INDIA'S LABOUR MARKET
- India’s labour market indicators remain strong, with the Labour Force Participation Rate recorded at 59%, the Workforce Participation Rate at 57%, and unemployment at only 3%.
- Youth unemployment has shown a downward trend since 2024 in both rural and urban regions. In addition, successive Monthly PLFS reports during 2025 highlight a steady rise in women’s workforce participation.
- Rural female LFPR continued to improve through September 2025, reaching the highest level observed since May, indicating a consistent positive trend across multiple survey cycles.
- Employment quality has likewise improved over time. The proportion of workers engaged in regular salaried jobs increased from 22% to 24%, benefiting both men and women. At the same time, the share of self-employed workers declined from 58% to 56%.
- Since salaried employment generally offers greater income stability and social security benefits, this transition represents one of the most significant developments reflected in the 2025 labour data.
- Income patterns further support these improvements, especially for women workers. Earnings among women in regular salaried jobs rose by 7%, slightly higher than the 6% increase recorded for men.
- In self-employment, women’s earnings increased by 9% compared to 8% for men. Similarly, women engaged in casual labour witnessed a 5% rise in wages, whereas male wages in this category remained largely stagnant.
- Despite these gains, gender disparities in earnings continue to persist. Available data suggests that women receive nearly 76% of male earnings in salaried occupations, about 69% in casual work, and only 36% in self-employment.
- Although significant gaps remain, the growing movement toward salaried employment is gradually generating more meaningful economic benefits for women.
- Economic transformation is also reshaping employment patterns. Agriculture now accounts for 43% of total employment, while manufacturing and services contribute roughly 12% and 13%, respectively.
- Increasing numbers of young workers, especially women, are joining manufacturing and service industries.
- Moreover, occupational segregation based on caste and gender is less pronounced among younger generations than older ones, reflecting the long-term impact of improved educational access and greater social mobility, which are now contributing to more inclusive labour market outcomes
- A major concern continues to be the transition from education to employment. India has greatly increased access to higher education, enabling students from a wider range of economic backgrounds to pursue tertiary studies.
- However, important gaps still persist. Between 2004 and 2023, nearly 5 million graduates entered the labour market every year, yet only around 2.8 million were able to obtain employment of any form.
- Insufficient access to structured skill development remains another obstacle. Merely 4% of people in the 15–59 age group have undergone formal vocational or technical training.
- At the same time, labour force participation among trained individuals is considerably higher — about 83% for men and 51% for women — highlighting the strong connection between skill acquisition and employment opportunities. This demonstrates the need to expand and strengthen skill-training initiatives on a much larger scale.
- Ensuring long-term participation of women in the workforce is another critical issue. While men outside the labour force mostly identified education as the reason for non-participation, women largely pointed to childcare and domestic responsibilities.
- This reflects deeper structural inequalities arising from the unequal burden of unpaid household work.
- For example, self-employed urban men work nearly 17.5 hours more per week than women, while among regular salaried employees the gap stands at roughly 7.9 hours weekly, illustrating the disproportionate dual burden of paid and unpaid labour carried by women.
- A further concern relates to the NEET population — youth who are neither in education, employment, nor training. Approximately one-fourth of individuals aged 15–29 belong to this category.
- Since they are excluded from official unemployment statistics, the scale of the issue often remains understated. If not addressed promptly, prolonged disengagement may push many young people into long-term detachment from the labour market
- The Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) is India’s main survey for understanding the condition of employment and unemployment in the country. It is conducted by the National Statistical Office under the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation.
- The survey was introduced in 2017 to provide regular and reliable information about the labour market, replacing the earlier employment surveys conducted by the National Sample Survey Office.
- The need for PLFS arose because India’s economy and labour market were changing rapidly, but employment data was not available frequently enough.
- Policymakers required updated information to understand how many people were working, how many were unemployed, and how labour patterns were changing across rural and urban areas.
- To address this gap, PLFS was designed to provide both annual and quarterly estimates on employment-related indicators.
- The survey studies the participation of people in economic activities. It measures how many individuals are employed, how many are actively searching for work, and how many remain outside the labour force.
- Through this, it calculates important indicators such as the Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR), Worker Population Ratio (WPR), and Unemployment Rate (UR). These indicators help in assessing the overall health of the economy and the availability of jobs.
- PLFS also provides detailed insights into the nature of employment in India. It classifies workers into categories such as self-employed persons, regular salaried employees, and casual labourers.
- This distinction is important because different forms of employment offer different levels of income security, social protection, and job stability. For example, regular salaried employment is generally considered more secure than casual labour.
- Another important feature of PLFS is that it captures differences across gender, age groups, education levels, and regions.
- It highlights issues such as women’s participation in the workforce, youth unemployment, rural–urban disparities, and shifts in employment from agriculture to manufacturing and services. Because of this, the survey has become an essential tool for analysing structural changes in the Indian economy.
