STRAIT OF HORMUZ
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The Strait of Hormuz is a strategically significant and narrow maritime passage situated between Iran and Oman, serving as a link between the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Oman, and the Arabian Sea. The U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) has labeled it as the world’s most vital oil transit chokepoint, through which nearly 20% of global liquid petroleum fuels and a substantial portion of LNG trade pass. In May, more than 45% of India’s crude oil imports were estimated to have transited through this strait. Given that India is the third-largest consumer of crude oil globally and imports over 85% of its oil needs, the strait plays a crucial role in its energy security.
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Data from the commodity analytics firm Kpler indicates that, as of June, India has been importing over 2.2 million barrels per day (bpd) of crude oil from Russia, which constitutes more than 41% of its total oil imports.
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While oil imports from the U.S. have shown a steady rise, supplies from West Asian nations such as Iraq, Saudi Arabia, the UAE, and Kuwait have remained relatively consistent. Many of these shipments were likely planned prior to the recent escalation in tensions between Israel and Iran, and therefore, may not reflect the impact of the current geopolitical developments.
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Over the past two to three years, India has notably adjusted its oil import strategy. Russia has emerged as India’s top crude supplier, overtaking traditional exporters from West Asia. Importantly, Russian oil bypasses the Strait of Hormuz, as it is mainly transported via alternative sea routes like the Suez Canal and Red Sea, and sometimes through the Cape of Good Hope or Pacific Ocean routes.
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India’s current oil procurement approach already demonstrates a diversified and risk-mitigated strategy, especially in light of uncertainties in West Asian oil routes, with Russian crude now making up the largest share of India’s import basket.
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After recent U.S. air strikes targeting Iranian nuclear sites, Iran’s parliament passed a resolution on Sunday advocating the closure of the Strait of Hormuz, a vital corridor for global oil transportation. The final decision on this move now lies with Iran’s Supreme National Security Council.
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Although Iran has repeatedly issued threats in the past to shut the strait, it has never acted on them. Even in the present context, industry analysts consider the likelihood of an actual blockade to be low. Nevertheless, the increased risk perception surrounding the potential closure is expected to trigger global alarm, including in India, by raising concerns over the security of oil and gas supplies and potentially driving up global energy prices.
- The Israel-Iran conflict poses a significant threat to global oil and gas flows due to the geopolitical sensitivity and strategic location of the region. At the heart of this issue lies the Strait of Hormuz—a narrow but crucial maritime passage through which nearly 20% of the world’s petroleum and a substantial share of liquefied natural gas (LNG) are transported.
- Iran borders this strait and has, over the years, repeatedly threatened to block it during periods of heightened tension, including in response to military actions or sanctions.
- When hostilities between Israel and Iran escalate—such as through air strikes, proxy conflicts, or cyber warfare—it increases the likelihood of retaliation from Iran that could involve disrupting maritime traffic in the Strait of Hormuz.
- Even if Iran does not fully close the strait, the mere threat or perception of such an action is enough to cause volatility in global energy markets. Tanker insurance rates rise, shipping routes are reconsidered, and countries heavily dependent on oil imports, like India, become increasingly vulnerable to supply disruptions and price shocks.
- Furthermore, any military conflict in this region risks damaging key infrastructure such as refineries, pipelines, or export terminals in the broader West Asian region.
- This would constrain oil production and distribution, affecting both the availability and price of crude oil and gas worldwide. Global markets respond quickly to these risks, often resulting in immediate spikes in prices due to concerns over supply security.
- In summary, the Israel-Iran conflict amplifies the risk to global oil and gas flows by potentially destabilizing a region that is central to global energy supply chains. It heightens fears of supply disruptions, increases market speculation, and threatens the economic stability of energy-importing countries, making it a matter of both geopolitical and economic concern
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For Prelims: Strait of Hormuz, Persian Gulf, Energy Information Administration (EIA), liquefied natural gas (LNG)
For Mains: General Studies II: Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests.
