. (250 words).

Source: The Indian Express

 

 

HYPERSONIC MISSILE

 

 

 

1. Context

 

India on 9th May, achieved a major breakthrough in hypersonic missile technology. The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) accomplished a 1,200-second runtime of its actively cooled scramjet full-scale combustor. The test was conducted at the Scramjet Connect Pipe Test (SCPT) facility in Hyderabad, building on the successful 700-plus second test carried out in January.

 

 

2. Key takeaways

 

 

• The missile is a hypersonic cruise weapon capable of travelling at speeds greater than Mach 5, or approximately 6,100 km per hour, for sustained durations.
• This capability has been made possible through an advanced supersonic air-breathing propulsion system that employs indigenously developed liquid hydrocarbon endothermic fuel, high-temperature Thermal Barrier Coating (TBC), and sophisticated manufacturing technologies.
• It is equipped with an advanced actively cooled scramjet combustor featuring a novel flame-stabilisation mechanism that enables a continuous combustion process even when air flows through the combustor at speeds exceeding 1.5 km per second.
• The Thermal Barrier Coating (TBC) has been jointly developed by the Defence Research and Development Laboratory and facilities under the Department of Science and Technology.
• This specialised coating is engineered to endure the extremely high temperatures generated during hypersonic flight. The newly developed ceramic-based TBC possesses superior thermal resistance and can function at temperatures exceeding the melting point of steel.

 

3. What are Hypersonic missiles?

 

 

 

• Hypersonic missiles are advanced weapon systems capable of travelling at speeds greater than Mach 5, which means at least five times faster than the speed of sound.
• Depending on atmospheric conditions, this translates to speeds exceeding nearly 6,000 km per hour.
• Their combination of extremely high speed, manoeuvrability, and lower flight trajectory makes them difficult to detect, track, and intercept compared to conventional ballistic missiles.
• These weapons are considered a major advancement in modern military technology because they can rapidly strike targets while reducing the reaction time available to defence systems.
• Hypersonic Glide Vehicles are first launched into the atmosphere using a rocket booster. After reaching a certain altitude, the glide vehicle separates from the rocket and glides toward its target at hypersonic speeds

• Hypersonic missiles represent one of the most transformative developments in modern warfare. Their unmatched speed, manoeuvrability, and ability to evade conventional missile defence systems make them strategically significant for major military powers.
• However, they also raise concerns regarding global security, arms races, and the future of strategic deterrence.

 

 

4. Cruise vs Ballistic missiles

 

 

• Ballistic missiles operate on the principle of projectile motion to deliver warheads to designated targets. They remain powered only during the initial phase of flight, after which they travel largely under the influence of gravity and aerodynamic forces.
• These missiles are generally classified according to their operational range and may be equipped with either conventional or nuclear warheads.
• A major feature that distinguishes hypersonic cruise missiles from ballistic missiles is their manoeuvrability.
• Unlike ballistic missiles, which follow a predictable ballistic path, hypersonic missiles can alter their trajectory during flight and navigate dynamically toward their intended targets.
• Cruise missiles typically travel at relatively low altitudes close to the Earth’s surface, whereas ballistic missiles move along a high-altitude parabolic trajectory.
• Because ballistic missiles follow a more predictable flight path, they are comparatively easier to detect and track.
• In contrast, the high manoeuvrability and low-altitude flight profile of cruise missiles make them more challenging for air defence systems to intercept

 

5. Scramjet vs Ramjet

 

 