- The survey uses different approaches to measure employment status. The “Usual Status” method examines a person’s employment situation over a longer reference period, while the “Current Weekly Status” method looks at whether a person worked for at least one hour during the previous seven days. These methods help provide a broader and more accurate picture of employment conditions.
- Today, PLFS serves as the most important official source of labour market data in India. Governments, economists, researchers, and policymakers rely on it to formulate employment policies, assess economic performance, design welfare programmes, and evaluate the impact of reforms on workers and livelihoods
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Female Labour Force Participation (FLFP)
Female Labour Force Participation (FLFP) refers to the proportion of women in the working-age population who are either employed or actively seeking employment. In simple terms, it measures how many women are participating in economic activities within a country. It is usually expressed through the Female Labour Force Participation Rate (FLFPR), which indicates the percentage of women who are part of the labour force compared to the total female population within a specified age group. Women who are working in jobs, self-employment, farming, business activities, or even looking for work are included in the labour force. However, women who are neither working nor searching for employment are considered outside the labour force. Female labour force participation is considered an important indicator of economic development, gender equality, and social progress. A higher participation rate generally reflects better access to education, employment opportunities, skill development, mobility, and financial independence for women. It also contributes to higher household incomes, poverty reduction, and overall economic growth. In India, female labour force participation has traditionally remained lower than that of men due to several social, cultural, and economic factors. Many women are engaged in unpaid domestic work such as childcare, cooking, and household responsibilities, which are not counted as economic activities in official surveys. Other factors such as lack of safe transportation, limited access to formal jobs, wage inequality, social norms, and interruptions caused by marriage or motherhood also affect women’s participation in the workforce. |
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For Prelims: Periodic Labour Force Survey, National Sample Survey Office, labour force participation rate, worker population ratio
For Mains:
1. Examine the changing nature of employment in India, as reflected in the increasing share of self-employment and the declining proportion of regular salaried jobs. Discuss the implications of this shift for the quality and sustainability of employment. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions 1. Given below are two statements, one is labeled as Assertion (A) and the other as Reason (R). (UPPSC 2019)
Assertion (A): The labour force participation rate is falling sharply in recent years for females in India.
Reason (R): The decline in labour force participation rate is due to improved family income and an increase in education.
Select the correct answer from the codes given below:
Codes:
A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
B. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
C. (A) is true, but (R) is false
D. (A) is false, but (R) is true
2. Which of the following statements about the employment situation in India according to the periodic Labour Force Survey 2017-18 is/are correct? (UPSC CAPF 2020)
1. Construction sector gave employment to nearly one-tenth of the urban male workforce in India
2. Nearly one-fourth of urban female workers in India were working in the manufacturing sector
3. One-fourth of rural female workers in India were engaged in the agriculture sector
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 2 only B. 1 and 2 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
3. Disguised unemployment generally means (UPSC 2013)
(a) large number of people remain unemployed
4. Assertion (A): Workers - population ratio in India is low in contrast to that in developed countries. Reason (R): Rapid growth of population, low female worker population rate and omission of unpaid family workers lead to low worker-population ratio. Choose the correct answer: (Telangana Police SI Mains 2018) A. (A) is true, but (R) is false.
B. (A) is false, but (R) is true.
C. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not a correct explanation of (A).
D. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
Answers: 1-C, 2-B, 3-C, 4-D Mains1. Most of the unemployment in India is structural in nature. Examine the methodology adopted to compute unemployment in the country and suggest improvements. (UPSC 2023) |
Source: The Hindu
EBOLA VIRUS
- A Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) represents the highest level of global health alert issued by the World Health Organization under the International Health Regulations.
- It is declared when a health event is considered serious, unexpected, unusual, or sudden, and has the potential to spread internationally, thereby posing risks to public health in other countries.
- Such a declaration also emphasizes the need for a coordinated international response to contain and manage the outbreak.
- Recently, a fresh outbreak of Ebola was reported in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and Uganda, reportedly linked to the Bundibugyo ebolavirus strain.
- As per the WHO, by May 16, Ituri Province in the DRC had recorded eight laboratory-confirmed cases, 246 suspected cases, and 80 suspected deaths.
- Meanwhile, Uganda reported two laboratory-confirmed infections, including one fatality, in Kampala.
- The two cases, identified within 24 hours of each other, involved individuals who had recently travelled from the DRC and showed no apparent epidemiological connection
- Ebola Virus Disease is a zoonotic infection that can cause severe illness and has a high fatality rate among humans. The disease is caused by the Ebola virus and is believed to have originated in wild animals such as fruit bats and non-human primates before transmitting to humans.
- Human-to-human transmission occurs through direct contact with infected blood, bodily fluids, secretions, or contaminated objects and surfaces.
