A caste census is a comprehensive survey or data collection effort that aims to gather detailed information about the caste composition of a population. This typically involves:

1. Counting individuals belonging to different caste groups
2. Collecting socio-economic data related to caste categories
3. Assessing the representation of various castes in different sectors

The caste system is particularly relevant in India, where it has historically played a significant role in social stratification. A caste census can provide insights into:

• Population distribution across caste groups
• Economic status of different castes
• Educational levels and employment patterns
• Representation in government jobs and political positions

In India, the last comprehensive caste census was conducted in 1931 during British rule. Since then, calls for a new caste census have been made periodically, with proponents arguing it would help in formulating more targeted welfare policies and ensuring equitable representation.

3. Why the Caste Census?

Historically, British India’s censuses from 1881 to 1931 recorded all castes. Post-Independence, the 1951 census excluded caste enumeration, except for SCs and STs, which continued to be recorded in every census. In 1961, the government allowed states to conduct their own OBC surveys and create state-specific OBC lists, as there were no central reservations for OBCs at that time

A caste census is essential for several reasons:

• Social Necessity: Caste remains a fundamental social framework in India. Inter-caste marriages were just 5% in 2011-12. Caste surnames and markers are common, residential areas are segregated by caste, and caste influences the selection of election candidates and cabinet ministers.

• Legal Necessity: Effective implementation of constitutionally mandated social justice policies, including reservations in elections, education, and public employment, requires detailed caste data. Despite the Constitution using the term 'class,' Supreme Court rulings have established caste as a significant criterion for defining a backward class, necessitating comprehensive caste-wise data to uphold reservation policies.

• Administrative Necessity: Detailed caste data helps correct wrongful inclusions and exclusions within reserved categories, prevents dominant castes from monopolizing reserved benefits, and is essential for sub-categorizing castes and determining the creamy layer's income/wealth criteria.

• Moral Necessity: The lack of detailed caste data has allowed a small elite among upper castes and dominant OBCs to disproportionately control the nation's resources, income, and power

There are several arguments against conducting a caste census:

• Social Division: Some argue that a caste census would exacerbate social divisions, although India's social hierarchies have existed for nearly 3,000 years, predating census efforts. Since 1951, counting SCs and STs has not led to conflicts among these groups. Moreover, India’s census already includes data on religion, language, and region, which are equally, if not more, divisive than caste. Ignoring caste in the census will not eliminate casteism any more than excluding religion, language, and region data will eradicate communalism and regionalism.

• Administrative Challenge: Some claim that a caste census would be administratively complex. However, unlike the concept of race, which can be ambiguous but is still counted in many countries like the U.S., caste identification in India is relatively clear. The government has successfully enumerated 1,234 SC castes and 698 ST tribes. Therefore, counting the approximately 4,000 other castes, most of which are specific to certain states, should not pose an insurmountable challenge.

• Increased Reservation Demands: Critics suggest that a caste census could lead to more demands for reservations. However, detailed caste data could actually help manage these demands more effectively by providing a factual basis for discussions. This would enable policymakers to address reservation claims more objectively, such as those from Marathas, Patidars, and Jats. In contrast, governments often prefer vague data because it allows them to make arbitrary reservation decisions for electoral gain

• The Constitution allows reservations for OBCs in education (Article 15(4)) and public employment (Article 16(4)), similar to SCs and STs. Following the Mandal Commission's recommendations, OBCs also benefit from reservations in the Central government and its undertakings. The Supreme Court's ruling in the Indra Sawhney case (1992) emphasized that the OBC list, originally based on the 1931 Census, should be updated regularly.
• Unlike SCs and STs, OBCs do not have reserved electoral constituencies for MPs and MLAs. However, the 73rd and 74th Constitutional amendments (1993) introduced reservations for OBCs in panchayats and municipalities (Articles 243D(6) and 243T(6)). To implement this effectively, detailed caste and area-wise Census data of OBCs is necessary, which the government should have collected in the 2001 Census but did not.
• When states like Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Odisha, and Jharkhand attempted to implement OBC reservations in local elections, courts halted these efforts due to the lack of caste-wise OBC data. The judiciary demands this data to uphold reservations, while the executive has avoided collecting it.
• In contrast, the Supreme Court upheld the 10% reservation for economically weaker sections (EWS) among non-OBCs, SCs, and STs (mainly upper castes) in 2022 without empirical support. Given the EWS reservation, the Census should now include all castes, as it did until 1931.
• Though the Census is a Union subject, the Collection of Statistics Act, 2008, allows States and local bodies to collect relevant data. States like Karnataka (2015) and Bihar (2023) have conducted caste surveys, but Census data holds more authority and is less disputed. The government's reluctance to include caste in the Census is both legally indefensible and administratively imprudent

