The Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) is an Indian law that was enacted in 1967 to effectively prevent unlawful activities that pose a threat to the sovereignty and integrity of India.

Key highlights of the UAPA

• Objective: The primary objective of the UAPA is to provide law enforcement agencies with effective tools to combat terrorism and other activities that threaten the security of the nation.
• Definition of Unlawful Activities: The act defines unlawful activities to include actions that intend to or support the cession of a part of the territory of India or disrupt the sovereignty and integrity of the country.
• Powers of Designation: The government has the authority to designate an organization as a terrorist organization if it believes that such an organization is involved in terrorism. This designation has significant legal consequences, including the freezing of assets.
• Powers of Arrest and Detention: The UAPA provides law enforcement agencies with powers of arrest and detention to prevent individuals from engaging in unlawful activities. The act allows for preventive detention to curb potential threats before they materialise.
• Banning of Terrorist Organizations: The government can proscribe organizations as terrorist organizations, making their activities illegal. This includes banning these organisations, freezing their assets, and taking other measures to curb their operations.
• Admissibility of Confessions: The UAPA allows for confessions made to police officers to be admissible in court, subject to certain safeguards. This provision has been a point of contention, with concerns about potential misuse and coercion.
• Designation of Individuals as Terrorists: In addition to organizations, the UAPA allows the government to designate individuals as terrorists. This designation carries legal consequences, including restrictions on travel and freezing of assets.
• Amendments and Stringency: Over the years, the UAPA has undergone several amendments to strengthen its provisions and make it more effective in dealing with emerging threats. However, these amendments have also been criticized for potential violations of civil liberties.
• International Cooperation: The UAPA allows for cooperation with foreign countries in matters related to the prevention of unlawful activities. This includes extradition of individuals involved in such activities.

3. Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) and Human Rights

The Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) and human rights lie in the impact the act can have on various fundamental rights guaranteed by the Constitution of India and international human rights standards.

The key points connecting the UAPA and human rights:

• The UAPA allows for preventive detention, which means individuals can be detained without formal charges based on suspicions of involvement in unlawful activities. This raises concerns about the right to liberty, as individuals may be deprived of their freedom without the presumption of innocence until proven guilty.
• The admissibility of confessions made to police officers under the UAPA raises issues related to the right against self-incrimination. There is a risk that such confessions might be obtained under duress or coercion, compromising the fairness of legal proceedings.
• Designating individuals as terrorists and proscribing organizations without due process may impinge on the right to a fair trial. This includes the right to be informed of charges, the right to legal representation, and the right to present a defense.
• The UAPA provides authorities with the power to proscribe organizations as terrorist organizations, limiting their activities. Critics argue that this may infringe upon the right to freedom of association, particularly when such designations are made without sufficient evidence or proper legal procedures.
• The potential for misuse of the UAPA to target individuals or organizations critical of the government raises concerns about freedom of expression. If the act is used to suppress dissent or stifle legitimate political or social activities, it can undermine this fundamental right.
• The UAPA grants authorities the power to intercept communications and conduct surveillance on individuals suspected of engaging in unlawful activities. This raises concerns about the right to privacy, as individuals may be subjected to intrusive surveillance without adequate safeguards.
• Human rights standards require that any restrictions on rights, such as those imposed by the UAPA, must be proportionate and necessary for achieving a legitimate aim. Critics argue that the broad scope of the UAPA may lead to disproportionate measures that unduly restrict individual rights.
• The UAPA's compatibility with international human rights standards, including the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), is a critical point of consideration. Ensuring that the act aligns with these standards is essential to upholding human rights principles.

4. Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) and Article 22 of the Constitution

The Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) and Article 22 of the Indian Constitution lie in how the UAPA's provisions for arrest and detention intersect with the constitutional safeguards provided under Article 22. 

• Article 22 provides certain protections to individuals who are arrested or detained. It outlines the rights of arrested individuals, emphasizing safeguards to prevent arbitrary or unlawful detention.
• Article 22(1) states that every person who is arrested and detained shall be informed, as soon as may be, of the grounds for such arrest. This provision ensures that individuals are aware of the reasons behind their arrest, preventing arbitrary or secret detentions.
• Article 22(1) also guarantees the right of an arrested person to consult and be defended by a legal practitioner of their choice. This ensures that individuals have access to legal assistance during the legal process, contributing to a fair and just legal system.
• The UAPA includes provisions for preventive detention, allowing authorities to detain individuals to prevent them from committing certain offences. However, Article 22(4) allows preventive detention only under specific circumstances, and certain safeguards must be followed, such as providing the detenu with the grounds for detention and an opportunity to make a representation against the detention.
• Article 22(4) further mandates that a person detained under a law providing for preventive detention must be afforded the earliest opportunity to make a representation against the detention. Additionally, the case of every person detained is required to be placed before an advisory board within three months.
• The UAPA allows for confessions made to police officers to be admissible in court, subject to certain safeguards. However, this provision has been a point of concern concerning Article 22, as confessions obtained under duress or coercion may violate the right against self-incrimination.
• Article 22(2) ensures the right to be brought before the nearest magistrate within 24 hours of arrest, excluding the time necessary for the journey. This provision aims to prevent prolonged detention without judicial oversight and contributes to the right to a speedy trial.