- According to the World Health Organization, three virus species are primarily responsible for major Ebola outbreaks: Ebola virus, Sudan virus, and Bundibugyo virus, with the ongoing outbreak linked to the Bundibugyo strain.
- Ebola was first identified in 1976, and initial outbreaks were largely confined to isolated villages in Central Africa.
- However, the disease gained worldwide attention during the devastating West African outbreak between 2014 and 2016, which affected Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone.
- This epidemic resulted in more than 28,600 reported infections and over 11,300 deaths, making it the deadliest Ebola outbreak on record.
- The crisis marked a significant shift in the global response to Ebola by accelerating international investment in vaccine research and development.
- Consequently, two Ebola vaccines have since received approval and are available in both single-dose and two-dose regimens.
- These vaccines are mainly deployed through targeted “ring vaccination” strategies aimed at immunising close contacts of infected individuals and frontline healthcare workers as a form of post-exposure prevention.
- Additionally, monoclonal antibody therapies have been developed and are reported to significantly improve patient survival rates when administered at an early stage of infection
Ebola Virus Disease spreads through direct contact with infected body fluids, contaminated materials, or infected animals. The transmission process can be understood in the following ways:
Animal-to-Human Transmission
The virus is believed to originate in wild animals and can spread to humans through contact with:
- Fruit bats, considered the natural reservoir of the virus
- Infected non-human primates such as monkeys and chimpanzees
- Handling or consuming infected bushmeat
Human-to-Human Transmission
Once the virus infects a person, it can spread through:
- Direct contact with blood, saliva, sweat, vomit, urine, semen, breast milk, or other bodily fluids of an infected individual
- Contact with broken skin or mucous membranes exposed to infected fluids
- Handling contaminated objects such as needles, bedding, clothing, or medical equipment
- The response strategy led by the World Health Organization currently prioritises rapid identification and isolation of infected individuals, along with the prompt delivery of intensive supportive treatment such as rehydration and symptom management to lower fatality rates.
- However, effective containment of the outbreak will largely depend on swift case detection, comprehensive contact tracing, safe burial practices, and the implementation of stringent infection-prevention protocols across healthcare facilities treating patients.
- The WHO’s action plan also involves the deployment of approved vaccines and monoclonal antibody therapies to vulnerable and high-risk populations wherever possible.
- Another key component of the strategy is community engagement through social mobilisation campaigns aimed at fostering public trust, reducing stigma associated with the disease, and motivating people in affected regions to seek medical care at an early stage.
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For Prelims: Viruses, Bacteria, Immunity, Vaccine types
For Mains: 1.Discuss the challenges in controlling viral diseases and the strategies employed by governments and international organizations in addressing viral epidemics. Highlight the lessons learned from recent viral outbreaks
2.Analyze the global problem of antibiotic resistance and its implications for healthcare. Suggest policy measures and interventions to combat the growing threat of antibiotic-resistant bacteria
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Previous Year Questions
1.Viruses can affect (UPSC CSE 2016)
1.Bacteria
2. Fungi
3. Plants
Select the correct code with the following code
A.1 and 2 only
B. 3 Only
C. 1 and 3
D. 1, 2, 3
Answer (D)
2. Which of the following statements is/ are correct? (UPSC CSE 2013)
1. Viruses lack enzymes necessary for the generation of energy
2.Viruses can be cultured in any synthetic medium
3.Viruses are transmitted from one organism to another by biological vectors only
Select the correct answer using the code given below
A. 1 Only
B. 2 and 3
C. 1 and 3
D. 1, 2, 3
Answer (A)
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INDIA'S ENERGY SECURITY
India’s energy security concerns are increasing focus on converting agricultural residue, food waste, sewage sludge, and organic municipal waste into reliable and commercially viable energy solutions; technologies such as gasification and anaerobic digestion are emerging as critical pathways
2. Global energy supply uncertainty
- Global energy supply networks continue to experience instability, while fuel prices remain highly sensitive to international geopolitical and economic disturbances. For countries such as India, enhancing domestic energy security has therefore become increasingly critical.
- At the same time, as India explores large-scale and sustainable energy alternatives, a significant but underutilised resource already exists in the form of waste generated across the country.
- Massive quantities of agricultural residues, food waste, sewage sludge, and organic municipal waste are produced annually, yet a substantial portion is either inefficiently managed or left unused.
- This situation highlights the close connection between two pressing national concerns: energy security and waste management. Materials commonly viewed only as waste-disposal challenges can, with suitable technologies and infrastructure, be transformed into valuable sources of energy.
- The central issue is not the availability of raw resources, but whether India can establish efficient and scalable systems capable of converting waste into dependable and commercially sustainable energy solutions.
3. Waste and Energy
- India generates close to 750 million tonnes of agricultural biomass annually, out of which nearly 230 million metric tonnes is considered surplus biomass.