• After extensive lobbying by OBC leaders, Parliament unanimously resolved in 2010, with support from both Congress and BJP, to include caste enumeration in the 2011 Census. The last such enumeration was in the 1931 Census, which recorded 4,147 castes in India, excluding the depressed classes/untouchables.
• However, the Socio-Economic and Caste Census (SECC) of 2011 was poorly designed and executed, resulting in an absurd figure of 4.6 million castes, and its results were never released.
• The failure of SECC-2011 can be attributed to its conduct outside the framework of the Census Act, 1948, which was not amended to include caste as a parameter. Instead, it was managed by the Union Ministries of Rural Development and Urban Development, which lacked experience in conducting sociological surveys.
• Additionally, the questionnaire was poorly designed with open-ended questions about caste, causing confusion among enumerators who struggled to differentiate between genuine castes, alternative names, larger caste groups, sub-castes, surnames, clan names, and gotras. In contrast, Bihar's 2023 Caste Survey provided a list of 214 specific caste names, with a 215th category labeled "Other Castes," resulting in more accurate data.
• Despite the 2010 unanimous Parliamentary resolution, the Central government announced in 2021 that it would not include caste enumeration in the next Census.
• It maintained this stance before the Supreme Court in response to a case filed by the Maharashtra government seeking the inclusion of OBCs in the 2021 Census. The Supreme Court's dismissal of Maharashtra's plea in December 2021 is contentious, given its own previous rulings

7. Way Forward

To address the failures of the SECC-2011, the Census Act of 1948 should be amended to mandate caste enumeration, removing the discretion from the Union executive. Caste should be included in the regular Census conducted by the Census Commissioner, with a few relevant questions added to the questionnaire. The government should also involve sociological and anthropological experts to create a draft list of castes specific to each state, publish this draft online for public feedback, and finalize it before distributing it to enumerators. The questionnaire should include questions about the respondent's sub-caste, caste, larger caste group, and caste surname. Using internet-enabled handheld devices preloaded with this information and limiting the enumerators' role to selecting the correct option will streamline the process and ensure accuracy.

States interested in caste enumeration should petition the Supreme Court to review its 2021 judgment. It is illogical to base OBC reservations on 1931 Census data and EWS reservations on no empirical data. The next Census must include caste enumeration

 

 

 

For Prelims: Socio-economic and caste census (SECC), Mandal Commission, Justice G Rohini's Commission, NITI Aayog, Article 341 and Article 342. For Mains: 1. General Studies II: Welfare schemes for vulnerable sections of the population by the Centre and States and the performance of these schemes; mechanisms, laws, institutions and Bodies constituted for the protection and betterment of these vulnerable sections

 

 

Source: The Hindu

 

CRITICAL MINERALS

 

 

1. Context

 

The United States and Ukraine Wednesday finalised a sweeping new agreement that will give Washington access to Ukraine’s vast reserves of critical minerals and natural resources, as Kyiv looks to secure future American support in its war against Russia

 

2. What are Critical Minerals?

 

Critical minerals are raw materials that are essential for economic and national security, but whose supply may be at risk due to geological scarcity, geopolitical issues, trade policy, or other factors

Critical minerals are typically defined by governments or organizations based on their importance to the economy and the potential risks to their supply

• Rare Earth Elements (REEs): neodymium, dysprosium, terbium
• Lithium
• Cobalt
• Graphite
• Gallium
• Indium
• Tungsten
• Platinum Group Metals (PGMs)

3. Why are critical minerals important?

 

• Minerals such as copper, lithium, nickel, and cobalt, along with certain rare earth elements, are considered critical due to their essential role in the global transition to greener and cleaner energy sources.
• According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), the demand for lithium surged by 30% in 2023, with nickel, cobalt, graphite, and rare earth elements experiencing growth between 8% and 15%, collectively valued at $325 billion.
• The IEA's Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2024 report indicates that achieving the world's goal of limiting global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius within a net-zero emissions framework will necessitate a significant increase in demand for these minerals.
• By 2040, copper demand is projected to rise by 50%, nickel, cobalt, and rare earth elements by 100%, graphite by 300%, and lithium by 800%, which is vital for battery production.
• Developing sustainable supply chains for these minerals is therefore crucial. In India, the absence of readily available reserves has led to complete import dependence for minerals such as lithium, cobalt, and nickel. 

4. What is being done to spur production?

 

• Although India possesses natural reserves of several critical minerals, they remain largely unexplored and untapped. For example, despite holding 11% of the world's ilmenite deposits, which is the primary source of titanium dioxide used in numerous applications, India still imports a billion dollars' worth of titanium dioxide annually, as noted by former Mines Secretary Vivek Bharadwaj.
• Additionally, the "lucky" discovery of lithium reserves in the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) by the Geological Survey of India (GSI) while exploring for limestone has raised hopes for achieving some level of self-sufficiency in lithium. Announced in February as India's first lithium find, these reserves are estimated at 5.9 million tonnes, prompting the government to expedite their extraction.
• Recognizing the risks of relying on a limited number of countries for these minerals and their processing, the central government amended the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 in August 2023 to allow mining concessions for 24 critical and strategic minerals.