• Air-breathing propulsion technology has the potential to revolutionise launch vehicle design.
• According to Indian Space Research Organisation, various global space agencies are actively developing three major categories of air-breathing engines: Ramjet, Scramjet, and Dual-Mode Ramjet (DMRJ).
• In ramjet propulsion systems, the engine relies on the vehicle’s forward speed to compress incoming air for combustion, eliminating the need for a rotating compressor.
• Fuel is injected into the combustion chamber, where it combines with the compressed hot air and ignites. Since ramjets cannot generate thrust at low speeds, they require external assistance, such as rocket boosters, to accelerate the vehicle to operational speed.
• ISRO notes that ramjet engines perform most effectively at supersonic velocities of around Mach 3 and can function up to approximately Mach 6.
• However, their efficiency declines once the vehicle enters the hypersonic speed regime.
• A Supersonic Combustion Ramjet, commonly known as a Scramjet, is a more advanced form of ramjet engine designed for efficient operation at hypersonic speeds.
• Unlike conventional ramjets, scramjets enable combustion while the airflow inside the engine remains supersonic.
• In this system, air enters through the front intake, fuel combusts in the central chamber, and high-speed exhaust gases exit from the rear to generate thrust.
• A Dual-Mode Ramjet (DMRJ) combines the operational features of both ramjet and scramjet technologies.
• Within the Mach 4 to Mach 8 speed range, the engine transitions from ramjet mode to scramjet mode, allowing it to function efficiently under both subsonic and supersonic combustion conditions

 

6. Tactical Advanced Range Augmentation (TARA) system

 

 

• On May 7, the Defence Research and Development Organisation in collaboration with the Indian Air Force successfully conducted the maiden flight test of the TARA system, a technology designed to convert unguided munitions into guided weapons.
• The TARA glide weapon system mainly functions as a modular attachment that can be integrated with a standard unguided warhead. Once fitted, it enables the weapon to glide across extended distances and engage targets with greater accuracy.
• The system is understood to employ a combination of inertial navigation technology and satellite-based guidance for directing the missile toward its designated target.
• Instead of depending on a rocket propulsion mechanism, the TARA system operates through a glide-based approach. This design makes the weapon comparatively lightweight and economical while also enhancing its operational range.
• Through this technology, conventional unguided or gravity bombs can be upgraded into precision-guided smart munitions with minimal modification. As a result, the need for developing completely new missile platforms can be significantly reduced

 

 

For Prelims: Tactical Advanced Range Augmentation (TARA) system, Ballistic missiles, Hypersonic missiles   For Mains: GS III - Science and technology

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE, 2023) 1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their flights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight. 2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

 

INDIA'S LABOUR MARKET

 

 

 

1. Context

 

Every year, about 7-10 million young Indians enter the labour market. They are better educated than any generation before them — the average years of formal schooling for those aged 15 and above has reached 10 years nationally — and with hopes and expectations to match.The recently released Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) 2025 report offers some key insights.

 

 

2. Recent trends in Employment

 

 

• India’s labour market indicators remain strong, with the Labour Force Participation Rate recorded at 59%, the Workforce Participation Rate at 57%, and unemployment at only 3%.
• Youth unemployment has shown a downward trend since 2024 in both rural and urban regions. In addition, successive Monthly PLFS reports during 2025 highlight a steady rise in women’s workforce participation.
• Rural female LFPR continued to improve through September 2025, reaching the highest level observed since May, indicating a consistent positive trend across multiple survey cycles.
• Employment quality has likewise improved over time. The proportion of workers engaged in regular salaried jobs increased from 22% to 24%, benefiting both men and women. At the same time, the share of self-employed workers declined from 58% to 56%.
• Since salaried employment generally offers greater income stability and social security benefits, this transition represents one of the most significant developments reflected in the 2025 labour data.
• Income patterns further support these improvements, especially for women workers. Earnings among women in regular salaried jobs rose by 7%, slightly higher than the 6% increase recorded for men.
• In self-employment, women’s earnings increased by 9% compared to 8% for men. Similarly, women engaged in casual labour witnessed a 5% rise in wages, whereas male wages in this category remained largely stagnant.
• Despite these gains, gender disparities in earnings continue to persist. Available data suggests that women receive nearly 76% of male earnings in salaried occupations, about 69% in casual work, and only 36% in self-employment.
• Although significant gaps remain, the growing movement toward salaried employment is gradually generating more meaningful economic benefits for women.
• Economic transformation is also reshaping employment patterns. Agriculture now accounts for 43% of total employment, while manufacturing and services contribute roughly 12% and 13%, respectively.
• Increasing numbers of young workers, especially women, are joining manufacturing and service industries.
• Moreover, occupational segregation based on caste and gender is less pronounced among younger generations than older ones, reflecting the long-term impact of improved educational access and greater social mobility, which are now contributing to more inclusive labour market outcomes