Source: The Indian Express

INFANT MORTALITY RATE (IMR)

• The Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) is a key demographic and public health indicator that measures the number of deaths of infants under one year of age per 1,000 live births in a given year and population.
• In simple terms, it tells us how many babies do not survive their first year of life out of every 1,000 babies born alive.
• IMR reflects the overall health status, socio-economic conditions, and quality of healthcare services in a country. High IMR usually indicates issues such as malnutrition, poor maternal health, inadequate healthcare facilities, and lack of sanitation.
• Conversely, a low IMR shows improvements in medical care, immunization, maternal nutrition, and public health policies.
• For India, reducing IMR has been a central goal under various initiatives like the National Health Mission, Janani Suraksha Yojana, and Poshan Abhiyaan, as it is directly linked to the country’s progress on Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 3 – Good Health and Well-being)

 

3. What are the trends in India’s IMR in the last decade as per the SRS, 2023?

 

 

• Over the past decade, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, and Karnataka have managed to cut their Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) by more than half, marking the most significant improvements on this key child health indicator.
• According to the 2023 Sample Registration Survey (SRS), India’s IMR has fallen by over 37% in ten years—from 40 infant deaths per 1,000 live births in 2013 to 25 in 2023.
• The country’s IMR dropped below the global average around 2021, and its pace of decline has been faster than worldwide trends. However, India still lags behind the Asian average of 17.4 deaths per 1,000 births.
• In the most recent data, the national IMR showed a one-point decline from the previous year, while the average improvement during the last five years has been 1.4 points annually.
• Among the larger states, Kerala stands out with a single-digit IMR—just five deaths per 1,000 live births—a level comparable with developed nations. Yet, Kerala also records the widest gender gap, with IMRs of nine for boys and two for girls.
• Smaller states like Manipur, Sikkim, and Goa, along with nearly all Union Territories, also report single-digit IMRs.
• At the other end of the spectrum, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh have the highest IMRs in the country, each at 37, followed by Odisha and Assam, both at 30
• A report published earlier this week notes that the national average infant mortality rate (IMR) stands at 25 deaths per 1,000 live births. Referring to the findings, Kerala’s Health Minister Veena George highlighted that the State’s IMR is even lower than that of the United States, which recorded 5.6 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2022, and reaffirmed that Kerala has the lowest IMR in India.

• Kerala’s success is the outcome of consistent improvements in the health sector over the years. Data from the State’s Department of Economics and Statistics shows that the IMR stood at 7.42 in 2010, briefly rose to 8.2 in 2012, but has steadily declined since then.
• Further, the 2023 State Vital Statistics Report points out that institutional deliveries dominate childbirth practices in Kerala. In rural areas, 96.16% of deliveries took place in healthcare institutions, while in urban areas the figure reached 99.88%, reflecting strong access to maternal and child healthcare facilities

 

4. What are the factors behind the reduction in infant mortality in India?

 

 

The reduction in Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) in India over the past few decades is the outcome of a combination of healthcare interventions, socio-economic progress, and policy focus. Here’s an explanatory account:

 

• Improved antenatal, intranatal, and postnatal care has been central. Schemes like the Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY) and Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakram (JSSK) incentivized institutional deliveries and provided free maternal care, reducing risks during childbirth
• A large majority of births now take place in healthcare institutions, supported by programs under the National Health Mission (NHM) and better rural health infrastructure. Institutional births reduce complications, ensure trained attendance, and provide immediate neonatal care
• Expansion of the Universal Immunization Programme and the introduction of Mission Indradhanush helped protect children from life-threatening diseases such as measles, diphtheria, and pneumonia, thereby reducing infant deaths
• The setting up of Special Newborn Care Units (SNCUs), Nutrition Rehabilitation Centres (NRCs), and improved access to pediatric services has strengthened survival chances for vulnerable infants
• Government schemes like the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS), Poshan Abhiyaan, and mid-day meals have improved maternal and child nutrition. Better maternal health directly lowers the risk of premature or underweight babies, a major contributor to infant deaths
• Education of women has led to greater awareness about hygiene, healthcare, and nutrition, resulting in healthier pregnancies and better childcare practices. States with higher female literacy, like Kerala, consistently show lower IMRs
• Flagship initiatives under the National Health Mission, such as the India Newborn Action Plan (2014), set specific targets for reducing neonatal and infant mortality. Regular monitoring through the Sample Registration Survey (SRS) has kept the issue at the forefront of policy action

 

5. Why are there interstate differences in IMR in India?

 

 

• The Sample Registration System (SRS) Statistical Report 2023 makes it clear that while India has achieved significant progress in reducing its Infant Mortality Rate (IMR), there are still striking differences between states. These interstate disparities arise from a complex interplay of health infrastructure, socio-economic development, governance, and social practices.
• One of the foremost reasons is the variation in healthcare access and quality across states. States such as Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Himachal Pradesh have built strong public health systems, ensuring trained medical personnel, institutional deliveries, and neonatal care facilities are widely available.
• In contrast, states like Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh still struggle with underfunded health services, shortages of doctors and nurses, and poor rural health outreach, which contributes to persistently high infant deaths.
• Maternal and child nutrition also plays a decisive role. In states with high rates of malnutrition and anaemia among mothers, babies are more likely to be born underweight or premature, making them vulnerable to infections and early death. This is particularly evident in central and eastern states where poverty, food insecurity, and weaker implementation of nutrition schemes have kept IMR higher.
• Education and awareness further shape these differences. States with high levels of female literacy, such as Kerala and Tamil Nadu, tend to have mothers who are more aware of hygiene, breastfeeding, vaccination, and healthcare needs, directly lowering infant mortality. On the other hand, low female literacy in poorer states often limits health-seeking behaviour, leading to preventable deaths.
• Another factor is infrastructure beyond health services, including sanitation, drinking water, electricity, and transport. Kerala, with nearly universal institutional deliveries, has also ensured that roads and ambulances connect rural households to hospitals.
• In contrast, hilly, tribal, and remote areas in states like Odisha and Madhya Pradesh face access barriers that delay or prevent timely medical intervention.
• Social and cultural practices also shape the gap. In some regions, deep-rooted gender biases lead to differential care for male and female infants.
• The SRS 2023 highlights Kerala as having the lowest IMR overall, but also shows a sharp gender disparity—IMR for boys being higher than for girls. Such gendered patterns differ from state to state, contributing to uneven outcomes.
• Finally, governance and policy prioritisation explain a large part of the difference. States that have consistently invested in health and social welfare—through schemes for maternal care, immunisation drives, and nutrition—show sustained improvements. States where such programs remain weakly implemented or irregularly continue to report higher infant deaths despite overall national progress

 