5. Way Forward

 

The list of what's considered "critical" can vary by country and change over time based on technological developments and geopolitical situations. The management of critical minerals is an ongoing challenge that requires balancing economic needs, environmental concerns, and geopolitical realities

 

 

For Prelims: Critical minerals, Ministry of Mines, carbon emissions,  cleaner energy,  lithium, cobalt, nickel, graphite, tin, copper, Selenium, Cadmium, Centre of Excellence on critical minerals, Australia's CSIRO, Geological Survey of India,    For Mains:  1. What are critical minerals? Discuss their significance for a country's economic development and national security. Explain how the identification of critical minerals helps in reducing import dependency and ensuring resource security. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. With reference to the mineral resources of India, consider the following pairs: (UPSC 2010) Mineral                         90%Natural sources in 1. Copper                       Jharkhand 2. Nickel                        Orissa 3. Tungsten                    Kerala Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?   A. 1 and 2 only            B. 2 only             C. 1 and 3 only            D. 1, 2 and 3   Answer: B   2. Recently, there has been a concern over the short supply of a group of elements called 'rare earth metals.' Why? (UPSC 2012) 1. China, which is the largest producer of these elements, has imposed some restrictions on their export. 2. Other than China, Australia, Canada and Chile, these elements are not found in any country. 3. Rare earth metals are essential for the manufacture of various kinds of electronic items and there is a growing demand for these elements. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only              B. 2 and 3 only           C. 1 and 3 only          D.  1, 2 and 3   Answer: C   3. In India, what is the role of the Coal Controller's Organization (CCO)? (UPSC 2022) 1. CCO is the major source of Coal Statistics in Government of India. 2. It monitors progress of development of Captive Coal/Lignite blocks. 3. It hears any objection to the Government's notification relating to acquisition of coal-bearing areas. 4. It ensures that coal mining companies deliver the coal to end users in the prescribed time. Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1, 2 and 3            B. 3 and 4 only           C. 1 and 2 only          D. 1, 2 and 4   Answer: A   4. Which of the following statements best describes the term 'Social Cost of Carbon'? It is a measure, in monetary value, of the (UPSC 2020)  A. long-term damage done by a tonne of CO2 emission in a given year. B. requirement of fossil fuels for a country to provide goods and services to its citizens, based on the burning of those fuels. C. efforts put in by a climate refugee to adapt to live in a new place. D. contribution of an individual person to the carbon footprint on the planet Earth.   Answer: A   5. Direction: It consists of two statements, one labelled as ‘Statement (I)’ and the others as ‘Statement (II)’. You are to examine these two statements carefully and select the answer using the codes given below: (UPSC ESE 2018) Statement (I): Green energy refers to one which does not harm the ecosystem of planet earth. Statement (II): All renewable energy is green energy. A. Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) individually true and Statement (II) is the correct explanation of Statement (I) B. Both statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually true, but Statement (II) is not the correct explanation of Statement (I) C. Statement (I) is true, but Statement (II) is false D. Statement (I) is false, but Statement (II) is true   Answer: C   6. Which type of battery is used in the recently launched world's first fully electric cargo ship by change? (Delhi Police Constable 2017) A.  Lead Acid        B. Manganese        C. Lithium ion        D. Nickel metal hydride   Answer: C   7. White gold is an alloy of (UPSC CAPF 2022)  A. gold, nickel and palladium B. gold, cobalt and palladium C. gold, titanium and platinum D. gold, magnesium and palladium   Answer: A   8. Graphene is frequently in news recently. What is its importance? (UPSC 2012)  1. It is a two-dimensional material and has good electrical conductivity. 2. It is one of the thinnest but strongest materials tested so far. 3. It is entirely made of silicon and has high optical transparency. 4. It can be used as 'conducting electrodes' required for touch screens, LCDs and organic LEDs. Which of the statements given above are correct? A. 1 and 2 only          B. 3 and 4 only         C.  1, 2 and 4 only          D.  1, 2, 3 and 4   Answer: C   9. Graphite and diamonds are__________. (WBCS Prelims 2020)   A. isotopes           B.  isomers             C. isotones           D. allotropes   Answer: D   10. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2020) 1. Coal ash contains arsenic, lead and mercury. 2. Coal-fired power plants release sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen into the environment. 3. High ash content is observed in Indian coal. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only         B. 2 and 3 only        C.  3 only         D. 1, 2 and 3   Answer: D   11. Which of the following can be found as pollutants in the drinking water in some parts of India? (UPSC 2013) 1. Arsenic 2. Sorbitol 3. Fluoride 4. Formaldehyde 5. Uranium Select the correct answer using the codes given below. A. 1 and 3 only           B. 2, 4 and 5 only          C. 1, 3 and 5 only           D.  1, 2, 3, 4 and 5   Answer: C   12. In the context of solving pollution problems, what is/are the advantage/advantages of the bioremediation technique? (UPSC 2017) 1. It is a technique for cleaning up pollution by enhancing the same biodegradation process that occurs in nature. 2. Any contaminant with heavy metals such as cadmium and lead can be readily and completely treated by bioremediation using microorganisms. 3. Genetic engineering can be used to create microorganisms specifically designed for bioremediation. Select the correct answer using the code given below:  A. 1 only         B.  2 and 3 only          C.  1 and 3 only             D. 1, 2 and 3   Answer: C   13. Due to improper/indiscriminate disposal of old and used computers or their parts, which of the following are released into the environment as e-waste? (UPSC 2013)  1. Beryllium 2. Cadmium 3. Chromium 4. Heptachlor 5. Mercury 6. Lead 7. Plutonium Select the correct answer using the codes given below.  A. 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only           B. 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 only          C. 2, 4, 5 and 7 only               D. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7   Answer: B   14. When was the Geological Survey of India (GSI) of India founded? (UPRVUNL Staff Nurse 2021) A. 1851             B. 1951            C. 1871              D. 1931   Answer: A

 

 

Source: The Hindu

 

 

INDIA-FRANCE RELATIONS

 

1. Context

India and France on Monday formally concluded an Inter-Governmental Agreement (IGA), valued at nearly ₹64,000 crore, to procure 26 Rafale-M fighter jets for the Indian Navy. Deliveries are set to begin from mid-2028 and likely to be completed by 2030.