- If this excess biomass is effectively collected and processed, it could substantially reduce the country’s reliance on fossil fuels, with some projections indicating the potential to substitute almost one-third of fuel imports. However, transforming biomass into usable energy remains a challenging process.
- Unlike traditional fossil fuels, biomass lacks uniformity in its characteristics. Variations in moisture content, density, and ash composition differ widely among feedstocks, influencing combustion performance, transportation costs, emission levels, and operational efficiency in industries.
- Since most energy systems depend on consistent and reliable fuel quality, untreated biomass often falls short of these requirements.
- Consequently, increasing attention is being directed toward technologies capable of converting waste into cleaner, more efficient, and easier-to-handle forms of energy. In this context, processes such as gasification and anaerobic digestion are gaining growing significance.
- These technologies effectively serve as a link between raw waste materials and practical energy infrastructure.
- Rather than viewing waste merely as a low-value residue, they enable its transformation into commercially useful fuels and energy carriers that can be integrated into existing industrial and energy networks
- Gasification is especially suitable for processing dry biomass materials such as crop residues, husk, woody biomass, and other solid organic waste.
- Within a gasifier, the feedstock undergoes multiple stages including drying, pyrolysis, partial oxidation, and reduction.
- During this process, heat breaks down the biomass into gases, biochar, and tar compounds.
- A controlled and limited supply of oxygen is introduced — insufficient for full combustion but adequate to maintain chemical reactions involving carbon, steam, and carbon dioxide at temperatures ranging between 800°C and 1,000°C.
- The resulting product is syngas, a fuel mixture primarily composed of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide, along with smaller quantities of methane and other gases.
- Syngas is considered highly valuable because of its adaptability. It can be directly utilised for producing heat and electricity or further refined into renewable fuels such as methane, methanol, ethanol, and even hydrogen depending on industrial requirements.
- This versatility positions gasification as one of the most promising technologies in advanced bioenergy systems and explains its growing importance in the development of future clean-fuel ecosystems.
- In addition to energy production, gasification also generates biochar, a carbon-rich byproduct that can enhance soil fertility while contributing to carbon sequestration. The process further creates potential opportunities within emerging carbon credit markets.
- Therefore, the benefits of gasification extend beyond energy generation alone, supporting wider environmental sustainability and agricultural improvement objectives
- While gasification is best suited for dry forms of biomass, wet organic waste requires an alternative processing method. In this context, anaerobic digestion emerges as an important solution, particularly for handling sewage, food waste, animal manure, and various industrial organic waste streams.
- Under this process, microorganisms decompose organic matter in an oxygen-free environment, resulting in the production of biogas that primarily contains methane and carbon dioxide. Alongside biogas, the process also generates a nutrient-rich digestate, which can serve as a soil conditioner when properly managed.
- This makes anaerobic digestion highly applicable in urban waste-management systems, sewage treatment facilities, dairy farms, food-processing industries, industrial campuses, and large institutional kitchens where wet waste is generated regularly. On a smaller scale, the technology can also benefit rural and semi-urban areas.
- However, unlike thermal conversion technologies, anaerobic digestion relies on a stable and continuous biological process.
- Therefore, maintaining operational efficiency and ensuring uninterrupted energy output require a consistent and adequate supply of feedstock over the long term
- For India, the greater potential may lie not in selecting one waste-to-energy technology over another, but in combining them strategically.
- Gasification is most effective for processing dry waste, whereas anaerobic digestion performs better with wet organic waste.
- When integrated thoughtfully, these technologies offer a more comprehensive solution suited to the varied nature of India’s waste streams.
- Ensuring that the appropriate type of waste is matched with the correct technology and intended energy outcome is equally important. Using wet waste in gasifiers or feeding dry biomass into digesters can lower efficiency and create additional operational difficulties.
- Such a combined approach also supports the development of decentralised energy systems.
- India’s energy transition cannot depend solely on large centralised facilities; it also requires smaller distributed systems capable of serving rural industries, agro-processing hubs, MSMEs, and regions with high waste generation where transporting biomass across long distances becomes economically unviable.
- Localised systems can transform locally available waste into usable energy, thereby reducing fuel expenses while simultaneously improving waste management and energy accessibility.
- For this ecosystem to expand successfully, strong policy backing will be essential.
- Measures such as waste segregation at the source, investment in decentralised infrastructure, development of robust carbon markets, and long-term regulatory certainty will significantly shape the speed of adoption.
- Without effective segregation practices, both gasification and anaerobic digestion will struggle to operate at their optimal capacity. Likewise, uncertainty in policy frameworks often discourages investors and operators from making large-scale financial commitments
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For Prelims: anaerobic digestion, microorganisms , Syngas , biochar, Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation (SATAT)
For Mains: GS III - Science and Technology
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Previous Year Questions
1.Consider the following statements: (2016)
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only Answer (a)
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HYPERSONIC MISSILE
- The missile is a hypersonic cruise weapon capable of travelling at speeds greater than Mach 5, or approximately 6,100 km per hour, for sustained durations.