6. Why are there interstate differences in IMR in India?

 

 

• Interstate differences in Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) in India arise because health outcomes are shaped by a mix of healthcare access, socio-economic development, nutrition, education, and governance, all of which vary widely across states.
• In states such as Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Himachal Pradesh, IMR has dropped to single digits because of strong public health systems, high female literacy, widespread institutional deliveries, and effective implementation of maternal and child health schemes.
• These states have invested consistently in healthcare infrastructure, ensured better nutrition through schemes like ICDS and Poshan Abhiyaan, and created social awareness around immunisation, breastfeeding, and hygiene. Kerala, for instance, combines near-universal institutional deliveries with high maternal education levels, giving it one of the lowest IMRs in the country.
• By contrast, states such as Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha continue to record high IMRs. The reasons include weak health infrastructure, shortage of trained medical staff, poor access to emergency neonatal care, and low coverage of institutional deliveries, especially in rural and tribal belts.
• Malnutrition and maternal anaemia are also more prevalent in these regions, leading to low birth weight and greater vulnerability to infections. Poor sanitation and lack of safe drinking water worsen child health outcomes, while low female literacy and limited awareness about healthcare practices restrict preventive care.
• Differences in policy implementation and governance also explain the gaps. States that have prioritised maternal and child health through effective rollout of schemes like Janani Suraksha Yojana, Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakram, and Mission Indradhanush have seen sharper declines in IMR. Others lag because of weaker monitoring, limited resources, and uneven outreach

 

For Prelims: Infant Mortality Rate (IMR), Sample Registration System (SRS), Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR)   For Mains: GS II -  Issues relating to development and management of Social Sector/Services relating to Health, Education, Human Resources.

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Consider the following statements (UPSC 2016) 1. The Sustainable Development Goals were first proposed in 1972 by a global think tank called the 'Club of Rome 2. Sustainable Development goals has to be achieved by the year 2030 Which of the statements given above is/ are correct A. 1 Only            B. 2 Only                   C. Both 1 and 2                 D. Neither 1 Nor 2   2. Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) of India is released by which of the following office? (NCL Staff Nurse 2020) A. Office of Registrar General of India B. Office of CAG C. Office of Union Health Minister D. Office of Statistical computation of India   Answers: 1-B, 2- A

 

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

 

SMALL NUCLEAR MODULAR REACTORS

 

1. Context

Alongside a stepped-up role for the private sector in nuclear plant operations, India is doubling down on its domestic civil nuclear programme based on its mainstay, pressurised heavy water reactors (PHWRs), and remains open to collaborating with external players to scale up projects built on this technology.

2. Small Modular Reactors (SMR)

Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) are a type of nuclear reactor design that offers a more compact and scalable alternative to traditional large-scale nuclear power plants. These reactors are characterized by their smaller size, enhanced safety features, and potential for more flexible deployment. Here are some key features and aspects of Small Modular Reactors:

• Size and Scalability: SMRs are designed to be much smaller in size compared to conventional nuclear reactors. Their compact nature allows for easier manufacturing, transport, and installation. Additionally, SMRs can be built in a modular fashion, with multiple units deployed together, which offers flexibility in capacity planning and expansion.
• Enhanced Safety: Many SMR designs incorporate advanced safety features that reduce the likelihood of accidents and mitigate potential consequences. Passive safety systems and inherent design characteristics can make SMRs more resilient in the face of unexpected events.
• Reduced Environmental Footprint: The smaller size and modular construction of SMRs can lead to a reduced environmental impact in terms of land use, resource consumption, and waste generation. This can be particularly advantageous in regions with limited space or where environmental concerns are paramount.
• Flexible Deployment: SMRs can be deployed in a wider range of locations compared to traditional large reactors. They can serve diverse purposes, including providing power to remote communities, supporting industrial processes, and complementing renewable energy sources.
• Standardization and Mass Production: SMR designs often emphasize standardization and simplified manufacturing processes, which could potentially lead to cost savings through mass production and economies of scale.

Image Source: The Hindu

3. Decarbonisation Challenges

• Transition Challenges: Moving from coal-fired power to clean energy has hurdles. Policymakers agree solar/wind alone won't suffice for affordable energy.
• Role of Firm Power: Clean energy grids benefit from a stable power source. Adding one firm power tech cuts costs and boosts reliability.
• Critical Minerals Demand: Clean energy tech needs minerals like lithium, cobalt, etc. Demand might rise 3.5x by 2030, per IEA.
• Global Challenges: Meeting mineral demand means new mines, especially in China, Indonesia, Africa, and South America. The rapid expansion raises environmental and social concerns.
• Concentrated Production: Few nations control most mineral production/processing. Geopolitical risks and supply control emerge.

Image Source: The Hindu

4. Nuclear Power's Role in Net-Zero Goals:

• NPPs contribute 10% of global electricity, curbing 180 billion cubic meters of natural gas demand and 1.5 billion tonnes of CO2 emissions annually.
• Ensuring Net-Zero Transition: Reduced nuclear power may hinder cost-effective progress towards net-zero emissions.

5. Advantages of Nuclear Power:

• Reliable Power Generation: NPPs provide constant power, outperforming variable renewable sources like solar and wind.
• Efficient Land Use: NPPs need less land and offer lower grid integration costs compared to renewables.
• Co-Benefits: Nuclear power creates high-skill jobs in technology, manufacturing, and operations.

6. Advantages of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs):

• Enhanced Safety: SMRs have lower core damage frequency and radioactive contamination risk compared to conventional NPPs. Passive safety features reduce the potential for uncontrolled radioactive releases.
• Seismic Isolation: SMRs incorporate improved seismic isolation for heightened safety during accidents.
• Spent Fuel Management: SMRs generate less spent nuclear fuel, reducing storage needs.
• Brownfield Sites: SMRs can be safely placed on brownfield sites with less stringent zoning requirements.
• Community Engagement: Power-plant organizations can engage communities, as seen in Kudankulam, Tamil Nadu.
• Coal-to-Nuclear Transition: Deploying SMRs at existing thermal plant sites advances net-zero goals and energy security.