2. India and France-Historical Background

• France has had a significant impact on Indian polity. The ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity in the Preamble of the Indian Constitution have been borrowed from the French. India has been constituted into a ‘Republic’. This word too has been borrowed from France.
• India and France have been ‘Strategic Partners’ since 1998, ever since an agreement was signed in the same year between the two nations.
• Ever since, this strategic dialogue has evolved to include diverse areas like nuclear technology, defence partnership including maritime cooperation, cyber security, and space technology amongst others.
• This relationship needs to be closely watched and could emerge as a partnership, sans any issues and challenges.

3. The strategic partnership between the two Nations

Defence-industrial cooperation has been one of the mainstays of the strategic partnership between India and France. It is cooperation in this field that has boosted the relationship between the two nations.

Defence/Strategic Ties:

• India has signed a ‘Strategic Agreement’ with more than 35 countries but the deal signed with France in 1998 remains unique. While many other partnerships have run into trouble or are clouded by differences over various issues, the partnership has been growing with France.
• The area of cooperation now extends to technologies related to Nuclear energy, space, defence, cyber security, intelligence-sharing, and counter-terrorism amongst others.
  France has supported India in its ‘Make in India’ program and extended its support to all forms of defence manufacturing.
• France is a critical partner of the Indian Navy in its P 75I Program which seeks to build 24 naval submarines by 2030, 18 of which will be conventional and 6 shall be nuclear.
• 36 Rafale Fighter Jets will be handed over to the Indian Air Force soon. Already, during the Galwan Valley dispute with China, a few jets were handed over to India.
• As far as the Joint Exercises between the Armed Forces are concerned: Varuna 1, Garuda 2, and Shakti 3 have been held regularly.
• Earlier, the Cyber Security and Digital technology roadmap had been agreed to by both sides. This entails cooperation in the field of emerging technologies such as Artificial Intelligence, Super Computing and Machine Learning amongst others.
• Recently, an Agreement between the Centre for Development of Advance Computing (C-DAC) and ATOS for cooperation in quantum computing, AI and supercomputing is signed.
• France also supports India in its bid for permanent membership of the United Nations Security Council.
• With the assistance and support of France, India became a member of various non-proliferation groups such as the Wassenaar group (2017), NSG, Missile Technology Control Regime (2016) and the Australia Group (2018).
• France has also opposed many of the unsustainable projects being executed under China’s One Belt One Road (OBOR) initiative.

4. Other areas that can be explored in Strategic Partnership:

• India and France can cooperate in other areas such as the Afghan peace deal which is under considerable strain as the US selfishly leaves the region. Indian interests are expected to be 164 affected as Pakistan state-sponsored terrorists run amok in Kabul and other cities. It is here that India and France can step in along with other nations and forge a partnership.
• Another area that is of mutual interest to both nations is Iran. France supported the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action in 2015 along with the US and other nations. India which faced the fear of attracting sanctions under the US legislation ‘Countering American Adversaries Through Sanctions Act (CAATSA)’ reduced its oil imports and delayed its other connectivity projects in Iran. This deal in 2015 brought a sigh of relief to India. However, this was short-lived as in 2018, the US pulled out of the deal. India once again faces the fear of CAATSA.
• In the year 2016, India and France signed a ‘White shipping agreement’ to encourage the movement of commercial ships.
• One potential area of cooperation exists in the Indo-Pacific region. France can join the ASEAN nations and the QUAD grouping in ensuring that freedom of navigation on the high seas is protected.

5. What is the Bastille Day celebration?

• Bastille Day, also known as French National Day or La Fête Nationale, is a significant celebration in France that commemorates the storming of the Bastille prison on July 14, 1789.
• This event marked a pivotal moment in the French Revolution and the beginning of the end of absolute monarchy in France. Bastille Day is celebrated annually on July 14th and is a symbol of French unity, liberty, and national pride.
• Bastille Day commemorates the storming of the Bastille prison, which was seen as a symbol of royal authority and tyranny. The event marked the uprising of the French people against the monarchy and served as a catalyst for the French Revolution.
• The celebration of Bastille Day involves various festivities, including parades, fireworks, concerts, and public gatherings. The largest and most renowned parade takes place on the Champs-Élysées in Paris, where military troops, historical reenactments, and public figures participate.

6. Challenges observed in the bilateral relations between India and France

• Nuclear Non-Proliferation: One challenge in the India-France relationship has been India's status as a nuclear-armed nation outside the framework of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). France is a signatory to the NPT and has expressed concerns regarding nuclear proliferation. Balancing India's nuclear ambitions with France's commitment to non-proliferation has been an ongoing challenge.
• Defense Trade Imbalance: While defense cooperation between India and France has seen significant growth, there has been a trade imbalance in this sector. India is a major buyer of French defense equipment, including aircraft, submarines, and missiles. However, there has been limited progress in developing a more balanced trade relationship, with Indian defense exports to France being relatively modest.
• Economic and Trade Issues: Despite efforts to enhance economic cooperation, there have been some trade-related challenges. These include issues related to market access, trade barriers, and regulatory hurdles. Both countries have made efforts to address these challenges through dialogues and negotiations, but further progress is still needed to unlock the full potential of bilateral trade and investment.
• Climate Change and Environmental Concerns: Climate change and environmental sustainability have become increasingly important areas of cooperation between India and France. However, challenges exist in aligning their priorities and approaches to address climate change. India's focus on development and energy security, including its reliance on coal, may sometimes diverge from France's emphasis on clean energy and emissions reduction.
• Regional and International Dynamics: India and France have their own regional and international interests, which can sometimes create divergences or competing priorities. For example, France has historical ties and strategic interests in regions such as the Middle East and Africa, where India also has growing economic and geopolitical interests. Aligning their respective policies and approaches in these regions can be a challenge.
• Cultural Differences and Communication: Cultural differences and communication gaps can also pose challenges in bilateral relations. Differences in language, communication styles, and cultural norms can create misunderstandings or difficulties in effectively engaging with each other.