 

 

3. Gaps in Skills and Job Creation

 

 

• A major concern continues to be the transition from education to employment. India has greatly increased access to higher education, enabling students from a wider range of economic backgrounds to pursue tertiary studies.
• However, important gaps still persist. Between 2004 and 2023, nearly 5 million graduates entered the labour market every year, yet only around 2.8 million were able to obtain employment of any form.
• Insufficient access to structured skill development remains another obstacle. Merely 4% of people in the 15–59 age group have undergone formal vocational or technical training.
• At the same time, labour force participation among trained individuals is considerably higher — about 83% for men and 51% for women — highlighting the strong connection between skill acquisition and employment opportunities. This demonstrates the need to expand and strengthen skill-training initiatives on a much larger scale.
• Ensuring long-term participation of women in the workforce is another critical issue. While men outside the labour force mostly identified education as the reason for non-participation, women largely pointed to childcare and domestic responsibilities.
• This reflects deeper structural inequalities arising from the unequal burden of unpaid household work.
• For example, self-employed urban men work nearly 17.5 hours more per week than women, while among regular salaried employees the gap stands at roughly 7.9 hours weekly, illustrating the disproportionate dual burden of paid and unpaid labour carried by women.
• A further concern relates to the NEET population — youth who are neither in education, employment, nor training. Approximately one-fourth of individuals aged 15–29 belong to this category.
• Since they are excluded from official unemployment statistics, the scale of the issue often remains understated. If not addressed promptly, prolonged disengagement may push many young people into long-term detachment from the labour market

 

 

4. What is the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS)?

 

• The Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) is India’s main survey for understanding the condition of employment and unemployment in the country. It is conducted by the National Statistical Office under the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation.
• The survey was introduced in 2017 to provide regular and reliable information about the labour market, replacing the earlier employment surveys conducted by the National Sample Survey Office.
• The need for PLFS arose because India’s economy and labour market were changing rapidly, but employment data was not available frequently enough.
• Policymakers required updated information to understand how many people were working, how many were unemployed, and how labour patterns were changing across rural and urban areas.
• To address this gap, PLFS was designed to provide both annual and quarterly estimates on employment-related indicators.
• The survey studies the participation of people in economic activities. It measures how many individuals are employed, how many are actively searching for work, and how many remain outside the labour force.
• Through this, it calculates important indicators such as the Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR), Worker Population Ratio (WPR), and Unemployment Rate (UR). These indicators help in assessing the overall health of the economy and the availability of jobs.
• PLFS also provides detailed insights into the nature of employment in India. It classifies workers into categories such as self-employed persons, regular salaried employees, and casual labourers.
• This distinction is important because different forms of employment offer different levels of income security, social protection, and job stability. For example, regular salaried employment is generally considered more secure than casual labour.
• Another important feature of PLFS is that it captures differences across gender, age groups, education levels, and regions.
• It highlights issues such as women’s participation in the workforce, youth unemployment, rural–urban disparities, and shifts in employment from agriculture to manufacturing and services. Because of this, the survey has become an essential tool for analysing structural changes in the Indian economy.
• The survey uses different approaches to measure employment status. The “Usual Status” method examines a person’s employment situation over a longer reference period, while the “Current Weekly Status” method looks at whether a person worked for at least one hour during the previous seven days. These methods help provide a broader and more accurate picture of employment conditions.
• Today, PLFS serves as the most important official source of labour market data in India. Governments, economists, researchers, and policymakers rely on it to formulate employment policies, assess economic performance, design welfare programmes, and evaluate the impact of reforms on workers and livelihoods