- This capability has been made possible through an advanced supersonic air-breathing propulsion system that employs indigenously developed liquid hydrocarbon endothermic fuel, high-temperature Thermal Barrier Coating (TBC), and sophisticated manufacturing technologies.
- It is equipped with an advanced actively cooled scramjet combustor featuring a novel flame-stabilisation mechanism that enables a continuous combustion process even when air flows through the combustor at speeds exceeding 1.5 km per second.
- The Thermal Barrier Coating (TBC) has been jointly developed by the Defence Research and Development Laboratory and facilities under the Department of Science and Technology.
- This specialised coating is engineered to endure the extremely high temperatures generated during hypersonic flight. The newly developed ceramic-based TBC possesses superior thermal resistance and can function at temperatures exceeding the melting point of steel.
- Hypersonic missiles are advanced weapon systems capable of travelling at speeds greater than Mach 5, which means at least five times faster than the speed of sound.
- Depending on atmospheric conditions, this translates to speeds exceeding nearly 6,000 km per hour.
- Their combination of extremely high speed, manoeuvrability, and lower flight trajectory makes them difficult to detect, track, and intercept compared to conventional ballistic missiles.
- These weapons are considered a major advancement in modern military technology because they can rapidly strike targets while reducing the reaction time available to defence systems.
- Hypersonic Glide Vehicles are first launched into the atmosphere using a rocket booster. After reaching a certain altitude, the glide vehicle separates from the rocket and glides toward its target at hypersonic speeds
- Ballistic missiles operate on the principle of projectile motion to deliver warheads to designated targets. They remain powered only during the initial phase of flight, after which they travel largely under the influence of gravity and aerodynamic forces.
- These missiles are generally classified according to their operational range and may be equipped with either conventional or nuclear warheads.
- A major feature that distinguishes hypersonic cruise missiles from ballistic missiles is their manoeuvrability.
- Unlike ballistic missiles, which follow a predictable ballistic path, hypersonic missiles can alter their trajectory during flight and navigate dynamically toward their intended targets.
- Cruise missiles typically travel at relatively low altitudes close to the Earth’s surface, whereas ballistic missiles move along a high-altitude parabolic trajectory.
- Because ballistic missiles follow a more predictable flight path, they are comparatively easier to detect and track.
- In contrast, the high manoeuvrability and low-altitude flight profile of cruise missiles make them more challenging for air defence systems to intercept
- Air-breathing propulsion technology has the potential to revolutionise launch vehicle design.
- According to Indian Space Research Organisation, various global space agencies are actively developing three major categories of air-breathing engines: Ramjet, Scramjet, and Dual-Mode Ramjet (DMRJ).
- In ramjet propulsion systems, the engine relies on the vehicle’s forward speed to compress incoming air for combustion, eliminating the need for a rotating compressor.
- Fuel is injected into the combustion chamber, where it combines with the compressed hot air and ignites. Since ramjets cannot generate thrust at low speeds, they require external assistance, such as rocket boosters, to accelerate the vehicle to operational speed.
- ISRO notes that ramjet engines perform most effectively at supersonic velocities of around Mach 3 and can function up to approximately Mach 6.
- However, their efficiency declines once the vehicle enters the hypersonic speed regime.
- A Supersonic Combustion Ramjet, commonly known as a Scramjet, is a more advanced form of ramjet engine designed for efficient operation at hypersonic speeds.
- Unlike conventional ramjets, scramjets enable combustion while the airflow inside the engine remains supersonic.
- In this system, air enters through the front intake, fuel combusts in the central chamber, and high-speed exhaust gases exit from the rear to generate thrust.
- A Dual-Mode Ramjet (DMRJ) combines the operational features of both ramjet and scramjet technologies.
- Within the Mach 4 to Mach 8 speed range, the engine transitions from ramjet mode to scramjet mode, allowing it to function efficiently under both subsonic and supersonic combustion conditions
- On May 7, the Defence Research and Development Organisation in collaboration with the Indian Air Force successfully conducted the maiden flight test of the TARA system, a technology designed to convert unguided munitions into guided weapons.
- The TARA glide weapon system mainly functions as a modular attachment that can be integrated with a standard unguided warhead. Once fitted, it enables the weapon to glide across extended distances and engage targets with greater accuracy.
- The system is understood to employ a combination of inertial navigation technology and satellite-based guidance for directing the missile toward its designated target.
- Instead of depending on a rocket propulsion mechanism, the TARA system operates through a glide-based approach. This design makes the weapon comparatively lightweight and economical while also enhancing its operational range.