7. Supply and Manufacturing:

• Low-Enriched Uranium: SMRs typically use low-enriched uranium, available from countries with uranium mines and enrichment facilities adhering to international standards.
• Factory Manufacturing: SMRs are factory-built and assembled on-site, lowering risks of time and cost overruns.
• Cost Efficiency: Serial manufacturing reduces costs, streamlines regulatory approvals, and fosters experiential learning.

8. Economic Viability:

• Long-Term Operation: SMRs operate for over 40 years, offering cost-effective electricity. Costs are projected to decrease significantly after 2035.
• U.S.-India Collaboration: SMRs included in the U.S.-India statement for potential benefits, with cost reduction anticipated through reputed manufacturers.

9. Efficient Regulatory Regime:

• Regulaorty Efficiency Needed: Like civil aviation, stringent and efficient regulations are vital for SMR's role in decarbonization.
• Global Cooperation: Countries embracing nuclear energy should collaborate with regulators and the IAEA to harmonize and expedite approvals for standard SMR designs.

10. Integration with National Grid:

• Energy Capacity Targets: India's projection: Coal-based power 259,000 MW, VRE 486,000 MW by 2032.
• Energy Storage Needs: Integrating VRE requires 47,000 MW/236 GWh from batteries and 27,000 MW from hydro facilities.
• Nuclear Expansion: Nuclear power pivotal for India's net-zero by 2070; private sector investment essential.

11. Legal and Regulatory Changes:

• Amending Atomic Energy Act: Allow private sector SMR setup while ensuring nuclear fuel and waste control by the government.
• Establish an Independent Regulatory Board: Law required for a capable regulatory body overseeing nuclear power stages.
• Security and Ownership: Government control over SMR security; private operation under government oversight.
• Public Perception: Department of Atomic Energy should enhance public awareness through transparent environmental and health data dissemination.

For Prelims: Nuclear Energy, Small Modular Reactors (SMR), Decarbonisation, International Energy Agency (IEA), lithium, cobalt, National Grid, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), and Co2 emissions. For Mains: 1. Discuss the potential of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) in India's journey towards decarbonizing its energy sector. Examine their advantages over conventional nuclear power plants and other renewable sources. (250 Words).

 

Previous year Question 1. In India, why are some nuclear reactors kept under "IAEA Safeguards" while others are not? (UPSC 2020) A. Some use uranium and others use thorium B. Some use imported uranium and others use domestic supplies C. Some are operated by foreign enterprises and others are operated by domestic enterprises D. Some are State-owned and others are privately-owned Answer: B

Source: The Hindu

 

 

1857 REVOLT

1. Context

On Wednesday, Leader of Opposition in the Lok Sabha Rahul Gandhi unveiled a statue of Veera Pasi, a “forgotten hero” who had fought the British during the Revolt of 1857, in Raebareli.

2. The 1857 Revolt

• It was the first expression of organized resistance against the British East India Company
• It began as a revolt of the sepoys of the British East India Company’s army but eventually secured the participation of the masses.
• The revolt is known by several names: the Sepoy Mutiny (by British Historians), the Indian Mutiny, the Great Rebellion (by Indian Historians), the Revolt of 1857, the Indian Insurrection, and the First War of Independence (by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar).

3. Causes of the revolt

3.1 Political causes

• British policy of expansion: The political causes of the revolt were the British policy of expansion through the Doctrine of Lapse and direct annexation.
• A large number of Indian rulers and chiefs were dislodged, thus arousing fear in the minds of other ruling families who apprehended a similar fate.
• Rani Lakshmi Bai’s adopted son was not permitted to sit on the throne of Jhansi.
• Satara, Nagpur, and Jhansi were annexed under the Doctrine of Lapse.
• Jaitpur, Sambalpur, and Udaipur were also annexed.
• The annexation of Awadh by Lord Dalhousie on the pretext of maladministration left thousands of nobles, officials, retainers, and soldiers jobless. This measure converted Awadh, a loyal state, into a hotbed of discontent and intrigue.

3.2 Economic causes

• The East India Company's colonial practices shattered Indian society's conventional economic foundation.
• Due to severe taxes, peasants were forced to take out loans from moneylenders/traders at exorbitant interest rates, with the latter frequently evicting the former from their property for non-payment of debt dues.
• While the issue of landless peasants and rural indebtedness has plagued Indian society to this day, these moneylenders and businessmen emerged as the new landlords.
• The zamindari system had been in place for a long time and had to be dismantled.
• The artists and handicrafts people suffered during the British administration as well.

3.3Administrative Causes

• Corruption was rampant in the Company's administration, particularly among the police, minor officials, and subordinate courts, which was a major source of dissatisfaction.
• Many historians believe that the current corruption levels in India result from the Company's control.
• Furthermore, the nature of British rule gave it a distant and alien appearance in the view of Indians: a form of absentee sovereignty.

3.4 Socio-religious causes

• The British administration's attitude toward the native Indian population had racial overtones and a superiority mentality.
• Indians viewed the activity of Christain missionaries in India who flew the British flag with distrust.
• A considerable segment of the populace saw initiatives at socio-religious change, such as the elimination of sati, support for window marriage, and women's education, as outsiders interfering in the social and religious spheres of Indian culture.
• These fears were exacerbated by the government's decision to tax mosque and temple lands and the passage of laws like the Religious Disabilities Act of 1856, which altered Hindu customs by declaring, for example, that a change of religion did not prevent a son from inheriting his 'heathen father's property.

