ROYALTY AND TAX
The Constitution of India includes three lists that distribute powers between the Central (Union) government and the State governments. These lists are part of the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution and are known as the Union List, State List, and Concurrent List. Here's an overview of each:
- Union List:
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- Contains subjects on which the Central government can make laws
- Has 98 items (originally 97, one item added later)
- Includes matters of national importance like defense, foreign affairs, currency, railways, etc.
- State List:
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- Contains subjects on which State governments can legislate
- Has 59 items (originally 66, some items moved to other lists)
- Includes matters of state and local importance like public order, police, public health, agriculture, etc.
- Concurrent List:
- Contains subjects on which both Central and State governments can make laws
- Has 52 items (originally 47, some items added later)
- Includes matters like education, forests, marriage, adoption, etc.
In addition to these three main lists, there are two other important lists mentioned in the Constitution:
- List I of the Ninth Schedule:
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- Contains acts and regulations related to land reforms and abolition of the zamindari system
- Laws in this list are protected from judicial review
- Eighth Schedule:
- Lists the officially recognized languages of India
- Originally had 14 languages, now includes 22 languages
The Constitution of India provides for a system of fiscal federalism, which includes mechanisms for sharing revenue between the central (Union) government and the state governments. Here are the key constitutional provisions related to revenue sharing:
- Article 268: Duties levied by the Union but collected and appropriated by the States.
- Article 269: Taxes levied and collected by the Union but assigned to the States.
- Article 270: Taxes levied and collected by the Union and distributed between the Union and the States.
- Article 271: Surcharge on certain duties and taxes for purposes of the Union.
- Article 272: (Repealed) Used to deal with Union duties of excise.
- Article 273: Grants in lieu of export duty on jute and jute products.
- Article 275: Grants from the Union to certain States.
- Article 280: Finance Commission
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- Establishes the Finance Commission, which is appointed every five years
- The Commission recommends the distribution of net proceeds of taxes between the Union and States, and among the States themselves
- Article 281: Recommendations of the Finance Commission
- Article 282: Expenditure defrayable by the Union or a State out of its revenues
- Seventh Schedule:
- Union List (List I): Specifies taxes that can be levied by the central government
- State List (List II): Specifies taxes that can be levied by state governments
- Concurrent List (List III): Areas where both can legislate, but central laws prevail in case of conflict
| List | Number of Items | Description | Example |
| Union List (List I) | 98 (originally 97) | Subjects on which only the Central government can make laws | Defense, Foreign affairs, Railways, Currency, National highways |
| State List (List II) | 59 (originally 66) | Subjects on which State governments have exclusive power to legislate | Public order, police, public health, agriculture |
| Concurrent List (List III) | 52 (originally 47) | Subjects on which both Central and State governments can make laws | Education, forests, marriage, adoption |
- Royalties and taxes represent different types of financial obligations with distinct characteristics. A royalty is a payment made to the owner of a right or property in exchange for permission to use that right or property, typically based on a specific agreement or contract.
- Royalties often involve payments to individuals or entities for using intellectual property, natural resources, or other assets and are usually calculated as a percentage of revenue or as a fixed amount per use or period. They are negotiated between private parties and governed by contracts.
- In contrast, a tax is a mandatory financial charge imposed by the government on individuals, businesses, or property to fund public expenditures and services. Taxes are not negotiable and are based on criteria set by tax laws or regulations, such as income, property value, or sales.
- They are compulsory payments collected by government authorities at various levels (local, state, or federal) to support functions like infrastructure, education, healthcare, and defense.
- The key differences between royalties and taxes lie in their nature and purpose. Royalties are voluntary and contractual payments for using specific assets, whereas taxes are compulsory and mandated by law for public revenue.
- Royalties are often based on usage or revenue from the asset, while taxes are calculated based on income, property value, or consumption.
- Furthermore, royalties are agreed upon by private parties and governed by contracts, while taxes are imposed by government authorities and governed by legislation. Essentially, royalties provide income to asset owners or creators, while taxes fund government operations and public services
- Royalties are payments made to the owner of a product for the right to utilize that product. For instance, if a film studio wants to feature a particular piece of music by an artist in their film, they must pay a royalty fee to the artist.
- The court majority determined that royalties are not considered taxes due to a "conceptual difference" between the two. Royalties are based on specific agreements or contracts between the leaseholder of a mine and the lessor, who may even be a private individual.
- Additionally, the court ruled that Parliament's authority under Entry 54 of the Union List does not include the power to impose taxes, which is a prerogative of state legislatures. However, Entry 50 permits Parliament to impose "any limitations" on state taxation powers, which could potentially include a prohibition on certain taxes.
- The court did not confine states' taxation authority over mineral development to Entry 50 alone. It affirmed that states also have the authority to tax the land where mines and quarries are situated.
- According to the majority decision, a royalty under Section 9 of the 1957 Act is "not akin to a tax."
- It was noted that Parliament can restrict states from taxing mineral rights through Entry 50 of List II (State List), though the 1957 Act lacks a specific provision that limits state powers to tax mineral rights.
- Entry 50 of List II deals with "taxes on mineral rights, subject to any limitations imposed by Parliament through laws related to mineral development."
- Regarding taxes on land with quarries or mines, the majority opinion stated that states can levy such taxes under Entry 49 of List II, which addresses "taxes on lands and buildings."