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Previous Year Questions
1.Which one of the following straits is nearest to the International Date Line? (UPSC CSE 2008) (a) Malacca Strait (b) Bering Strait (c) Strait of Florida (d) Strait of Gibraltar Answer (b) The International Date Line (IDL) roughly follows the 180° longitude, which lies in the Pacific Ocean, deviating slightly to accommodate international boundaries. The Bering Strait lies between Russia and Alaska, and it is very close to the 180° meridian, making it the closest strait to the International Date Line. Here's why the other options are incorrect:
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DEFENCE ACQUISITION COUNCIL
1. Context
2. About the Defence Acquisition Council
The Defence Acquisition Council (DAC) is the apex body for all defence acquisitions in India. It was formed after recommendations made by the Group of Ministers on 'Reforming the National Security System' in 2001, post-Kargil war. The DAC is headed by the Defence Minister and comprises the following members:
- Chief of the Defence Staff (CDS)
- Secretary, Department of Defence Production
- Secretary, Finance
- Secretary, Defence Research and Development
- Controller General of Defence Accounts
- Other senior officers from the Ministry of Defence and the Services
The Role of the Defence Acquisition Council
The DAC's primary role is to:
- Accord approval for AoN (Acceptance of Necessity) for Capital Acquisition Proposals.
- Categorise the acquisition proposals into 'Buy, Buy & Make, & Make'.
- In-principle approval of 15-Year Long-Term Integrated Perspective Plan (LTPP) for Defence Forces.
- Delegate powers to Services/C&AS for the acquisition of items up to a certain value.
- Consider and approve other issues as may be referred to it by the Defence Minister.
Functions of the Defence Acquisition Council
The DAC's primary functions are to:
- Approve capital acquisitions for the Indian Armed Forces.
- Formulate and implement policies and procedures for defence acquisitions.
- Monitor the progress of defence acquisitions.
- Oversee the implementation of the Defence Procurement Procedure (DPP).
Reasons for the creation of the Defence Acquisitions Council
The DAC was created to address the following shortcomings of the previous defence acquisition system:
- Lack of a clear and transparent decision-making process.
- Delays in the procurement of defence equipment.
- Escalation of costs.
- Lack of coordination between different agencies involved in the procurement process.
3. About Defence acquisition
Defence acquisition is the process of acquiring goods and services for the Indian Armed Forces. It is a complex and time-consuming process that involves the identification of requirements, the preparation of specifications, the selection of vendors, the negotiation of contracts, and the delivery of equipment. The Indian defence acquisition process is governed by the Defence Procurement Procedure (DPP), which is a set of guidelines that outlines the process for acquiring defence equipment.
The key stages of the defence acquisition process:
- The first step is to identify the requirements of the Armed Forces. This is done through a detailed assessment of the operational needs of the Armed Forces and the availability of resources.
- Once the requirements have been identified, the next step is to prepare the specifications for the equipment to be acquired. The specifications must be clear, detailed, and unambiguous so that the vendors can understand what is required.
- The next step is to select the vendors who will be invited to participate in the bidding process. The vendors are selected based on their technical ability, financial strength, and experience.
- Once the vendors have been selected, the next step is to negotiate the contracts. The contracts must be fair and reasonable, and they must protect the interests of the government.
- The final step is to deliver the equipment to the Armed Forces. Once the equipment has been delivered, it must be tested and accepted by the Armed Forces.
4. The Defence Procurement Procedure (DPP)
The Defence Procurement Procedure (DPP) is the guideline for defence acquisitions in India. The DPP was first introduced in 2006 and has been revised several times since then. The DPP outlines the process for defence acquisitions, from the identification of a requirement to the final acceptance of a product.
The DPP is designed to ensure that defence acquisitions are conducted in a transparent, efficient, and cost-effective manner. The DPP also seeks to promote indigenous defence production and to maximize the involvement of Indian companies in the defence sector.
Key features of the DPP
- The DPP emphasizes the need for transparency in all stages of the defence acquisition process. This includes publishing all relevant documents online and making them available to the public.
- The DPP aims to streamline the defence acquisition process and reduce delays. This includes simplifying the tendering process and reducing the number of approvals required.
- The DPP seeks to ensure that defence acquisitions are conducted cost-effectively. This includes negotiating the best possible price for goods and services and promoting indigenous defence production.
- The DPP promotes indigenous defence production by giving preference to Indian companies in the tendering process. The DPP also provides incentives for Indian companies to invest in research and development.
- The DPP seeks to maximize the involvement of Indian companies in the defence sector. This includes encouraging Indian companies to form joint ventures with foreign companies.