4. Siege of Delhi

• The hard-fought recapture of Delhi by the British army was a decisive moment in the suppression of the 1857-58 Indian Mutiny against British rule. It extinguished Indian dreams of recreating the rule of the Mughal Empire. The rebellion lost its cohesion, allowing the British to defeat any remaining isolated pockets of resistance.
• After the capture of Delhi by rebels in May, the British were unable to launch a counterattack because their army was dispersed over vast distances. It took quite some time for the British to assemble an army, but in June, two columns were combined with a force of Ghurkas.
• The makeshift force managed to occupy a ridge overlooking the city but was not large enough to launch an assault, marking the beginning of the siege on June 8.
• Inside the city were more than 30,000 mutineers loyal to Bahadur Shah, who was holding court as the Mughal emperor.
• A large number of mutineers meant that the British force felt as though they were the ones under siege, and as the weeks wore on, the British began to suffer from outbreaks of cholera and dysentery.
• However, reinforcements slowly arrived from Punjab, including a siege train of thirty-two guns and 2,000 more men under the command of Brigadier General John Nicholson.
• By early September, the British had assembled a force of some 9,000, which consisted of 3,000 regular troops and 6,000 Sikhs, Punjabis, and Ghurkas. 
• The siege guns began firing on September 8, and by September 14, had made sufficiently large breaches in the walls to launch an attack.
• The assault was met with stiff resistance but by September 21, after a week of savage street-to-street fighting, Delhi was back under British control. Bahadur Shah was arrested and died in exile in Rangoon in 1862. He was the last of the Mughal Emperors.

Image Source: Wikipedia

5. An altered Landscape and culture in the city

• As the residents were being driven out or killed, the physical form of the city too was altered by the British. The original plan was to demolish the entire city including the Red Fort and Jama Masjid. But later the governor-general decided on pulling down only the built-up defenses and edifices close to the fort.
• Historical buildings and places of worship were decided to be kept intact. The British accommodated their troops inside the fort, while all houses and other buildings in the vicinity around a radius of 440 yards were completely leveled to the ground.
• During the excavations of the Parade Ground in 1921-23, beautiful houses built of marble and other stones were discovered beneath the ground. 
• The Jama Masjid, Fatehpuri Masjid, and Kalan Masjid were also occupied by British troops for a while before being restored to Muslims in the 1860s and 70s. The Fatehpuri Masjid was sold to Lala Chunna Mal, a wealthy textile merchant who won the favor of the British after the revolt.
• No longer was Delhi a royal capital. Its status had been reduced to that of a provincial town, part of the Punjab province. Between 1857 and 1861, Delhi was managed by the British army. When returned to the civilians, the administrative vacuum left by the army was filled by the setting up of a municipality, a Jama Masjid Committee, and a Delhi Society.
• Historian Narayani Gupta in her book, Delhi between two empires, 1803-1901: Society, government and urban growth (1981) writes that the British officials used the municipality to encourage their loyalists.
• The British rewarded their loyalists with wealth, land, titles, and positions of honor. “As soon as any of them died (in some cases even in their lifetime) their heirs were granted marks of recognition. Hence the phenomenon of teenagers becoming members of the municipality and being noticed in the gazetteer lists,” writes Gupta. The majority of these beneficiaries were Jain and Hindu bankers and mercantile families. 

6. The post-Revolt situation in Delhi

• The post-revolt decades of the 1860s and 70s were also the time when much of the public works in Delhi were established by the British.
• The first public works stemmed as much from considerations of military exigency as commercial and civil administrative needs writes Gupta.
• The railway line, for instance, was built through the city rather than outside because it made for greater security in the case of another uprising. 
• New roads were built through the most densely populated parts of the city, much to the distress of the local inhabitants.
• In 1865, a general hospital was established in Chandni Chowk to replace the dispensary that existed there before 1857, and in 1867 the Sadar Bazar was inaugurated to formalize the shops that had sprung up to cater to the needs of the army.

7. Objectives of British

• The primary objective of the British in the period after 1857 was to wipe out the memory of the Mughals from Delhi.
• Thereafter begins a conscious commemoration of British sites of valor.
• Perhaps the most striking example of this was the four-tiered gothic-style monument, the Mutiny Memorial built by the British government on the Ridge where it continues to stand today.
• It listed out with statistics those who were killed in the revolt. It was only 25 years after the Independence of India that the government renamed this monument as Ajitgarh (place of the unvanquished) and erected a plaque, stating that the ‘enemy’ mentioned on the memorial were “immoral martyrs of Indian freedom.” 

Previous Year Question

 

What was/were the object/objects of Queen Victoria’s Proclamation (1858)? (UPSC 2014)  (1) To disclaim any intention to annex the Indian States (2) To place the Indian administration under the British Crown (3) To regulate East India Company’s trade with India Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: a

For Prelims & Mains

For Prelims: 1857 Revolt, Lord Dalhousie, East Indian Company, Rani Jhansi Laxmi Bai,  First War of Independence (by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar). For Mains: 1. The Revolt of 1857 was a cumulative effect of the character and policies of colonial rule in India. Examine.

 

 Source: The Indian Express

 

 

HEATWAVE

 

1. Context

While most of the conversation about extreme heat during Indian summers is centred around peak daytime temperatures and the spells of heatwaves, it is slowly becoming evident that warmer nights could pose a greater health risk to human beings, particularly those living in low and middle-income housing units.

2. What is a Heat Wave?

• A heatwave is a period of abnormally high temperatures, a common phenomenon in India during the months of May-June and in some rare cases even extends till July.
• Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) classifies heat waves according to regions and temperature ranges. As per IMD, the number of heatwave days in India has increased from 413 over 1981-1990 to 600 over 2011-2020.
• This sharp rise in the number of heatwave days has resulted due to the increasing impact of climate change.
• The last three years have been La Niña years, which has served as a precursor to 2023 likely being an El Niño year. (The El Niño is a complementary phenomenon in which warmer water spreads west­east across the equatorial Pacific Ocean.)
• As we eagerly await the likely birth of an El Niño this year, we have already had a heat wave occur over northwest India.
• Heat waves tend to be confined to north and northwest India in El Niño years.