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For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance
For Mains: GS-II, III: Government policies and interventions, Economy
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Previous Year Questions
1.With reference to the management of minor minerals in India, consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2019) 1. Sand is a ‘minor mineral’ according to the prevailing law in the country 2. State Governments have the power to grant mining leases of minor minerals, but the powers regarding the formation of rules related to the grant of minor minerals lie with the Central Government. 3. State Governments have the power to frame rules to prevent illegal mining of minor minerals. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer (a) |
NIPAH VIRUS
- Nipah virus (NiV) is a zoonotic virus that can spread between animals and people.
- The natural host of NiV is fruit bats, also known as flying foxes.
- NiV can also infect pigs and people
- NiV infection can cause a range of illnesses, from asymptomatic infection to acute respiratory illness and fatal encephalitis. The case fatality rate for NiV infection is estimated to be between 40% and 75%
- The symptoms of NiV infection typically appear 4-14 days after exposure to the virus. The initial symptoms are similar to those of the flu, including fever, headache, and cough.
- In severe cases, the virus can cause encephalitis, which is a swelling of the brain. Encephalitis can lead to coma and death.
- NiV can be transmitted from animals to people through contact with infected saliva, urine, or other bodily fluids.
- It can also be transmitted through contact with contaminated food or water. Person-to-person transmission of NiV is possible, but it is rare.
- Nipah virus outbreaks have been reported in several countries in Southeast Asia, including Malaysia, Bangladesh, India, and Singapore.
- The virus has caused sporadic outbreaks, with varying levels of severity
- The first outbreaks of the Nipah virus among humans was reported from Malaysia (1998) and Singapore (1999).
- The virus takes its name from the village in Malaysia where the person in whom the virus was first isolated died of the disease.
- The transmission from animals happens mainly through consumption of contaminated food. According to the CDC, transmission can happen due to consumption of raw date palm sap or fruit that has been contaminated with saliva or urine from infected bats.
- Some cases of NiV [Nipah] infection have also been reported among people who climb trees where bats often roost.
- The animal host reservoir for this virus is known to be the fruit bat, commonly known as flying fox.
- Fruit bats are known to transmit this virus to other animals like pigs, and also dogs, cats, goats, horses and sheep
- Humans get infected mainly through direct contact with these animals, or through consumption of food contaminated by saliva or urine of these infected animals
- Since it was first identified in 1998-99, there have been multiple outbreaks of the Nipah virus, all of them in South and Southeast Asian nations. In Bangladesh, there have been at least 10 outbreaks since 2001.
In India, West Bengal had seen an outbreak in 2001 and 2007, while Kerala had reported several cases in 2018, and isolated cases in 2019 and 2021.
Zoonotic diseases, also known as zoonoses, are infectious diseases that can be transmitted between animals and humans. These diseases can be caused by bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi, and they pose a significant public health concern worldwide. Zoonotic diseases can be transmitted through direct or indirect contact with infected animals, their secretions, or contaminated environments. Some common examples of zoonotic diseases include:
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Influenza: Various strains of influenza viruses can infect both animals and humans. Influenza viruses can undergo genetic changes, leading to new strains that have the potential to cause pandemics.
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Rabies: Rabies is a viral disease that primarily affects mammals, including bats, dogs, and raccoons. It is transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected animal and can be fatal if not treated promptly.
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Salmonellosis: Caused by the bacterium Salmonella, this disease is often associated with contaminated food products, particularly those of animal origin such as poultry and eggs.
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Lyme Disease: Transmitted by ticks, Lyme disease is caused by the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi and is commonly found in wildlife, particularly deer. Humans can become infected when bitten by an infected tick.
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West Nile Virus: This mosquito-borne virus primarily circulates among birds but can be transmitted to humans through mosquito bites, leading to fever and, in some cases, severe neurological complications.
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E. coli Infections: Certain strains of Escherichia coli (E. coli) can cause gastrointestinal illness in humans. Contaminated food and water, as well as contact with infected animals, can lead to E. coli infections.
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HIV/AIDS: While the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is primarily transmitted among humans, it is believed to have originated from the transfer of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) from non-human primates to humans, making it a zoonotic disease.
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COVID-19: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, is believed to have originated in bats and was likely transmitted to humans through an intermediate animal host, highlighting the zoonotic nature of the virus.
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For Prelims: Viruses, Bacteria, Immunity, Vaccine types
For Mains: 1.Discuss the challenges in controlling viral diseases and the strategies employed by governments and international organizations in addressing viral epidemics. Highlight the lessons learned from recent viral outbreaks
2.Analyze the global problem of antibiotic resistance and its implications for healthcare. Suggest policy measures and interventions to combat the growing threat of antibiotic-resistant bacteria
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Previous Year Questions
1.Viruses can affect (UPSC CSE 2016)
1.Bacteria
2. Fungi
3. Plants
Select the correct code with the following code
A.1 and 2 only
B. 3 Only
C. 1 and 3
D. 1, 2, 3
Answer (D)
2. Which of the following statements is/ are correct? (UPSC CSE 2013)
1. Viruses lack enzymes necessary for the generation of energy
2.Viruses can be cultured in any synthetic medium
3.Viruses are transmitted from one organism to another by biological vectors only
Select the correct answer using the code given below
A. 1 Only
B. 2 and 3
C. 1 and 3
D. 1, 2, 3
Answer (A)
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INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANISATION (ILO)
- The International Labour Organization (ILO) is a United Nations agency whose mandate is to advance social and economic justice by setting international labour standards. Founded in October 1919 under the League of Nations, it is one of the first and oldest specialised agencies of the UN
- The ILO has 187 member states: 186 out of 193 UN member states plus the Cook Islands. It is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, with around 40 field offices around the world, and employs some 3,381 staff across 107 nations, of whom 1,698 work in technical cooperation programmes and project
- Unlike other United Nations specialized agencies, the International Labour Organization (ILO) has a tripartite governing structure that brings together governments, employers, and workers of 187 member States, to set labour standards, develop policies and devise programmes promoting decent work for all women and men.