5. The Way Forward
The DAC and the DPP play a vital role in ensuring that the Indian Armed Forces are equipped with the latest and best possible weapons and equipment. The DAC and the DPP are also important for promoting indigenous defence production and for maximizing the involvement of Indian companies in the defence sector.
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For Prelims: Defence Acquisition Council, Defence Procurement Procedure, Light Combat Aircraft, Tejas Mk 1 A and 156, Light Combat Helicopters, Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, Kargil war
For Mains:
1. Critically analyze the role of the Defence Acquisition Council (DAC) in streamlining and expediting defence acquisitions in India. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. The Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) designed and developed by HAL is also known as (MP Police Constable 2017)
A. Suryakiran B. Aryabhatta C. Tejas D. Prakash
2. Which of the following statements is true about the recent procurement of Tejas fighter’s aircraft by IAF? (IB ACIO Grade II 2021)
(1) The IAF has recently purchased 83 Tejas fighters aircraft from HAL
(2) The total deal is Rs. 78,000-crore
A. 1 only B. Neither 1 nor 2 C. Both 1 and 2 D. 2 only
3. What is the name of India's indigenously built Light Combat Helicopter? (OSSC BSSO 2022)
A. Nag B. Trishul C. Prachand D. Agni
4. The headquarters of the Hindustan Aeronautics Limited is located at _______________. (MP Police Constable 2017)
A. Chennai B. Bengaluru C. Dewas D. Koraput
5. What was Kargil war otherwise known as? (MP Patwari 2017)
A. Operation Vijay B. Operation Vishwas C. Operation Shaurya D. Operation Paramveer
Answers:1-C, 2-A, 3-C, 4-B 5-A
Mains
1. Analyze the circumstances that led to the Tashkent Agreement in 1966. Discuss the highlights of the Agreement. (UPSC 2013)
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PERIODIC LABOUR FORCE SURVEY (PLFS)
1. Context
2. About The Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS)
- The Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) is a sample survey conducted by the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) of India to provide information on the labour force and employment situation in the country.
- The survey is conducted annually in all the states and union territories of India.
- The PLFS provides data on various employment indicators, including the labour force participation rate (LFPR), unemployment rate (UR), worker population ratio (WPR), and employment by industry and occupation.
- The PLFS sheds light on the proportion of individuals seeking employment, the unemployment rate, gender disparities in employment and wages, and the sectoral distribution of workers.
- Additionally, it details the types of employment, such as casual labour, self-employment, and regular salaried jobs.
- This comprehensive data is crucial for understanding the dynamics of the Indian labour market and formulating effective employment strategies.
- The Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) collects employment data using two methods: Usual Status (US) and Current Weekly Status (CWS).
- In the US method, respondents are asked to recall their employment details for the past year, while in the CWS method, they are asked to recall their employment details for the past week.
- The labour force estimate derived from the US method includes individuals who worked or were seeking/available for work for a significant portion of the past year, as well as those who worked for at least 30 days during the reference period.
- Conversely, the labour force estimate based on the CWS method encompasses those who worked for at least one hour or sought/were available for work for at least one hour on any day during the past week.
- The global trend has shifted towards a greater emphasis on CWS data due to the improved accuracy of recall for shorter reference periods.
4. Latest findings of the Report
Unemployment Rate (UER)
- The UER is often the most talked about metric in popular discourse. Simply put, it refers to the proportion of people who demanded work over the past year and failed to get it.
- As the data in Table 1 shows, for the population above 15 years of age, the UER has fallen significantly from 6.6% to 5.1% over the last year (that is, July to June cycle).
- Simply put, 5.1% of all the people above 15 years of age who demanded work failed to get one.
Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR)
- The Unemployment Rate (UER) is calculated as a proportion of the population that is demanding work.
- However, this population also fluctuates for various reasons. The Labor Force Participation Rate (LFPR) is a measure of the total population demanding work, expressed as a proportion of the total population above 15 years of age.
- As seen in Table 1, India's LFPR, which had been gradually increasing, has experienced a significant surge in the past year.
- As of 2022-23, 54.6% of all Indians above the age of 15 were actively seeking employment.
LFPR for women
- This metric looks at LFPR among women to ascertain where the additional demand for jobs is coming from.