 

Image Source:News18

3. How do Heat waves Occur?

• Heat waves are formed for one of two reasons warmer air is flowing in from elsewhere or it is being produced locally.
• It is a local phenomenon when the air is warmed by higher land surface temperature or because the air sinking down from above is compressed along the way, producing hot air near the surface.
• First of all, in spring, India typically has air flowing in from the west­northwest. This direction of air­flow is bad news for India for several reasons.
• Likewise, air flowing in from the northwest rolls in over the mountains of Afghanistan and Pakistan, so some of the compression also happens on the leeward side of these mountains, entering India with a bristling warmth.
• While air flowing over the oceans is expected to bring cooler air, the Arabian Sea is warming faster than most other ocean regions.
• Next, the strong upper atmospheric westerly winds, from the Atlantic Ocean to India during spring, control the near-surface winds.
• Any time winds flow from the west to the east, we need to remember that the winds are blowing faster than the planet which also rotates from west to east.
• The energy to run past the earth near the surface, against surface friction, can only come from above. This descending air compresses and warms up to generate some heat waves.

4. Impacts of heat waves in India

• The frequent occurrence of heat waves also adversely affects different sectors of the economy.
• For instance, the livelihood of poor and marginal farmers is negatively impacted due to the loss of working days.
• Heatwaves also have an adverse impact on daily wage workers' productivity, impacting the economy.
• Crop yields suffer when temperatures exceed the ideal range.
• Farmers in Haryana, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh have reported losses in their wheat crop in the past rabi season. Across India, wheat production could be down 6-7% due to heat waves.
• Mortality due to heat waves occurs because of rising temperatures, lack of public awareness programs, and inadequate long-term mitigation measures.
• According to a 2019 report by the Tata Center for Development and the University of Chicago, by 2100 annually, more than 1.5 million people will be likely to die due to extreme heat caused by climate change.
• The increased heat wave will lead to an increase in diseases like diabetes, circulatory and respiratory conditions, as well as mental health challenges.
• The concurrence of heat and drought events is causing crop production losses and tree mortality. The risks to health and food production will be made more severe by the sudden food production losses exacerbated by heat-induced labor productivity losses.
  These interacting impacts will increase food prices, reduce household incomes, and lead to malnutrition and climate-related deaths, especially in tropical regions.

5. How does air mass contribute to heat waves?

• The other factors that affect the formation of heat waves are the age of the air mass and how far it has traveled.
• The north northwestern heatwaves are typically formed with air masses that come from 800-1600 km away and are around two days old.
• Heat waves over peninsular India on the other hand, arrive from the oceans, which are closer (around 200-400km) and are barely a day old. As a result, they are on average less intense.

6. Way ahead for Heat waves

• Identifying heat hot spots through appropriate tracking of meteorological data and promoting timely development and implementation of local Heat Action Plans with strategic inter-agency coordination, and a response that targets the most vulnerable groups.
• Review existing occupational health standards, labor laws, and sectoral regulations for worker safety in relation to climatic conditions.
• Policy intervention and coordination across three sectors health, water, and power are necessary.
• Promotion of traditional adaptation practices, such as staying indoors and wearing comfortable clothes.
• Popularisation of simple design features such as shaded windows, underground water storage tanks, and insulating house materials.
• Advance implementation of local Heat Action Plans, plus effective inter-agency coordination is a vital response that the government can deploy in order to protect vulnerable groups.

 

For Prelims: Heat Wave, India Meteorological Department (IMD), El Nino, Equatorial Pacific Ocean, La Nina, Malnutrition, Heat Action Plans. For Mains: 1. Examine the various adverse impacts caused by heat waves and how India should deal with them.

 

Previous Year Questions   1.What are the possible limitations of India in mitigating global warming at present and in the immediate future? (UPSC CSE 2010) 1. Appropriate alternate technologies are not sufficiently available. 2. India cannot invest huge funds in research and development. 3. Many developed countries have already set up their polluting industries in India. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer (a) India faces challenges in addressing Global Warming: Developing and underdeveloped nations lack access to advanced technologies, resulting in a scarcity of viable alternatives for combating climate change. Being a developing nation, India relies partially or entirely on developed countries for technology. Moreover, a significant portion of the annual budget in these nations is allocated to development and poverty alleviation programs, leaving limited funds for research and development of alternative technologies compared to developed nations. Analyzing the statements provided: Statements 1 and 2 hold true based on the aforementioned factors. However, Statement 3 is inaccurate as the establishment of polluting industries by developed countries within India is not feasible due to regulations governing industrial setup Mains 1.Bring out the causes for the formation of heat islands in the urban habitat of the world. (UPSC CSE Mains GS 1 2013)

 

Source: The Hindu

 

 

 

STRAIT OF HORMUZ

 

 

1. Context

 

With the crisis in West Asia and the blockade of the Strait of Hormuz straining energy supplies, Prime Minister Narendra Modi Thursday urged the Council of Ministers to urgently explore alternative energy sources, including a push for biogas as a substitute for LPG cooking gas.

 

2. What is the Strait of Hormuz?

 

• The Strait of Hormuz is a strategically significant and narrow maritime passage situated between Iran and Oman, serving as a link between the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Oman, and the Arabian Sea. The U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) has labeled it as the world’s most vital oil transit chokepoint, through which nearly 20% of global liquid petroleum fuels and a substantial portion of LNG trade pass. In May, more than 45% of India’s crude oil imports were estimated to have transited through this strait. Given that India is the third-largest consumer of crude oil globally and imports over 85% of its oil needs, the strait plays a crucial role in its energy security.

• Data from the commodity analytics firm Kpler indicates that, as of June, India has been importing over 2.2 million barrels per day (bpd) of crude oil from Russia, which constitutes more than 41% of its total oil imports.

• While oil imports from the U.S. have shown a steady rise, supplies from West Asian nations such as Iraq, Saudi Arabia, the UAE, and Kuwait have remained relatively consistent. Many of these shipments were likely planned prior to the recent escalation in tensions between Israel and Iran, and therefore, may not reflect the impact of the current geopolitical developments.