- Through this technology, conventional unguided or gravity bombs can be upgraded into precision-guided smart munitions with minimal modification. As a result, the need for developing completely new missile platforms can be significantly reduced
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For Prelims: Tactical Advanced Range Augmentation (TARA) system, Ballistic missiles, Hypersonic missiles
For Mains: GS III - Science and technology
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Previous Year Questions
1.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE, 2023)
1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their flights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight. 2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
RENEWABLE ENERGY
1. Context
2. Why use Renewable energy
- Today we primarily use fossil fuels to heat and power our homes and fuel our cars.
- It’s convenient to use coal, oil, and natural gas for meeting our energy needs, but we have a limited supply of these fuels on Earth.
- We’re using them much more rapidly than they are being created. Eventually, they will run out.
- And because of safety concerns and waste disposal problems, the United States will retire much of its nuclear capacity by 2020.
- In the meantime, the nation’s energy needs are expected to grow by 33 per cent during the next 20 years.
- Renewable energy can help fill the gap
- Even if we had an unlimited supply of fossil fuels, using renewable energy is better for the environment.
- We often call renewable energy technologies “clean” or “green” because they produce few if any pollutants.
- Burning fossil fuels, however, sends greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, trapping the sun’s heat and contributing to global warming.
- Climate scientists generally agree that the Earth’s average temperature has risen in the past century.
- If this trend continues, sea levels will rise, and scientists predict that floods, heat waves, droughts, and other extreme weather conditions could occur more often.
- Other pollutants are released into the air, soil, and water when fossil fuels are burned.
- These pollutants take a dramatic toll on the environment—and humans.
- Air pollution contributes to diseases like asthma.
- Acid rain from sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides harms plants and fish. Nitrogen oxides also contribute to smog.
- Renewable energy will also help us develop energy independence and security.
- Replacing some of our petroleum with fuels made from plant matter, for example, could save money and strengthen our energy security.
- Renewable energy is plentiful, and the technologies are improving all the time.
- There are many ways to use renewable energy.
- Most of us already use renewable energy in our daily lives.
2.1.Hydropower
- Hydropower is our most mature and largest source of renewable power, producing about 10 per cent of the nation’s electricity.
- Existing hydropower capacity is about 77,000 megawatts (MW). Hydropower plants convert the energy in flowing water into electricity.
- The most common form of hydropower uses a dam on a river to retain a large reservoir of water. Water is released through turbines to generate power.
- “Run of the river” systems, however, divert water from the river and direct it through a pipeline to a turbine.
- Hydropower plants produce no air emissions but can affect water quality and wildlife habitats.
2.2.Bioenergy
- Bioenergy is the energy derived from biomass (organic matter), such as plants. If you’ve ever burned wood in a fireplace or campfire, you’ve used bioenergy.
- But we don’t get all of our biomass resources directly from trees or other plants.
- Many industries, such as those involved in construction or the processing of agricultural products, can create large quantities of unused or residual biomass, which can serve as a bioenergy source.
2.3.Geothermal Energy
- The Earth’s core, 4,000 miles below the surface, can reach temperatures of 9000° F.
- This heat—geothermal energy—flows outward from the core, heating the surrounding area, which can form underground reservoirs of hot water and steam.
- These reservoirs can be tapped for a variety of uses, such as to generate electricity or heat buildings.
- By using geothermal heat pumps (GHPs), we can even take advantage of the shallow ground’s stable temperature for heating and cooling buildings.
2.4.Solar Energy
- Solar technologies tap directly into the infinite power of the sun and use that energy to produce heat, light, and power.
2.5. Wind Energy
- For hundreds of years, people have used windmills to harness the wind’s energy.
- Today’s wind turbines, which operate differently from windmills, are a much more efficient technology.
- Wind turbine technology may look simple: the wind spins turbine blades around a central hub; the hub is connected to a shaft, which powers a generator to make electricity.
- However, turbines are highly sophisticated power systems that capture the wind’s energy using new blade designs or airfoils.
- Modern, mechanical drive systems, combined with advanced generators, convert that energy into electricity.
- Wind turbines that provide electricity to the utility grid range in size from 50 kW to 6
- Wind energy has been the fastest growing source of energy since 1990.
2.6.Ocean Energy
- The ocean can produce two types of energy: thermal energy from the sun’s heat, and mechanical energy from the tides and waves.
- Ocean thermal energy can be used for many applications, including electricity generation.
- Electricity conversion systems use either the warm surface water or boil the seawater to turn a turbine, which activates a generator.
- The electricity conversion of both tidal and wave energy usually involves mechanical devices.
- A dam is typically used to convert tidal energy into electricity by forcing the water through turbines and activating a generator.
- Meanwhile, wave energy uses mechanical power to directly activate a generator or to transfer to a working fluid, water, or air, which then drives a turbine/generator.
2.7.Hydrogen
- Hydrogen is high in energy, yet its use as a fuel produces water as the only emission.
- Hydrogen is the universe’s most abundant element and also its simplest.
- A hydrogen atom consists of only one proton and one electron.