- The data shows that female LFPR has gone up over the years but there were two discrete step-ups one in 2019-20 (when India’s GDP growth rate had slowed down to less than 4% and this was before the Covid pandemic hit) and the second in 2022-23 when it rose to 31.6%.
Worker Population Rate
- Since the proportion of people demanding work (the LFPR) goes up and down and the percentage of those failing to get a job (the UER) is expressed as a proportion of the former, it can throw off analysis.
- As such, there is another way to look at the labour market: Worker Population Ratio (WPR).
- The WPR is the percentage of persons employed among the persons in the population.
- Thus, instead of looking at how many demand a job and how many fail to get it, the WPR simply gives a measure of how many people have a job as a proportion of the total population.
- This metric too has been going up and especially noteworthy are the two discrete
step-ups in 2019-20 and 2022-23.
WPR among women
Monthly earnings
Distribution of workers
5. Key Trends in PLFS 2022-23
- Upon initial analysis, the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) for 2022-23 reveals several encouraging trends. The unemployment rate is on a downward trajectory, and both the Labor Force Participation Rate (LFPR) and Workforce Participation Rate (WPR) exhibit substantial increases. A particularly heartening development is the notable rise in the participation of women in the workforce. This suggests a positive correlation between economic recovery and the creation of more employment opportunities, especially for women.
- However, a closer examination of the nature and remuneration of these new jobs alters the understanding. The predominant trend is the emergence of jobs falling under the category of "self-employment." Typically, in a growing economy, businesses tend to hire more employees. Conversely, during economic challenges, individuals often transition from regular employment to "self-employed" status. This nuanced perspective prompts a reconsideration of the quality and sustainability of the employment being generated.
- Analyzing the trends among women across various metrics reveals an interesting dynamic. The data suggests that economic strains on household finances have led more women, previously outside the workforce, to join in. However, a noteworthy observation is the prevalence of women taking up roles as "unpaid helpers in household enterprises," highlighting a complex interplay between economic conditions and women's workforce participation.
- Furthermore, an examination of the sectoral landscape indicates a regressive shift in India's employment patterns. Notably, there has been an increase in the proportion of Indians employed in agriculture over the past year, while the numbers in manufacturing have witnessed a decline. This shift underscores the evolving economic dynamics and sectoral preferences shaping the employment scenario.
- In a thriving economy, one would expect an improvement in monthly incomes. However, the Indian scenario deviates from this expectation. Despite positive indicators in other areas, the data suggests that the overall economic boom is not translating into significant improvements in monthly incomes for individuals in India. This anomaly prompts a closer examination of the factors contributing to this divergence.
6. The WayForward
While there are positive signals in the headline indicators, a more nuanced analysis reveals complexities like job creation, women's participation dynamics, sectoral shifts, and income patterns. This holistic perspective is essential for a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted impact of economic trends on the labour market in India.
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For Prelims: Periodic Labour Force Survey, National Sample Survey Office, labour force participation rate, worker population ratio
For Mains:
1. Examine the changing nature of employment in India, as reflected in the increasing share of self-employment and the declining proportion of regular salaried jobs. Discuss the implications of this shift for the quality and sustainability of employment. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions 1. Given below are two statements, one is labeled as Assertion (A) and the other as Reason (R). (UPPSC 2019)
Assertion (A): The labour force participation rate is falling sharply in recent years for females in India.
Reason (R): The decline in labour force participation rate is due to improved family income and an increase in education.
Select the correct answer from the codes given below:
Codes:
A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
B. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
C. (A) is true, but (R) is false
D. (A) is false, but (R) is true
2. Which of the following statements about the employment situation in India according to the periodic Labour Force Survey 2017-18 is/are correct? (UPSC CAPF 2020)
1. Construction sector gave employment to nearly one-tenth of the urban male workforce in India
2. Nearly one-fourth of urban female workers in India were working in the manufacturing sector
3. One-fourth of rural female workers in India were engaged in the agriculture sector
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 2 only B. 1 and 2 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
3. Disguised unemployment generally means (UPSC 2013)
(a) large number of people remain unemployed
4. Assertion (A): Workers - population ratio in India is low in contrast to that in developed countries. Reason (R): Rapid growth of population, low female worker population rate and omission of unpaid family workers lead to low worker-population ratio. Choose the correct answer: (Telangana Police SI Mains 2018) A. (A) is true, but (R) is false.