- The structure is intended to ensure the views of all three groups are reflected in ILO labour standards, policies, and programmes, though governments have twice as many representatives as the other two groups
- The late 18th and 19th centuries saw the rise of the Industrial Revolution, which brought about profound changes in the nature of work. While industrialization led to economic growth, it also resulted in poor working conditions, long hours, child labor, and inadequate wages for workers. The social consequences of these changes highlighted the need for labor reform.
- By the late 19th century, labor movements and social reformers across Europe and North America were advocating for better working conditions, workers' rights, and social justice. These movements were influential in shaping public opinion and policy towards labor issues.
- Before the ILO's establishment, there were several international congresses and conferences focused on labor issues. For instance, the International Association for Labour Legislation was founded in 1900, aiming to harmonize labor laws across countries. These early efforts demonstrated a growing recognition of the need for international cooperation on labor standards.
- The First World War (1914-1918) had devastating social and economic effects, exacerbating labor issues and highlighting the interconnectedness of nations. The war underscored the importance of international cooperation in promoting peace and social stability.
- Following the end of World War I, the Versailles Peace Conference was convened in 1919 to negotiate the terms of peace and to address the causes of conflict. One of the key issues recognized was the need for improved labor conditions to ensure lasting peace.
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Treaty of Versailles: The ILO was established as part of the Treaty of Versailles, which formally ended World War I. The inclusion of labor provisions in the treaty reflected the recognition that social justice and decent working conditions were essential for international peace and stability.
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Founding Principles: The ILO's Constitution, included in the Treaty of Versailles, was based on the belief that universal peace can only be established if it is based on social justice. It set forth several key principles:
- Labor should not be regarded merely as a commodity or article of commerce.
- The right to association and the right to collective bargaining should be recognized.
- Working conditions should be humane, ensuring adequate living wages, reasonable hours, and protection against sickness, disease, and injury.
- Special protection should be afforded to children, young persons, and women.
The International Labour Organisation (ILO) has a distinctive organizational structure designed to ensure representation and participation from governments, employers, and workers. This tripartite structure is central to its functioning and decision-making processes. Here's a detailed overview of the ILO's organizational structure:
International Labour Conference (ILC)
- Role: The ILC is the ILO's supreme decision-making body, often referred to as the "world parliament of labour."
- Functions: It meets annually to set the broad policies of the ILO, adopt international labor standards (Conventions and Recommendations), and approve the ILO's work program and budget.
- Composition: The ILC is composed of representatives from each member state, with a tripartite delegation:
- Government Delegates: Two representatives per member state.
- Employer Delegates: One representative per member state.
- Worker Delegates: One representative per member state.
- The ILO develops and adopts international labour standards in the form of Conventions and Recommendations. These standards cover a wide array of labour issues, including workers' rights, working conditions, social protection, and occupational safety and health.
- Member states can ratify these Conventions, committing themselves to adhere to the standards. The ILO monitors compliance and provides guidance on implementation.
- The ILO promotes fundamental principles and rights at work, such as freedom of association, the right to collective bargaining, the elimination of forced and child labour, and the elimination of discrimination in employment.
- It provides technical assistance to countries to help them create and enforce laws and policies that uphold these rights.
- The ILO supports initiatives aimed at creating more and better jobs, especially for vulnerable groups such as youth, women, and persons with disabilities
- It promotes vocational training and skills development to enhance employability and adaptability in the labor market
- Encourages entrepreneurship and the development of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) as a means to generate employment.
The International Labour Organisation (ILO) has identified eight Conventions as "fundamental" or "core" Conventions. These Conventions cover fundamental principles and rights at work and are considered crucial for ensuring decent work and social justice. The ILO's core Conventions are:
Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise Convention, 1948 (No. 87)
- Adoption: 1948
- Purpose: Protects the right of workers and employers to form and join organizations of their own choosing without prior authorization.
- Key Provisions: Ensures that workers and employers can organize freely and prohibits interference by public authorities.
2Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention, 1949 (No. 98)
- Adoption: 1949
- Purpose: Provides protection against anti-union discrimination and promotes collective bargaining.
- Key Provisions: Protects workers from dismissal or prejudice due to union membership and activities, and promotes voluntary negotiation between employers and workers' organizations.
Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (No. 29)
- Adoption: 1930
- Purpose: Aims to suppress the use of forced or compulsory labor in all its forms.
- Key Provisions: Requires the abolition of all forms of forced or compulsory labor, with exceptions for military service, normal civic obligations, and certain emergencies.
Abolition of Forced Labour Convention, 1957 (No. 105)
- Adoption: 1957
- Purpose: Complements Convention No. 29 by prohibiting the use of any form of forced labor as a means of political coercion, labor discipline, punishment for participation in strikes, or discrimination.
- Key Provisions: Mandates the elimination of forced labor for political purposes, economic development, labor discipline, punishment for strikes, and racial, social, national, or religious discrimination.
Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138)
- Adoption: 1973
- Purpose: Establishes a minimum age for admission to employment to ensure that children are not employed in work that is harmful to their health or development.