• Over the past two to three years, India has notably adjusted its oil import strategy. Russia has emerged as India’s top crude supplier, overtaking traditional exporters from West Asia. Importantly, Russian oil bypasses the Strait of Hormuz, as it is mainly transported via alternative sea routes like the Suez Canal and Red Sea, and sometimes through the Cape of Good Hope or Pacific Ocean routes.

3.Why is Strait of Hormuz Critical?

 

• The Strait of Hormuz is commonly considered the most critical maritime chokepoint in the world. It links the Persian Gulf with the Gulf of Oman and the Indian Ocean, serving as a major export corridor for regional oil producers.
• At its narrowest point, it measures only about 21 nautical miles (38 km) across. Under typical conditions, nearly 21 million barrels of oil—around one-fifth of global consumption—flow through it daily.
• Alongside crude oil, substantial quantities of liquefied natural gas from Qatar and the UAE are transported via this passage.
• A significant share, close to 80%, is destined for Asian markets, making countries like India, China, Japan, and South Korea heavily reliant on this route.

 

4. Other Major Global Chokepoints

 

• Apart from Hormuz, international trade depends on a few other strategically vital maritime passages, including the Strait of Malacca, Bab el-Mandeb Strait, Suez Canal, and Panama Canal.
• The Strait of Malacca lies between the Malay Peninsula and Indonesia’s Sumatra island and represents the shortest maritime route connecting the Indian Ocean with the South China Sea. This makes it indispensable for trade flows linking West Asia, Africa, and East Asia.
• The Bab el-Mandeb Strait is positioned between the Arabian Peninsula and the Horn of Africa.
• It serves as the southern entrance to the Red Sea, a necessary transit point for vessels heading toward the Suez Canal and onward to the Mediterranean, thereby forming a crucial segment of Asia–Europe trade routes.
• The Suez Canal, a man-made channel across Egypt, connects the Red Sea to the Mediterranean Sea, significantly reducing travel time by eliminating the need to circumnavigate Africa.
• Further west, the Panama Canal cuts through the Isthmus of Panama, linking the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. This strategic shortcut facilitates trade between Asia, the Americas, and Europe, removing the necessity of sailing around South America

 

5. Why is the Strait of Hormuz strategically important for India?

 

• India’s current oil procurement approach already demonstrates a diversified and risk-mitigated strategy, especially in light of uncertainties in West Asian oil routes, with Russian crude now making up the largest share of India’s import basket.

• After recent U.S. air strikes targeting Iranian nuclear sites, Iran’s parliament passed a resolution on Sunday advocating the closure of the Strait of Hormuz, a vital corridor for global oil transportation. The final decision on this move now lies with Iran’s Supreme National Security Council.

• Although Iran has repeatedly issued threats in the past to shut the strait, it has never acted on them. Even in the present context, industry analysts consider the likelihood of an actual blockade to be low. Nevertheless, the increased risk perception surrounding the potential closure is expected to trigger global alarm, including in India, by raising concerns over the security of oil and gas supplies and potentially driving up global energy prices.

 

6. How does the Israel-Iran conflict pose a threat to global oil and gas flows?

 

 

• The Israel-Iran conflict poses a significant threat to global oil and gas flows due to the geopolitical sensitivity and strategic location of the region. At the heart of this issue lies the Strait of Hormuz—a narrow but crucial maritime passage through which nearly 20% of the world’s petroleum and a substantial share of liquefied natural gas (LNG) are transported.
• Iran borders this strait and has, over the years, repeatedly threatened to block it during periods of heightened tension, including in response to military actions or sanctions.
• When hostilities between Israel and Iran escalate—such as through air strikes, proxy conflicts, or cyber warfare—it increases the likelihood of retaliation from Iran that could involve disrupting maritime traffic in the Strait of Hormuz.
• Even if Iran does not fully close the strait, the mere threat or perception of such an action is enough to cause volatility in global energy markets. Tanker insurance rates rise, shipping routes are reconsidered, and countries heavily dependent on oil imports, like India, become increasingly vulnerable to supply disruptions and price shocks.
• Furthermore, any military conflict in this region risks damaging key infrastructure such as refineries, pipelines, or export terminals in the broader West Asian region.
• This would constrain oil production and distribution, affecting both the availability and price of crude oil and gas worldwide. Global markets respond quickly to these risks, often resulting in immediate spikes in prices due to concerns over supply security.
• In summary, the Israel-Iran conflict amplifies the risk to global oil and gas flows by potentially destabilizing a region that is central to global energy supply chains. It heightens fears of supply disruptions, increases market speculation, and threatens the economic stability of energy-importing countries, making it a matter of both geopolitical and economic concern

7. Way Forward

 

The flow of vessels through major international chokepoints is largely regulated by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. According to its provisions, straits that are used for global navigation fall under the concept of “transit passage,” which permits ships and aircraft from all countries to move through them freely, continuously, and without interference.

At the same time, coastal states bordering these straits are allowed to introduce regulations related to safety or environmental protection. However, they are not permitted to block passage or apply discriminatory restrictions on specific vessels. While this freedom of navigation is widely accepted in international law, its practical implementation often depends on the naval capabilities of states and the level of cooperation among them

 

 

For Prelims: Strait of Hormuz,  Persian Gulf, Energy Information Administration (EIA), liquefied natural gas (LNG)   For Mains: General Studies II: Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests.

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Which one of the following straits is nearest to the International Date Line? (UPSC CSE 2008) (a) Malacca Strait (b) Bering Strait (c) Strait of Florida (d) Strait of Gibraltar Answer (b) The International Date Line (IDL) roughly follows the 180° longitude, which lies in the Pacific Ocean, deviating slightly to accommodate international boundaries. The Bering Strait lies between Russia and Alaska, and it is very close to the 180° meridian, making it the closest strait to the International Date Line. Here's why the other options are incorrect: Malacca Strait – Lies between Malaysia and Indonesia, far west of the IDL. Strait of Florida – Lies between the U.S. (Florida) and Cuba, in the Atlantic Ocean. Strait of Gibraltar – Connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea, between Spain and Morocco, far from the IDL.