For Prelims: Strategic Agreement, P 75I Program, Varuna 1, Garuda 2, Shakti 3, Countering American Adversaries Through Sanctions Act (CAATSA), QUAD, ASEAN, and Bastille Day. For Mains: 1. Examine the bilateral relations between India and France, highlighting the key areas of cooperation, challenges faced, and the potential for future collaboration.(250 words).

 

Previous year Questions 1. Consider the following countries: (UPSC 2015) 1. China 2. France 3. India 4. Israel 5. Pakistan Which among the above are Nuclear Weapons States as recognized by the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, commonly known as the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)? A. 1 and 2 only B. 1, 3, 4, and 5 only C. 2, 4, and 5 only D. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 Answer: A   2. India along with which country jointly launched International Solar Alliance during the United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP21)? (KPSC 2017) A. United Kingdom B. France C. United States of America D. Germany Answer: B

 

SIMLA AGREEMENT

 

 

1. Context

 

In response to India’s decision to suspend the 1960 Indus Waters Treaty in the aftermath of the Pahalgam terror attack, Pakistan’s government said it could hold the 1972 Simla Agreement and “all other bilateral agreements with India” in abeyance

 

2. Simla Agreement

 

• The Simla Agreement was signed on July 2, 1972, in Shimla after three days of discussions between Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, fresh from her victory in the 1971 Bangladesh War, and Pakistani Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, who was grappling with the defeat and the partition of Pakistan.
• The groundwork for these negotiations had been largely prepared by the Soviet Union, with Indian and Pakistani diplomats engaging in preliminary talks in Moscow.
• The discussions centered on two key matters: shaping the future relationship between India and Pakistan, including the repatriation of over 93,000 Pakistani prisoners of war, and addressing the Kashmir issue.
• Both sides agreed to resolve their disputes peacefully, either through direct bilateral talks or through mutually acceptable methods.
• Additionally, the Simla Agreement marked the first instance where Bangladesh was formally acknowledged as an independent nation in a bilateral treaty

 

The Simla Agreement led to severe criticism of Mrs. Gandhi in India, for not forcing Pakistan to make the ceasefire line the International Border, instead renaming it the Line of Control (LoC); and of Mr. Bhutto in Pakistan for agreeing to resolve the dispute peacefully and without recourse to the United Nations or other third-party mediators. In Srinagar, Sheikh Abdullah’s criticisms stemmed from the fact that neither side had consulted the Kashmiri people.

 

3. Violations of the Pact

 

 

• In the years following the Simla Agreement, Pakistan repeatedly breached its terms by supporting and arming militant groups in Kashmir and by sending troops across the Line of Control (LoC), which culminated in the Kargil conflict of 1999.
• Pakistan also sought international intervention, including appealing to the United Nations and other countries, actions that contradicted the bilateral framework agreed upon in Simla.
• Meanwhile, India’s 1994 Parliamentary resolution declaring the entire region of Kashmir, including Pakistan-Occupied Kashmir, as an integral part of the country, along with the 2019 abrogation of Article 370, have further diminished the relevance of the Simla Agreement.

4.Other agreements which are to be affected

 

• Although Pakistan did not explicitly mention any specific agreement, the Shehbaz Sharif government’s reference to "all other" bilateral accords could encompass a range of treaties signed between India and Pakistan following their multiple armed conflicts, from the first Kashmir war in 1948 to the Kargil conflict in 1999.
• Among these is the Nehru-Liaquat Pact of 1950, which focused on safeguarding minority rights in both nations. Another significant accord is the 1974 Bilateral Protocol on Visits to Religious Shrines, which facilitates the travel of hundreds of Hindu and Sikh pilgrims to 15 sites in Pakistan and allows Muslim pilgrims to visit five mosques and shrines in India.
• For now, both countries have suggested that the Kartarpur Corridor agreement, finalized in 2019 between the Narendra Modi and Imran Khan administrations, will continue.
• However, other agreements aimed at building confidence and sharing information may come under strain. In 1988, India and Pakistan signed a pact to exchange lists of their nuclear installations annually on January 1.
• This was followed in 1991 by agreements on advance notification of ballistic missile tests and measures to prevent airspace violations. Since February 2021, both sides have adhered to a ceasefire agreement, originally established in 2003.
• Any military action by India against terror camps or other targets in Pakistan — actions against which Pakistan has vowed retaliation — could jeopardize the ceasefire.
• Furthermore, India’s move to suspend its participation in the Indus Waters Treaty could escalate tensions, with Pakistan threatening legal action internationally and framing any disruption of water flow as an "act of war."
• India, while an upper riparian to Pakistan and Bangladesh, is also a lower riparian state in relation to China, which has at times withheld hydrological cooperation. Consequently, India’s decisions regarding the Indus Waters Treaty are likely to be watched closely not just by Pakistan, but by other neighboring countries as well