- Key Provisions: Sets the general minimum age for employment at not less than the age of completion of compulsory schooling and, in any case, not less than 15 years (13 for light work, 18 for hazardous work).
Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182)
- Adoption: 1999
- Purpose: Urges immediate and effective measures to prohibit and eliminate the worst forms of child labor.
- Key Provisions: Defines the worst forms of child labor, including slavery, trafficking, forced labor, prostitution, and involvement in armed conflict. Calls for urgent action to eliminate these practices.
Equal Remuneration Convention, 1951 (No. 100)
- Adoption: 1951
- Purpose: Promotes equal remuneration for men and women workers for work of equal value.
- Key Provisions: Mandates the principle of equal pay for equal work, requiring member states to ensure that wage discrimination based on sex is eliminated.
Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention, 1958 (No. 111)
- Adoption: 1958
- Purpose: Aims to eliminate discrimination in employment and occupation.
- Key Provisions: Prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color, sex, religion, political opinion, national extraction, or social origin, and promotes equal opportunity and treatment in employment.
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For Prelims: GS III- Economy, ILO
For Mains: GS-III: Economy
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PROJECT TIGER
1. Context
- The Government of India launched "Project Tiger" on 1st April 1973 to promote the conservation of the tiger.
- Project Tiger has been the largest species conservation initiative of its kind in the world.
- While the field implementation of the project, protection and management in the designated reserves is done by the project States, who also provide the matching grant to recurring items of expenditure, deploy field staff/officers and give their salaries, the Project Tiger Directorate of the Ministry of Environment and Forests was mandated with the task of providing technical guidance and funding support.
3.Origin of Project Tiger
- In 1972, India implemented the Wildlife (Protection) Act (WLPA), which established 'National Parks' within designated forests, transferring the rights of forest-dwellers to the State government. It also introduced 'Wildlife Sanctuaries' where limited rights could be exercised. The launch of Project Tiger stemmed from these changes.
- Initially, there were nine tiger reserves spanning 9,115 sq. km in 1973. Presently, there are 54 reserves across 18 States, covering 78,135.956 sq. km. Critical Tiger Habitats (CTH) make up 26% of National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries, totaling 42,913.37 sq. km. As of 2022, data from camera-trap methods estimated the tiger population in India to be between 3,167 to 3,925.
- The creation of CTHs aimed to allocate specific forest areas for tiger-centric initiatives. These areas were accompanied by Buffer Areas, a blend of forest and non-forest land. However, the 'fortress conservation' approach, despite its inclusive agenda for the Buffer Area, led to the displacement of people who had coexisted with tigers for generations
4. What is Critical Wildlife Habitat’ (CWH)?
A 'Critical Wildlife Habitat' (CWH) refers to a specific area within a protected region or sanctuary that is identified and demarcated for the conservation and protection of a particular wildlife species or multiple species.
These areas are recognized for their crucial importance in providing habitats, breeding grounds, or essential resources necessary for the survival and well-being of endangered or vulnerable wildlife populations. CWH designations aim to ensure the preservation of these habitats and their ecological balance by implementing stricter conservation measures and regulations to safeguard the wildlife within those areas
5. Tiger Task Force
- The implementation of Project Tiger over the years has highlighted the need for a statutory authority with legal backing to ensure tiger conservation.
- Based on the recommendations of the National Board for Wild Life Chaired by the Hon'ble Prime Minister, a Task Force was set up to look into problems of tiger conservation in the country.
- The recommendations of the said Task Force, interalia include strengthening Project Tiger by giving it statutory and administrative powers, apart from creating the Wildlife Crime Control Bureau.
- It has also been recommended that an annual report should be submitted to the Central government for laying in Parliament, so that commitment to Project Tiger is reviewed from time to time, in addition to addressing the concerns of local people.
Broadly the urgent recommendations of the said Task Force are
- Reinvigorating the constitution of governance.
- Strengthening efforts towards the protection of tigers, checking to poach, convicting wildlife criminals and breaking the international trade network in wildlife body parts and derivatives.
- Expanding the undisturbed areas for tigers by reducing human pressure.
- Repair the relationship with local people who share the tiger's habitat by fielding strategies for coexistence.
- Regenerate the forest habitats in the fringes of the tiger's protective enclaves by investing in forest, water and grassland economies of the people.
6. National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA)
- Considering the urgency of the situation, Project Tiger has been converted into a statutory authority (NTCA) by providing enabling provisions in the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 through an amendment, viz. Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2006.
- This forms one of the urgent recommendations of the Tiger Task Force appointed by the Prime Minister.
- The NTCA addresses the ecological as well as administrative concerns for conserving tigers, by providing a statutory basis for the protection of tiger reserves, apart from providing strengthened institutional mechanisms for the protection of ecologically sensitive areas and endangered species.
- The Authority also ensures enforcing guidelines for tiger conservation and monitoring compliance of the same, apart from the placement of motivated and trained officers having good track records as Field Directors of tiger reserves.
- It also facilitates capacity building of officers and staff posted in tiger reserves, apart from a time-bound staff development plan.
- The Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2006 has come into force with effect from the 4th of September, 2006 and the NTCA has also been constituted on the same date.