- Despite its abundance and simplicity, it doesn’t occur naturally as a gas on the Earth.
- Today, industry produces more than 4 trillion cubic feet of hydrogen annually.
- Most of this hydrogen is produced through a process called reforming, which involves the application of heat to separate hydrogen from carbon. Researchers are developing highly efficient, advanced reformers to produce hydrogen from natural gas for what’s called Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cells.
3. Steps were taken by the government to promote Renewable energy
The Indian renewable energy sector is the fourth most attractive renewable energy market in the world. India was ranked fourth in wind power, fifth in solar power and fourth in renewable power installed capacity, as of 2020.
3.1.Distribution of prominent renewable energy Hubs
- Rajasthan
- Gujarat
- Andhra Pradesh
- Karnataka
- Telangana
- Tamil Nadu
3.2.Steps taken
- Permitting Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) up to 100 per cent under the automatic route,
- Waiver of Inter-State Transmission System (ISTS) charges for inter-state sale of solar and wind power for projects to be commissioned by 30th June 2025,
- Declaration of trajectory for Renewable Purchase Obligation (RPO) up to the year 2022,
- Setting up of Ultra Mega Renewable Energy Parks to provide land and transmission to RE developers on a plug-and-play basis,
- Schemes such as Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan (PM-KUSUM), Solar Rooftop Phase II, 12000 MW CPSU Scheme Phase II, etc,
- Laying of new transmission lines and creating new sub-station capacity under the Green Energy Corridor Scheme for evacuation of renewable power,
- Setting up of Project Development Cell for attracting and facilitating investments,
- Standard Bidding Guidelines for tariff-based competitive bidding process for procurement of Power from Grid Connected Solar PV and Wind Projects.
- Deployment of large-scale renewable energy (RE) has the potential to create numerous employment opportunities in rural India in the coming decades. By 2030, it is projected that the clean-energy sectors could provide jobs for around one million individuals in the country.
- However, the expansion of RE may have significant impacts on communities reliant on the land, involving changes in land use, modifications to ecosystems, shifts in livelihoods, and overall effects on land productivity.
- As India progresses in scaling up RE, striking a balance between these interests may result in project commissioning delays, contributing to a waning interest among developers in RE tenders.
- In 2020, wind developers, facing setbacks such as delays in land allocation, sought to terminate power-purchase agreements for approximately 565 MW wind capacity signed with the Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI), prompting a decline in developers' enthusiasm for RE projects. Commissioning delays not only pose substantial financial risks but also jeopardize the reputation of RE developers.
- In the pursuit of responsible RE deployment and the enhancement of communities in and around project sites, many developers actively support local development activities and community-led programs through corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives.
- As an illustration, Tata Power Solar has established integrated vocational training programs for women and youth in multiple project sites.
- Given the pivotal role of project developers in interacting with communities during land acquisition, construction, and operational phases, they play a crucial role in driving responsible practices. Additionally, regulators and investors prioritize assessing the responsible practices of new projects.
- To encourage all developers to contribute to the rapidly growing RE ecosystem and promote responsible practices, two essential prerequisites need to be addressed
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For Prelims: Current events of national and international Significance
For Mains: General Studies II: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment.
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Previous Year Questions
1.The term ‘Intended Nationally Determined Contributions’ is sometimes seen in the news in the context of (UPSC CSE, 2016) Answer (b) 2.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE, 2023) Answer (b) 3. Consider the following activities: (UPSC CSE, 2023) Answer (c) 4. Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE, 2025) Answer (c) |
JAL JEEVAN MISSION
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The Jal Jeevan Mission, launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi on August 15, 2019, was envisioned to ensure tap water access to approximately 16 crore rural households, with the goal of achieving universal coverage by 2024.
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However, in just over five years, only 75% of the target has been met. To cover the remaining 4 crore households, the government now plans to extend the mission’s deadline to December 31, 2028.
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The Ministry of Jal Shakti had sought Rs 2.79 lakh crore from the Centre to finish the project. But according to sources, the Expenditure Finance Committee (EFC)—headed by the Expenditure Secretary—reviewed the proposal on March 13 and recommended a revised funding of only Rs 1.51 lakh crore. The committee also slashed the total project cost by Rs 41,000 crore, approving an outlay of Rs 8.69 lakh crore instead of the Rs 9.10 lakh crore originally proposed.
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Since the Jal Jeevan Mission is co-financed equally by the Centre and the states, this cut in Central funding could shift a greater financial burden onto state governments
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Government Schemes related to Water
Among the various initiatives under the Ministry of Jal Shakti, the Namami Gange Programme and river interlinking projects hold significant importance. Hence, it is essential for aspirants to not only be familiar with these schemes but also grasp the concept of river interlinking itself. In fact, a previous Prelims question was based on the Godavari-Krishna river interlinking, highlighting the relevance of such topics. As a result, gaining a clear understanding of the Ken-Betwa river linking project is also crucial for exam preparation
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The Namami Gange Programme is a comprehensive river conservation initiative launched as a flagship mission by the Union Government in June 2014. It aims to achieve two primary goals: the reduction of pollution and the revival and preservation of the Ganga River, recognized as India’s national river.