5. India-Pakistan relationship over the Years

 

• Partition and Independence (1947):
  The division of British India in 1947 marked a turning point, leading to the establishment of two new nations: India, founded as a secular state, and Pakistan, envisioned as a theocratic state. Initially, the Maharaja of Kashmir aimed to maintain independence; however, following Pakistan's invasion of Kashmir, he chose to accede to India, triggering the first Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–48.
• Wars, Agreements, and Rise of Terrorism:
  The 1965 conflict, sparked by border clashes, escalated into a full-fledged war but concluded with a UN-brokered ceasefire, resulting in no significant territorial changes.
  In 1971, India played a decisive role in supporting East Pakistan's independence movement, leading to the creation of Bangladesh.
• The Simla Agreement of 1972, signed in the aftermath of the war, formalized the Line of Control (LoC) in Kashmir.
  By 1989, Pakistan began backing an armed insurgency in Kashmir, which resulted in extensive violence and widespread human rights violations.
• The Kargil conflict of 1999 erupted when Pakistan-supported forces infiltrated positions on the Indian side of the LoC, culminating in a military victory for India but deepening mutual hostility.
• The 2008 Mumbai attacks, orchestrated by Pakistan-based militant group Lashkar-e-Taiba, resulted in the deaths of 166 civilians and drastically worsened bilateral relations, drawing global condemnation and demands for Pakistan to combat terrorism.
  While both countries have periodically pursued dialogue and confidence-building measures, these efforts have often been derailed by incidents like the Pulwama attack in 2019 and subsequent military confrontations, underscoring the persistent volatility of peace initiatives.
• Contemporary Situation (2023–2024):
  Political instability within Pakistan, along with the persistence of militant activities and ongoing border tensions, continues to fuel distrust and violence between the two nations.
  Adding to this complex scenario is China’s growing regional influence, including its close strategic ties with Pakistan and its territorial disputes with India, further complicating the already fragile Indo-Pakistani relationship

 

6. Way Forward

 

It is important to highlight that the statement released by the Pakistan Prime Minister’s Office on April 24 declared that "Pakistan shall exercise the right to hold all bilateral agreements with India, including but not limited to the Simla Agreement, in abeyance." However, it remains unclear whether Islamabad has formally communicated this decision through an official notification. So far, India has not received any formal correspondence from Pakistan regarding the matter. The immediate implications are likely to emerge concerning the Jammu and Kashmir issue, particularly regarding whether Pakistan will now reject the Line of Control (LoC), which was first officially referenced in the Simla Agreement. Experts believe that if Pakistan were to violate the LoC, India might also no longer feel bound by it and could potentially undertake military operations to reclaim areas currently under Pakistan-occupied Kashmir

 

For Prelims: Simla Agreement, 1971 Indo-Pakistani War, Kashmir issue, Line of Control (LoC), Nuclear tests, Kargil War, Article 370,  For Mains: India-Pakistan relations, Significance of Simla agreement

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1.With reference to the Indus river system, of the following four rivers, three of them pour into one of them which joins the Indus directly. Among the following, which one is such a river that joins the Indus direct? (2021) (a) Chenab (b) Jhelum (c) Ravi (d) Sutlej Answer (d) Mains   1. "Increasing cross border terrorist attacks in India and growing interference in the internal affairs of several member states by Pakistan are not conducive for the future of SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation)." Explain with suitable examples. (2016) 2. Terrorist activities and mutual distrust have clouded India – Pakistan relations. To what extent the use of soft power like sports and cultural exchanges could help generate goodwill between the two countries? Discuss with suitable examples. (2015)

 

 

Source: The Hindu

 

K2-18B

 

1. Context

 

On April 16, an international research team uploaded a paper in which it reported that the distant exoplanet K2-18b may be habitable. The claim was met with cautious excitement by astronomers. While finding places in the universe that could harbour life is a vital quest in the field, experts — including the team that made the finding — are cautious because many similar claims in the past have had to be retracted after closer inspection.

 

2. What is K2-18b?

 

K2-18b is an exoplanet, meaning it lies beyond our solar system. Situated about 124 light-years from Earth in the Leo constellation, it orbits the star K2-18. This planet is approximately 5.2 times broader and nine times more massive than Earth, suggesting it may have an atmosphere rich in hydrogen. It receives a similar level of stellar energy from its host star as Earth gets from the Sun. The Kepler telescope discovered K2-18b in 2015, and in 2019, the Hubble Space Telescope identified traces of water vapour in its atmosphere. More recently, in 2023, the James Webb Space Telescope detected the presence of carbon dioxide and methane. Earlier models had indicated that the presence of methane and carbon dioxide—without ammonia—in a hydrogen-rich atmosphere could point to the existence of a liquid water ocean on the planet’s surface, though this is not the only possible explanation

 

3. What kind of planet is K2-18b?

 