For Prelims & Mains
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For Prelims: Project Tiger, Tiger Task Force, Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2006, Global Tiger Summit, National Tiger Conservation Authority,
For Mains:
1. Discuss the Role of the National Tiger Conservation Authority in increasing the tiger population in India. Explain the significance of the Tigers in the Ecosystem. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
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1. The term ‘M-STRIPES’ is sometimes seen in the news in the context of (UPSC 2017) (a) Captive breeding of Wild Fauna (b) Maintenance of Tiger Reserves (c) Indigenous Satellite Navigation System (d) Security of National Highways Answer: (b) 2. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2014) 1. Animal Welfare Board of India is established under the Environment (Protection) Act, of 1986.
2. National Tiger Conservation Authority is a statutory body.
3. National Ganga River Basin Authority is chaired by the Prime Minister.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: (b) 3. Which one of the following is the well-publicized wildlife campaign in the world launched in 1973? (BPSC 2023) 1. Sunderbans 2. Project Project 3. Tiger Lion Project 4. More than one of the above 5. None of the above Answer: 2 |
Source: Tigernet.nic.in
CRISPR
Scientists from the CSIR-Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, New Delhi, have developed an enhanced genome-editing system that can modify DNA more precisely and more efficiently than existing CRISPR-based technologies.
2. About CRISPR
- The journey to uncover the CRISPR system spanned nearly thirty years of dedicated academic pursuit. Initially identified in 1993 by Spanish researchers in archaea, these DNA elements, known as Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR), were later observed in various bacterial genomes.
- Comprising genetic material fragments from viruses attacking bacteria, along with CRISPR-associated proteins known as Cas, these elements intrigued researchers aiming to comprehend their impact on antiviral immunity. By 2005, it became evident that the collaboration between CRISPR and Cas proteins formed a defensive system in bacteria, enabling them to resist viral infections.
- The pivotal breakthroughs occurred subsequently: in 2010, scientists demonstrated that CRISPR, when paired with specific Cas9 proteins, possessed the capability to precisely cut double-stranded DNA at defined points.
- They also unveiled RNA molecules guiding Cas9 to specific positions within a genome. Further progress emerged in 2012 when researchers devised synthetic RNA that could bind to Cas9, directing it to edit DNA at specified locations.
- Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna led this groundbreaking research, earning the 2020 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their contributions. Shortly after, Virginijus Siksnys and colleagues published similar findings, proposing that Cas9 could be guided to specific genome spots by CRISPR RNA.
- Collectively, these studies showcased the CRISPR-Cas9 system's potential as a customizable 'molecular scissor,' precisely cutting DNA at designated spots. Altering the crRNA enabled scientists to target specific genomic locations accurately. The subsequent year, teams led by Feng Zhang and George Church demonstrated the use of CRISPR-Cas9 for genome editing in eukaryotic organisms.
- This innovation sparked a multitude of applications, from targeted genetic therapies to advancements in agriculture. The 2020 Nobel Prize not only recognized these researchers but also marked the onset of an era where manipulating human genetic code went beyond reading, potentially revolutionising medicine and genetic engineering
CRISPR technology has introduced transformative possibilities in medicine due to its precision in altering genetic material. Here are some ways it's proving beneficial:
Gene Therapy: CRISPR enables precise modifications in genes associated with hereditary diseases. It offers a potential avenue for treating genetic disorders by editing or replacing problematic genes with healthy ones.
Cancer Treatment: CRISPR is being explored to target and modify cancer-related genes. It may assist in creating more effective and personalized treatments, such as enhancing the immune system's ability to recognize and destroy cancer cells.
Infectious Diseases: Researchers are investigating CRISPR's potential to combat viruses like HIV or herpes by editing the viral DNA within infected cells, potentially leading to a cure or long-term viral suppression.
Drug Development: CRISPR aids in understanding the genetic basis of diseases, enabling more accurate modeling of diseases in the lab. This understanding is crucial for developing and testing new drugs and treatments.
Organ Transplants: By editing genes related to organ rejection, CRISPR might help generate organs more compatible with a recipient's body, potentially reducing rejection rates.
Rare Diseases: CRISPR offers hope for treating rare genetic disorders that have no existing cures or treatments. It can target the specific genetic defects causing these conditions.
Diagnostic Tools: CRISPR-based systems, such as CRISPR-Cas detection, are being developed as highly sensitive diagnostic tools to identify diseases more efficiently and accurately.
The precision, versatility, and potential to target specific genes make CRISPR technology a groundbreaking tool in medicine, paving the way for more effective treatments and therapies across various diseases and conditions
3. Way forward
None of these technologies are without caveats. Researchers have already reported several safety and accuracy issues. An important one is off-target events: where a CRISPR-Cas9 system becomes inaccurate and edits some other part of the genome, with unintended consequences.So while there is enormous potential for these technologies, the risk needs to be balanced with both short- and long-term benefits. Many of these therapies are also too early in their development cycle. Continued scrutiny and surveillance may yet reveal ‘side effects’ that we aren’t aware of today
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For Prelims: CRISPR cas9 technology, Nano Technology For Mains: General Studies III: Science & Technology, The era of CRISPR therapeutics |
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Previous Year Questions 1.What is the Cas9 protein that is often mentioned in news? (UPSC CSE 2019) A.A molecular scissors used in targeted gene editing B. A biosensor used in the accurate detection of pathogens in patients C. A gene that makes plants pest-resistant D. A herbicidal substance synthesized in genetically modified crops Answer (A) |
Source: The Hindu
GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP)
There are three primary ways to calculate GDP:
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Production Approach (GDP by Production): This approach calculates GDP by adding up the value-added at each stage of production. It involves summing up the value of all final goods and services produced in an economy.