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The programme is built on several core components, which include:
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Development of sewage treatment infrastructure
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Revitalization of riverfront areas
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Cleaning of the river surface to remove floating waste
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Promotion and protection of biodiversity
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Expansion of afforestation along the river basin
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Enhancing public engagement and awareness
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Monitoring of industrial waste discharge
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Transformation of villages along the Ganga into model Ganga Grams
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River interlinking refers to a large-scale water resource management approach where water is deliberately redirected from regions with excess availability to those facing water scarcity.
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This method typically involves connecting river basins using infrastructure such as canals, reservoirs, and pipelines. These inter-basin water transfer (IBWT) projects are designed to improve irrigation capacity, support flood management, and boost water availability in areas prone to drought.
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On December 25, 2024, Prime Minister Narendra Modi inaugurated the Ken-Betwa Link Project (KBLP) in Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, marking the 100th birth anniversary of former PM Atal Bihari Vajpayee.
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The project’s primary goal is to irrigate the drought-prone Bundelkhand region by channeling excess water from the Ken River in Madhya Pradesh to the Betwa River in Uttar Pradesh. Both rivers eventually feed into the Yamuna River, and are classified as its right-bank tributaries.
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The Union Cabinet approved a budget of Rs 44,605 crore for the KBLP. It will be implemented in two phases:
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Phase I includes the construction of the Daudhan Dam, a 221-km-long Ken-Betwa Link Canal, and associated infrastructure.
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Phase II will involve the development of the Lower Orr Dam, the Bina Complex Project, and the Kotha Barrage.
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A section of the proposed infrastructure will pass through the Panna Tiger Reserve, raising environmental concerns due to the potential submergence of a part of this ecologically sensitive tiger habitat.
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Significantly, the KBLP is the first river interlinking project to be implemented under the National Perspective Plan, which was introduced in 1980. This larger plan includes 16 river links in the Peninsular region, and another 14 links proposed under the Himalayan component
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Yamuna river
Yamuna is a tributary of River Ganga. It has four main tributaries in the Himalayan region: Rishi Ganga, Hanuman Ganga, Tons, and Giri. In the plains, the main tributaries are Hindon, Chambal, Sind, Betwa and Ken. Tons is the largest tributary of Yamuna. Other small tributaries of the Yamuna River include the Uttangan, Sengar and the Rind.
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Right to Water as a Fundamental Right in India
The right to access clean and safe drinking water in India is considered part of the fundamental rights framework, particularly under Article 21 of the Constitution, which guarantees the Right to Life. This interpretation is derived from connected rights such as the right to food, right to health, and the right to a clean environment.
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In the landmark Narmada Bachao Andolan v. Union of India (2000) case, the Supreme Court emphasized that access to water is a basic human necessity, integral to the right to life. It also stated that the right to a healthy environment and sustainable development are essential components of human rights under Article 21.
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Similarly, in the State of Karnataka v. State of Andhra Pradesh (2000) case, the Court reiterated that the right to water is part and parcel of the right to life, thus making it a fundamental right
Directive Principles Related to Water and Environment
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Article 39(b) under the Directive Principles of State Policy directs the State to ensure that material resources, including water, are equitably distributed to promote the common good.
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Article 48A calls upon the State to actively work towards the protection and enhancement of the environment, including forests and wildlife, which indirectly contributes to water conservation
Environmental Duties of Citizens
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Article 51A(g), which falls under Fundamental Duties, obligates every citizen to safeguard and improve the natural environment, specifically mentioning rivers, lakes, forests, and wildlife. It also encourages compassion for living beings
Legal Provisions for Water Dispute Resolution
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Article 262 empowers Parliament to enact laws for resolving inter-State river water disputes. According to:
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Clause (1): Parliament can legislate for the adjudication of conflicts over the use, distribution, or control of inter-State river waters.
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Clause (2): Parliament may restrict judicial intervention, including that of the Supreme Court, in such matters.
This article served as the constitutional basis for the enactment of the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956, aimed at resolving such disputes
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Constitutional Powers over Water – State and Union Roles
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Entry 17 of the State List (List II), Seventh Schedule grants states the authority to legislate on water-related issues like irrigation, canals, drainage, and water supply, subject to the Union’s jurisdiction under Entry 56 of List I.
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Entry 56 of the Union List (List I), Seventh Schedule allows the central government to regulate and develop inter-State rivers and river valleys when declared to be in the public interest by Parliament
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For Prelims: Jal jeevan Mission, Directive Principles of State Policy
For Mains: GS II - Government Schemes on Water
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