• The latest research suggests that K2-18b could potentially be a Hycean planet—characterized by a global ocean beneath a hydrogen-rich atmosphere.
• Although not definitively classified as such, this type of world is among those the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is particularly well-equipped to investigate.
• Some simulations indicate that K2-18b might possess a stratosphere along with traces of carbon oxides and cyanide in its middle atmosphere.
• Scientists also speculate that the planet’s surface conditions could be nearing a runaway greenhouse state, where excessive greenhouse gases trap all heat, similar to what makes Venus so inhospitable.
• In their recent study, researchers reported detecting two possible compounds in K2-18b’s atmosphere—either dimethyl sulphide (DMS) or dimethyl disulphide (DMDS). DMS is of particular interest because it is considered a potential biomarker, indicating the possible presence of life.
• On Earth, DMS is predominantly produced in marine environments. It originates when phytoplankton synthesize a compound called dimethylsulphoniopropionate, which releases DMS upon their death through enzymatic reactions.
• Additionally, DMS can be released when bacteria decompose plant material, and a 2015 study found that about 76% of soil bacteria have a gene enabling them to generate DMS

 

4. Habitability of this planet

 

 

• Scientists emphasize that the only definitive way to discover extraterrestrial life is through its direct detection. This rationale underpins NASA’s Clipper mission, launched in 2024, which aims to explore Europa, one of Jupiter’s moons.
• While searching for life-supporting conditions and identifying certain molecules from afar can provide clues about habitability, such findings remain speculative—especially since they focus only on life forms similar to those on Earth.
• Uncertainties in these studies also stem from the limitations of observational tools and the assumptions built into simulation models. It’s possible that previously unknown chemical reactions could produce molecules currently considered biosignatures.
• Additionally, the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) may miss certain compounds simply because their concentrations fall below its sensitivity threshold.
• Back in 2023, researchers had reported a potential trace of dimethyl sulphide (DMS) in K2-18b’s atmosphere. More recent findings suggest that this compound might actually exist in quantities a thousand times greater than on Earth.
• Given DMS’s short lifespan, it would likely require a continuous source on the planet’s surface. However, the latest study didn’t confirm DMS alone—it reported a significant presence of either DMS or its chemical relative, dimethyl disulfide (DMDS).
• To better understand the planet’s chemistry, scientists have also been running simulations of K2-18b’s environment. A 2023 study concluded that most Hycean planet candidates are unlikely to sustain oceans of liquid water. Then in 2024, a U.S. research team argued that the atmospheric data collected by JWST could be explained if K2-18b were a gas-rich mini-Neptune, with no need to invoke a biosphere or unknown methane sources.
• In January, a separate international analysis of JWST data confirmed the presence of methane but found no reliable evidence for either carbon dioxide or DMS, further casting doubt on K2-18b's classification as a Hycan world

 

5. Way Forward

 

K2-18b remains a fascinating candidate in the search for potentially habitable exoplanets, current evidence does not definitively support the presence of life or even confirm its classification as a Hycean world. Discoveries of molecules like methane and dimethyl sulphide (DMS) in its atmosphere are intriguing but far from conclusive, as such compounds can also result from abiotic processes. The limitations of existing observational tools, uncertainties in atmospheric modeling, and the complex nature of planetary chemistry mean that findings must be interpreted with caution. Ongoing and future missions, such as NASA's Clipper and continued JWST observations, will be crucial in refining our understanding of such distant worlds. Ultimately, the direct detection of life—if it exists—remains the gold standard in astrobiology, and K2-18b continues to be a stepping stone in that long scientific journey

 

 

For Prelims: Exoplanets, NASA, Earth, hotstar, red drawft stars, LHS 475 b, Goldilocks zone, James Webb Space Telescope,  For Mains: 1. What are exoplanets and discuss the need to studying exoplanets (250 Words)

 

Source: The Hindu

 

 

ACCREDITED SOCIAL HEALTH ACTIVISTS (ASHAs)

 

 

1. Context

 

For over two months now, a section of Kerala’s 26,125-strong community of Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHAs) have been on a day-night agitation on the streets demanding better remuneration and retirement benefits. While the agitation gained much attention and was also raised in Parliament, the issues raised by the ASHAs remain unresolved

 

2. Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHAs)

 

• Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHAs) are a vital component of India’s public healthcare system, especially in rural and underserved areas. Introduced under the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) in 2005 (now part of the National Health Mission), ASHAs are community-based female health workers selected from within the village itself.
• Their main role is to act as a bridge between the community and the public health system, ensuring that people, especially women and children, are aware of and can access essential health services.
• An ASHA is usually a woman resident of the village she serves, ideally between the ages of 25 to 45, with a minimum education level of 8th grade. Being a local resident allows her to understand the cultural dynamics, language, and healthcare challenges of her community.
• She is not a full-time government employee but works as a volunteer and is incentivized based on her performance and the health services she facilitates.
• ASHAs are trained to provide basic health education and first-contact healthcare. They promote institutional deliveries by encouraging pregnant women to give birth at health facilities, support immunization drives, and counsel mothers on breastfeeding, nutrition, and hygiene.
• They also assist in identifying symptoms of diseases such as tuberculosis and malaria, refer patients to appropriate health centers, and help ensure adherence to treatment protocols.
• Importantly, ASHAs play a critical role in maternal and child health. They visit pregnant women regularly, help arrange antenatal check-ups, and provide information about birth preparedness and postnatal care. Their efforts have significantly contributed to the improvement of maternal and child health indicators in many parts of the country.
• During health emergencies like the COVID-19 pandemic, the role of ASHAs became even more crucial.
• They were on the frontlines—spreading awareness about safety measures, tracking symptoms, conducting door-to-door surveys, and coordinating the delivery of medicines and essentials to households in isolation.
• Despite their immense contribution, ASHAs often face challenges such as low or delayed remuneration, high workloads, and lack of adequate support or recognition.
• Nonetheless, their grassroots presence and trust within communities have made them indispensable to India’s public health outreach, making them a cornerstone in achieving health-related goals and promoting community well-being