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Income Approach (GDP by Income): This approach calculates GDP by summing up all the incomes earned in an economy, including wages, rents, interests, and profits. The idea is that all the income generated in an economy must ultimately be spent on purchasing goods and services.
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Expenditure Approach (GDP by Expenditure): This approach calculates GDP by summing up all the expenditures made on final goods and services. It includes consumption by households, investments by businesses, government spending, and net exports (exports minus imports).
3. Measuring GDP
GDP can be measured in three different ways:
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Nominal GDP: This is the raw GDP figure without adjusting for inflation. It reflects the total value of goods and services produced at current prices.
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Real GDP: Real GDP adjusts the nominal GDP for inflation, allowing for a more accurate comparison of economic performance over time. It represents the value of goods and services produced using constant prices from a specific base year.
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GDP per capita: This is the GDP divided by the population of a country. It provides a per-person measure of economic output and can be useful for comparing the relative economic well-being of different countries.
The GDP is a useful measure of economic health, but it has some limitations. For example, it does not take into account the distribution of income in an economy. It also does not take into account the quality of goods and services produced.
Despite its limitations, the GDP is a widely used measure of economic health. It is used by economists, policymakers, and businesses to track the performance of an economy and to make decisions about economic policy
4. Gross Value Added (GVA)
Gross Value Added (GVA) is a closely related concept to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and is used to measure the economic value generated by various economic activities within a country. GVA represents the value of goods and services produced in an economy minus the value of inputs (such as raw materials and intermediate goods) used in production. It's a way to measure the contribution of each individual sector or industry to the overall economy.
GVA can be calculated using the production approach, similar to one of the methods used to calculate GDP. The formula for calculating GVA is as follows:
GVA = Output Value - Intermediate Consumption
Where:
- Output Value: The total value of goods and services produced by an industry or sector.
- Intermediate Consumption: The value of inputs used in the production process, including raw materials, energy, and other intermediate goods.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Gross National Product (GNP) are both important economic indicators used to measure the size and health of an economy, but they focus on slightly different aspects of economic activity and include different factors. Here are the key differences between GDP and GNP:
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Definition and Scope:
- GDP: GDP measures the total value of all goods and services produced within a country's borders, regardless of whether the production is done by domestic or foreign entities. It only considers economic activities that take place within the country.
- GNP: GNP measures the total value of all goods and services produced by a country's residents, whether they are located within the country's borders or abroad. It takes into account the production of residents, both domestically and internationally.
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Foreign Income and Payments:
- GDP: GDP does not consider the income earned by residents of a country from their economic activities abroad, nor does it account for payments made to foreigners working within the country.
- GNP: GNP includes the income earned by a country's residents from their investments and activities abroad, minus the income earned by foreign residents from their investments within the country.
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Net Factor Income from Abroad:
- GDP: GDP does not account for net factor income from abroad, which is the difference between income earned by domestic residents abroad and income earned by foreign residents domestically.
- GNP: GNP includes net factor income from abroad as part of its calculation.
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Foreign Direct Investment:
- GDP: GDP does not directly consider foreign direct investment (FDI) flowing into or out of a country.
- GNP: GNP considers the impact of FDI on the income of a country's residents, both from investments made within the country and from investments made by residents abroad.
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Measurement Approach:
- GDP: GDP can be calculated using three different approaches: production, income, and expenditure approaches.
- GNP: GNP is primarily calculated using the income approach, as it focuses on the income earned by residents from their economic activities.
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For Prelims: GDP, GVA, FDI, GNP
For Mains: 1.Discuss the recent trends and challenges in India's GDP growth
2.Examine the role of the service sector in India's GDP growth
3.Compare and contrast the growth trajectories of India's GDP and GNP
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Previous Year Questions
1.With reference to Indian economy, consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE, 2015)
1. The rate of growth of Real Gross Domestic Product has steadily increased in the last decade. 2. The Gross Domestic Product at market prices (in rupees) has steadily increased in the last decade. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer (b)
2.A decrease in tax to GDP ratio of a country indicates which of the following? (UPSC CSE, 2015) 1. Slowing economic growth rate 2. Less equitable distribution of national income Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer (a)
Previous year UPSC Mains Question Covering similar theme: Define potential GDP and explain its determinants. What are the factors that have been inhibiting India from realizing its potential GDP? (UPSC CSE GS3, 2020) Explain the difference between computing methodology of India’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) before the year 2015 and after the year 2015. (UPSC CSE GS3, 2021) |
REMITTANCES IN INDIA
1. Context
2. Reasons for the high remittance to India
- The high remittance inflows to India in 2022 can be attributed to several factors highlighted by the World Bank.
- Firstly, there has been a gradual shift in destinations for Indian migrants, with a structural shift in qualifications.
- More Indian migrants have been able to secure high-skilled jobs in countries like the United States, the United Kingdom, and East Asia, particularly in the services sector.
- Higher education has played a crucial role in this, as it has been linked to higher income levels, directly impacting remittance flows.
- During the COVID-19 pandemic, Indian migrants in high-income countries benefited from work-from-home arrangements and significant fiscal stimulus packages.
- As the pandemic situation improved, wage hikes and favourable employment conditions further supported migrants in sending money back to India, despite the challenges of high global inflation.
- In addition, price support policies in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, where many Indian migrants typically work, helped keep inflation at bay.
- This, combined with increased demand for labour due to higher oil prices, contributed to a rise in remittances from Indian labourers.