Female Labour Force Participation (FLFP)     Female Labour Force Participation (FLFP) refers to the proportion of women in the working-age population who are either employed or actively seeking employment. In simple terms, it measures how many women are participating in economic activities within a country. It is usually expressed through the Female Labour Force Participation Rate (FLFPR), which indicates the percentage of women who are part of the labour force compared to the total female population within a specified age group. Women who are working in jobs, self-employment, farming, business activities, or even looking for work are included in the labour force. However, women who are neither working nor searching for employment are considered outside the labour force. Female labour force participation is considered an important indicator of economic development, gender equality, and social progress. A higher participation rate generally reflects better access to education, employment opportunities, skill development, mobility, and financial independence for women. It also contributes to higher household incomes, poverty reduction, and overall economic growth. In India, female labour force participation has traditionally remained lower than that of men due to several social, cultural, and economic factors. Many women are engaged in unpaid domestic work such as childcare, cooking, and household responsibilities, which are not counted as economic activities in official surveys. Other factors such as lack of safe transportation, limited access to formal jobs, wage inequality, social norms, and interruptions caused by marriage or motherhood also affect women’s participation in the workforce.

 

5. Way Forward

 

 

The PLFS 2025 findings indicate that India’s labour market is showing signs of positive progress. Nevertheless, converting these improvements into sustained, productivity-driven economic growth will require focused policy measures. This includes expanding industry-oriented skill development programmes, promoting women’s participation in the workforce through gender-sensitive policies, and creating stronger access to secure employment supported by broader social protection systems and greater emphasis on green industries. In addition, specialised initiatives such as apprenticeship programmes will play an important role in bringing NEET youth back into productive economic activity

 

 

 

For Prelims: Periodic Labour Force Survey, National Sample Survey Office, labour force participation rate, worker population ratio For Mains: 1. Examine the changing nature of employment in India, as reflected in the increasing share of self-employment and the declining proportion of regular salaried jobs. Discuss the implications of this shift for the quality and sustainability of employment. (250 Words)

 

Previous Year Questions 1. Given below are two statements, one is labeled as Assertion (A) and the other as Reason (R). (UPPSC 2019) Assertion (A): The labour force participation rate is falling sharply in recent years for females in India. Reason (R): The decline in labour force participation rate is due to improved family income and an increase in education. Select the correct answer from the codes given below: Codes: A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A) B. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is not the correct explanation of (A) C. (A) is true, but (R) is false D. (A) is false, but (R) is true     2. Which of the following statements about the employment situation in India according to the periodic Labour Force Survey 2017-18 is/are correct? (UPSC CAPF 2020) 1. Construction sector gave employment to nearly one-tenth of the urban male workforce in India 2. Nearly one-fourth of urban female workers in India were working in the manufacturing sector 3. One-fourth of rural female workers in India were engaged in the agriculture sector Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 2 only       B. 1 and 2 only            C. 1 and 3 only           D. 1, 2 and 3     3. Disguised unemployment generally means (UPSC 2013) (a) large number of people remain unemployed (b) alternative employment is not available (c) marginal productivity of labour is zero (d) productivity of workers is low   4.  Assertion (A): Workers - population ratio in India is low in contrast to that in developed countries. Reason (R): Rapid growth of population, low female worker population rate and omission of unpaid family workers lead to low worker-population ratio. Choose the correct answer: (Telangana Police SI Mains 2018) A. (A) is true, but (R) is false. B. (A) is false, but (R) is true. C. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not a correct explanation of (A). D. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is the correct explanation of (A). Answers: 1-C, 2-B, 3-C, 4-D Mains 1. Most of the unemployment in India is structural in nature. Examine the methodology adopted to compute unemployment in the country and suggest improvements. (UPSC 2023)

Source: The Hindu