Source: Indianexpress

 

 

GOVERNMENT SECURITY AND BONDS

 

 

1. Context 

Yields on Indian government bonds – issued by the Centre to raise funds to bridge its annual fiscal deficit, or the mismatch between its receipts and expenditure – have risen sharply in recent weeks in the wake of the war in West Asia due to the strain on public finances as expenditure mounts for things such as fertiliser subsidy and loss of revenue from the cut in excise duty on petrol and diesel, among others.

2. About Government Securities 

• Government securities are government debt issuances used to fund daily operations and special infrastructure and military projects.
• They guarantee the full repayment of invested principal at the maturity of the security and often pay periodic coupon or interest payments.
• Government securities are considered to be risk-free as they have the backing of the government that issued them.
• The tradeoff of buying risk-free securities is that they tend to pay a lower rate of interest than corporate bonds.
• Investors in government securities will either hold them to maturity or sell them to other investors on the secondary bond market.

3. Risk of Purchasing foreign government bonds

• The purchase of foreign government bonds also known as Yankee bonds.
• It is more complicated because it is associated with political risk along with currency risk, credit risk and default risk to reap greater yields.
• Some bonds will require the creation of offshore accounts and have high minimum investment levels. 
• Also, foreign bonds fall into the category of junk bonds, due to the risk attached to their purchase.

4. Controlling the money supply

• The Federal Reserve (the Fed) controls the flow of money through many policies, one of which is the selling of government bonds.
• As they sell bonds, they reduce the amount of money in the economy and push interest rates upward.
• The government can also repurchase these securities, affecting the money supply and influencing interest rates called Open Market Operations the Fed buys bonds on the open market, reducing their availability and pushing the price of the remaining bonds up.
• As bond prices rise, bond yields fall driving interest rates in the overall economy lower.
• New issues of government bonds are also issued at lower yields in the market further driving down interest rates.
• As a result, the Fed can significantly impact the trajectory of interest rates and bond yields for many years.
• The supply of money changes with this buying and selling, as well.
• When the Fed repurchases Treasuries from investors, the investors deposit the funds in their bank or spend the money elsewhere in the economy.
• This spending, in turn, stimulates retail sales and spurs economic growth.
• Also, as money flows into banks through deposits, it allows those banks to use those funds to lend to businesses or individuals, further stimulating the economy.

5. Pros and Cons of Buying Government Securities

Pros	Cons
Government securities can offer a steady stream of interest income	Government securities offer a low rate of return relative to other securities
Due to their low default risk, government securities tend to be safe-haven plays	The interest rates of government securities don't usually keep up with inflation
Some government securities are exempt from state and local taxes	Government securities issued by foreign governments can be riskly
Government securities can be bought and sold easily	Government securities often pay a lower rate in a rising-rate market
Government securities are available through mutual funds and exchange-traded funds

 

 6. Types of Government Securities

 

6.1. Savings Bonds

• Savings bonds offer fixed interest rates over the term of the product. Should an investor hold a savings bond until its maturity they receive the face value of the bond plus any accrued interest based on the fixed interest rate.
• Once purchased, a savings bond cannot be redeemed for the first 12 months it is held.
• Also, redeeming a bond within the first five years means the owner will forfeit the months of accrued interest.

6.2. T-Bills

• Treasury bills (T-Bills) have typical maturities of 4, 8, 13, 26 and 52 weeks.
• These short-term government securities pay a higher interest rate return as the maturity terms lengthen.

6.3. Treasury Notes

• Treasury Notes (T-Notes) have two, three, five or 10-year maturities making them intermediate-term bonds.
• These notes pay a fixed-rate coupon or interest payment semiannually and will usually have $1, 000 face values.
• Two and three-year notes have $ 5, 000 face values. Yields on T-Notes change daily.

6.4. Treasury Bonds

• Treasury Bonds (T-Bonds) have maturities of between 10 and 30 years. These investments have $1, 000 face values and pay semiannual interest returns.
• The government uses these bonds to fund deficits in the federal budget.
• Also, as mentioned earlier, the Fed controls the money supply and interest rates through the buying and selling of this product.

For Prelims: Government securities, Reserve Bank of India, Yankee bonds, U.S. Federal Reserve, Open Market Operations,  For Mains:  1. What are Government Securities? Discuss the role of how Government Securities are controlling the money supply in the market. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC  2018) 1. The Reserve Bank of India manages and services Government of India Securities but not any State Government Securities. 2. Treasury bills are issued by the Government of India and there are no treasury bills issued by the State Governments. 3. Treasury bills offer are issued at a discount from the par value. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 and 2 only   B. 3 only      C. 2 and 3 only     D. 1, 2 and 3   Answer: C   2. With reference to India, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2021)  1. Retail investors through demat account can invest in ‘Treasury Bills’ and ‘Government of India Debt Bonds’ in primary market. 2. The Negotiated Dealing System Order Matching’ is a government securities trading platform of the Reserve Bank of India. 3. The ‘Central Depository Services Ltd.’ is jointly promoted by the Reserve Bank of India and the Bombay Stock Exchange. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only     B. 1 and 2       C. 3 only     D.  2 and 3   Answer: B   3. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2021)  1. The Governor of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is appointed by the Central Government. 2. Certain provisions in the Constitution of India give the Central Government the right to issue directions to the RBI in the public interest. 3. The Governor of the RBI draws his natural power from the RBI Act. Which of the above statements is/are correct? A.1 and 2 only    B. 2 and 3 only     C. 1 and 3 only   D.  1, 2 and 3   Answer: C   4. In the context of Indian economy, 'Open Market Operations' refers to (UPSC 2013) A. borrowing by scheduled banks from the RBI B. lending by commercial banks to industry and trade C. purchase and sale of government securities by the RBI D. None of the above   Answer: C

 

Source: The Indian Express