- The World Bank report also highlights wage hikes and a strong labour market in countries like the United States and other OECD nations as factors that enhanced remittances to India.
- Governments in GCC destination countries implemented direct support measures to ensure low inflation, thereby safeguarding migrants' ability to remit funds.
- Furthermore, the depreciation of the Indian rupee against the US dollar during the period from January to September 2022, which fell by 10 per cent, may have also worked in favour of Indian migrants by increasing the value of the remittances sent back home.
- The resumption of travel and successful vaccination efforts in 2022 enabled migrants to resume work, which further contributed to the increase in remittances flowing into the country
- Remittance refers to the transfer of money or funds made by individuals working abroad to their home countries.
- It encompasses different types of financial flows, including workers' remittances, compensation of employees, and migrants' transfers.
- These transactions are recorded in the IMF Balance of Payments.
- Remittances serve as a crucial source of income for households in low- and middle-income countries.
4. Global Remittance Predictions for 2023
- The growth of remittance flows into South Asia in 2023 is expected to slow down significantly, with a projected increase of only 0.7 per cent.
- This prediction raises concerns about the resilience of remittances from white-collar South Asian migrants working in high-income countries, as noted in the report.
- Remittance Flows in India: Specifically focusing on India, remittance flows are predicted to decrease in 2023.
- This decline can be attributed to factors such as inflation and an economic slowdown in the United States.
- Additionally, the economic growth slowdown in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, coupled with falling oil prices, will further impact remittance flows to all South Asian countries, including India, according to the report's findings.
5. Way Forward
- While remittances have played a vital role in supporting households in low- and middle-income countries, the predictions for 2023 suggest challenges ahead.
- Slowing growth rates in remittance flows to South Asia, including India, highlight the potential impact of factors like inflation, economic conditions in source countries, and changes in the global economy.
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For Prelims: Remittances, Covid-19, Gulf Cooperation Council, IMF, World Bank, OECD nations,
For Mains:
1. Critically evaluate the role of education and skills in shaping the remittance flows to India. How does the qualification level of Indian migrants influence their income and remittance contributions? (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. In the context of India, which of the following factors is/are contributor/contributors to reducing the risk of a currency crisis? (UPSC 2019)
1. The foreign currency earnings of India's IT sector.
2. Increasing government expenditure.
3. Remittances from Indians abroad.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
A. 1 only B. 1 and 3 only C. 2 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
2. Which of the following constitute Capital Account? (UPSC 2013)
1. Foreign Loans
2. Foreign Direct Investment
3. Private Remittances
4. Portfolio Investment
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
A. 1, 2 and 3 B. 1, 2 and 4 C. 2, 3 and 4 D. 1, 3 and 4
Answer: B
3. In the context of vaccines manufactured to prevent COVID-19 pandemic, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022)
1. The Serum Institute of India produced COVID-19 vaccine named Covishield using mRNA platform.
2. Sputnik V vaccine is manufactured using vector based platform.
3. COVAXIN is an inactivated pathogen based vaccine.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
4. Which of the following facts about Covid - 19 virus is / are wrong? (TNPSC Group 1 Prelims 2021)
(a) People who have been infected by the virus but do not have symptoms do not spread virus. (b) Reinfection is not possible.
(c) Anosmia (loss of smell) is a symptom.
(d) Babies do not get infected by Corona virus.
1. (a) and (b) only
2. (a), (b), and (d)
3. (c) only
4. (d) only
5. Answer not known
Answer: 2
5. Which of the following is NOT a member of Gulf Cooperation Council? (UPSC 2016)
A. Iran B. Saudi Arabia C. Oman D. Kuwait
Answer: A
6. With reference to the International Monetary and Financial Committee (IMFC) consider the following statements: (UPSC 2016)
1. IMFC discusses matters of concern affecting the global economy and advises the International Monetary Fund (IMF) on the direction of its work.
2. The World Bank participates as an observer in IMFC's meetings.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: C
7. Consider the following statements with reference to Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD): (RBI Grade B 2022)
1. OECD is an official Permanent observer to the United Nations and is referred to as a think-tank or as a monitoring group.
2. India is not a member of OECD.
3. OECD is funded by its member countries.
Which of the statement given above is/ are correct?
A. 1 only B. 1 and 2 only C. 2 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3 E. 2 only
Answer: D
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ETHANOL BLENDING
1. Context
- Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol, is a type of alcohol commonly used as a biofuel and a key ingredient in alcoholic beverages.
- It is a clear, colorless liquid with a characteristic odor and a slightly sweet taste.
- Ethanol has a wide range of applications and is produced through the fermentation of sugars by yeast or other microorganisms.
3. Ethanol Blending
- Ethanol blending refers to the practice of mixing ethanol with gasoline or other fuels to create a blended fuel.
- Ethanol is a biofuel derived from renewable sources such as sugarcane, corn, or other plant materials.
- It is commonly used as an additive to gasoline in various parts of the world to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote cleaner fuel options.
- In the context of transportation, the most common form of ethanol blending is with gasoline, creating a blend known as ethanol-gasoline blend or gasohol.
- The most common ethanol-gasoline blends are E10 and E15, indicating the percentage of ethanol in the mixture. For example, E10 contains 10% ethanol and 90% gasoline, while E15 contains 15% ethanol and 85% gasoline.
4. Benefits of Ethanol blending
- Ethanol is considered a renewable fuel because it is derived from plant materials that absorb carbon dioxide during their growth. When blended with gasoline, ethanol can help reduce the carbon footprint of transportation fuels, as it emits fewer greenhouse gases compared to pure gasoline.