 

3. Accredited Social Health Activist Functions

 

• The functions of an Accredited Social Health Activist (ASHA) are wide-ranging and focus on promoting health awareness, facilitating access to healthcare services, and providing basic healthcare at the community level. ASHAs serve as a crucial link between the public health system and the rural population. Their key functions can be broadly explained as follows:
• ASHAs act primarily as health educators and promoters in their communities. They spread awareness about important health-related issues such as maternal and child health, family planning, nutrition, sanitation, personal hygiene, and the prevention and control of communicable and non-communicable diseases.
• By conducting household visits and group meetings, they educate families about healthy practices and encourage behavior change toward improved health outcomes.
• Another major function of ASHAs is to promote and facilitate the use of health services provided by the government.
• They encourage pregnant women to register for antenatal care, support them in receiving tetanus toxoid injections and iron-folic acid supplements, and promote institutional deliveries by linking them with nearby health facilities.
• They also ensure that newborns and infants receive timely immunization and monitor the growth and development of children.
• ASHAs also play a vital role in community-level disease control and surveillance. They help in the early identification of symptoms of diseases such as tuberculosis, malaria, leprosy, and other communicable illnesses.
• Once identified, they guide the patients to appropriate health centers and follow up to ensure the completion of treatment. Their support is also crucial in managing chronic illnesses and providing home-based care for minor ailments.
• In addition to this, ASHAs are trained to provide basic first-aid and certain essential medicines such as oral rehydration salts (ORS), iron tablets, contraceptives, and antimalarial drugs.
• They also assist in distributing health commodities and support the implementation of national health programs at the village level, including those related to child nutrition, sanitation, and adolescent health.
• During public health emergencies such as pandemics or outbreaks, ASHAs become the first responders in their communities. They help in spreading accurate information, maintaining records of symptomatic individuals, facilitating testing and vaccination, and coordinating relief support.
• Overall, ASHAs play a multipurpose role that includes being a healthcare facilitator, a service provider, a social mobilizer, and a key figure in strengthening the grassroots healthcare delivery system in India

 

 

4. Protests in Kerala

 

• In Kerala, Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHAs) receive a monthly honorarium of ₹7,000 along with a fixed incentive of ₹3,000. Additional incentives are provided based on the specific regions they serve, such as tribal areas.
• However, the disbursement of both the honorarium and incentives is contingent upon meeting certain work-related performance criteria. The State government is responsible for the honorarium, while the incentives are jointly funded by the Centre and the State in a 60:40 ratio.
• According to the State, Kerala offers one of the most generous honorarium packages for ASHAs in the country. Yet, the incentive rates provided by the Union government have remained unchanged since the scheme was launched.
• Health Minister Veena George claimed that most ASHAs in Kerala earn between ₹10,000 and ₹13,000 per month.
• This was challenged by the ASHAs themselves, who asserted that they receive significantly less in practice, primarily due to the stringent conditions attached to the payments. In a state known for its high minimum wage standards—where daily wages for various occupations range from ₹700 to ₹1,200—ASHAs effectively earn less than ₹250 per day.
• While a key demand from ASHAs is the immediate release of pending dues, they are also calling for the removal of performance-based criteria for receiving their honorarium. Their primary appeal is for an increase in the monthly honorarium to ₹21,000, which would align their earnings with the state’s minimum wage of ₹700 per day.
• Additionally, they are seeking a retirement benefit of ₹5 lakh as a lump sum. When the ASHA program was first introduced in 2005, it envisioned these workers as community health volunteers rather than formal employees.
• As a result, ASHAs do not receive a fixed salary, pension, or social security benefits. They argue that unless they are officially recognized as part of the regular healthcare workforce, they will continue to be marginalized

 

5. Way Forward

 

The Union Health Minister recently informed the Rajya Sabha that the incentive structure for ASHAs is set to be revised. However, no specific timeline has been provided for when this revision will take place.

In the previous round of discussions, the State Government proposed forming a committee to examine various concerns raised by ASHAs, including the demand for an increase in their honorarium. Meanwhile, the Kerala Accredited Health Workers Association (KAHWA) recommended an interim raise of ₹3,000 per month—equivalent to a daily increment of ₹100. This proposal, however, was turned down by the State Government

 

For Prelims: Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHA) , National Health Mission   For Mains: Role and Significance of ASHA in India's healthcare system, Issues Relating to the Management of Social Sector/Services relating to Health and Human Resources

 

Previous Year Questions   1.With reference to the National Rural Health Mission, which of the following are the jobs of ‘ASHA’, a trained community health worker? (2012) Accompanying women to the health facility for antenatal care checkup Using pregnancy test kits for early detection of pregnancy Providing information on nutrition and immunisation. Conducting the delivery of baby Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 and 4 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

 

Source: The Hindu