- By blending ethanol with gasoline, countries can reduce their reliance on imported fossil fuels and promote energy security.
- Ethanol has a higher octane rating than gasoline, which can improve engine performance and increase fuel efficiency.
- Ethanol production often relies on agricultural feedstocks, providing economic benefits to farmers and rural communities.
- Ethanol-gasoline blends can help reduce harmful pollutants such as carbon monoxide and volatile organic compounds, contributing to improved air quality.
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Mixing 20 percent ethanol in petrol can potentially reduce the auto fuel import bill by a yearly $4 billion, or Rs 30,000 crore.
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Another major benefit of ethanol blending is the extra income it gives to farmers. Ethanol is derived from sugarcane and also foodgrains. Hence, farmers can earn extra income by selling their surplus produce to ethanol blend manufacturers.
5. What is E20 Fuel?
- E20 fuel is a type of blended fuel that contains 20% ethanol and 80% gasoline.
- It is an ethanol-gasoline blend, similar to other common blends like E10 (10% ethanol) and E15 (15% ethanol).
- The percentage of ethanol in the blend is denoted by the "E" followed by the percentage of ethanol content.
- E20 fuel is considered a higher ethanol blend compared to E10 and E15, which are more widely available in various countries.
- The use of E20 is part of efforts to promote renewable fuels and reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the transportation sector.
6. Significance of E20 fuel
- Reduced Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Ethanol is derived from renewable plant sources, and blending it with gasoline can help reduce the carbon footprint of transportation fuels, contributing to efforts to combat climate change.
- Energy Security: By using more domestically produced ethanol, countries can reduce their dependence on imported fossil fuels and enhance energy security.
- Improved Engine Performance: Ethanol's higher octane rating can enhance engine performance and increase fuel efficiency in certain vehicles.
- Support for Agriculture: Ethanol production often relies on agricultural feedstocks, supporting farmers and rural economies.
7. Challenges in Ethanol Blending Programme
While ethanol blending in transportation fuels offers various benefits, there are several challenges that countries may face in implementing and sustaining a successful ethanol blending program. Some of these challenges include:
- Infrastructure and Distribution: Establishing the necessary infrastructure for blending and distributing ethanol-gasoline blends can be a significant challenge. This includes ensuring that fuel stations have the proper storage facilities and compatible pumps to dispense blended fuels.
- Compatibility with Vehicles: Not all vehicles are designed to run on high ethanol blends like E20 or E85. Older vehicles or vehicles from certain manufacturers may not be compatible with these blends, leading to potential engine damage or decreased performance.
- Fuel Quality and Standards: Maintaining consistent fuel quality is essential to prevent engine damage and ensure consumer confidence. Governments and fuel suppliers must adhere to strict quality standards and monitor the blending process to avoid issues with fuel performance.
- Feedstock Availability and Cost: The production of ethanol relies on agricultural feedstocks, such as corn, sugarcane, or other biomass. The availability and cost of these feedstocks can vary, affecting the overall cost of ethanol production and blending.
- Land Use and Food Security Concerns: Utilizing agricultural land for ethanol production can raise concerns about competing with food production and potentially impacting food security in some regions.
- Competing Uses for Ethanol: Ethanol has various applications beyond fuel blending, such as in the production of alcoholic beverages, pharmaceuticals, and industrial chemicals. Competing uses can influence the availability and cost of ethanol for blending.
8. National Biofuel Policy
- India has a National Policy on Biofuels, which was first introduced in 2009 and later revised in 2018. The policy aims to promote the use of biofuels to reduce the country's dependence on fossil fuels, enhance energy security, promote sustainable development, and mitigate greenhouse gas emissions.
- The policy encourages the blending of biofuels with conventional fossil fuels to create biofuel blends. It focuses on the production and utilization of first-generation biofuels like ethanol and biodiesel, as well as advanced biofuels made from non-food feedstock.
- The policy sets targets for blending biofuels with conventional fuels in the transportation sector. For instance, the policy aimed for a 20% ethanol blending in petrol and a 5% biodiesel blending in diesel by 2030.
- The policy emphasizes the development and promotion of second-generation biofuels, which are produced from non-food feedstock, such as agricultural residues, waste, and non-edible oils. This helps avoid competition with food crops and ensures sustainability.
- The policy supports research and development initiatives in the biofuels sector, aimed at improving production processes, enhancing feedstock availability, and developing cost-effective technologies for biofuel production.
- The policy focuses on creating a robust supply chain for biofuels, from feedstock cultivation and collection to biofuel production, distribution, and marketing. This helps in ensuring a smooth and efficient supply of biofuels across the country.
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For Prelims: Ethanol Blending, E20 fuel, Greenhouse Gas Emission, National Policy on Biofuels, Food Security, and Gasoline.
For Mains: 1. Discuss the benefits and challenges of ethanol blending in transportation fuels as a strategy to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote renewable energy sources. (250 Words).
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Previous year Question1. According to India's National Policy on Biofuels, which of the following can be used as raw materials for the production of biofuels? (UPSC 2020)
1. Cassava
2. Damaged wheat grains
3. Groundnut seeds
4. Horse gram
5. Rotten potatoes
6. Sugar beet
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1, 2, 5, and 6 only
B. 1, 3, 4, and 6 only
C. 2, 3, 4, and 5 only
D. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6
Answer: A
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