B. (A) is false, but (R) is true.
C. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not a correct explanation of (A).
D. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
Answers: 1-C, 2-B, 3-C, 4-D Mains1. Most of the unemployment in India is structural in nature. Examine the methodology adopted to compute unemployment in the country and suggest improvements. (UPSC 2023) |
Source: The Indian Express
ETHANOL BLENDING
1. Context
- Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol, is a type of alcohol commonly used as a biofuel and a key ingredient in alcoholic beverages.
- It is a clear, colorless liquid with a characteristic odor and a slightly sweet taste.
- Ethanol has a wide range of applications and is produced through the fermentation of sugars by yeast or other microorganisms.
3. Ethanol Blending
- Ethanol blending refers to the practice of mixing ethanol with gasoline or other fuels to create a blended fuel.
- Ethanol is a biofuel derived from renewable sources such as sugarcane, corn, or other plant materials.
- It is commonly used as an additive to gasoline in various parts of the world to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote cleaner fuel options.
- In the context of transportation, the most common form of ethanol blending is with gasoline, creating a blend known as ethanol-gasoline blend or gasohol.
- The most common ethanol-gasoline blends are E10 and E15, indicating the percentage of ethanol in the mixture. For example, E10 contains 10% ethanol and 90% gasoline, while E15 contains 15% ethanol and 85% gasoline.
4. Benefits of Ethanol blending
- Ethanol is considered a renewable fuel because it is derived from plant materials that absorb carbon dioxide during their growth. When blended with gasoline, ethanol can help reduce the carbon footprint of transportation fuels, as it emits fewer greenhouse gases compared to pure gasoline.
- By blending ethanol with gasoline, countries can reduce their reliance on imported fossil fuels and promote energy security.
- Ethanol has a higher octane rating than gasoline, which can improve engine performance and increase fuel efficiency.
- Ethanol production often relies on agricultural feedstocks, providing economic benefits to farmers and rural communities.
- Ethanol-gasoline blends can help reduce harmful pollutants such as carbon monoxide and volatile organic compounds, contributing to improved air quality.
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Mixing 20 percent ethanol in petrol can potentially reduce the auto fuel import bill by a yearly $4 billion, or Rs 30,000 crore.
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Another major benefit of ethanol blending is the extra income it gives to farmers. Ethanol is derived from sugarcane and also foodgrains. Hence, farmers can earn extra income by selling their surplus produce to ethanol blend manufacturers.
5. What is E20 Fuel?
- E20 fuel is a type of blended fuel that contains 20% ethanol and 80% gasoline.
- It is an ethanol-gasoline blend, similar to other common blends like E10 (10% ethanol) and E15 (15% ethanol).
- The percentage of ethanol in the blend is denoted by the "E" followed by the percentage of ethanol content.
- E20 fuel is considered a higher ethanol blend compared to E10 and E15, which are more widely available in various countries.
- The use of E20 is part of efforts to promote renewable fuels and reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the transportation sector.
6. Significance of E20 fuel
- Reduced Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Ethanol is derived from renewable plant sources, and blending it with gasoline can help reduce the carbon footprint of transportation fuels, contributing to efforts to combat climate change.
- Energy Security: By using more domestically produced ethanol, countries can reduce their dependence on imported fossil fuels and enhance energy security.
- Improved Engine Performance: Ethanol's higher octane rating can enhance engine performance and increase fuel efficiency in certain vehicles.
- Support for Agriculture: Ethanol production often relies on agricultural feedstocks, supporting farmers and rural economies.
7. Challenges in Ethanol Blending Programme
While ethanol blending in transportation fuels offers various benefits, there are several challenges that countries may face in implementing and sustaining a successful ethanol blending program. Some of these challenges include:
- Infrastructure and Distribution: Establishing the necessary infrastructure for blending and distributing ethanol-gasoline blends can be a significant challenge. This includes ensuring that fuel stations have the proper storage facilities and compatible pumps to dispense blended fuels.
- Compatibility with Vehicles: Not all vehicles are designed to run on high ethanol blends like E20 or E85. Older vehicles or vehicles from certain manufacturers may not be compatible with these blends, leading to potential engine damage or decreased performance.
- Fuel Quality and Standards: Maintaining consistent fuel quality is essential to prevent engine damage and ensure consumer confidence. Governments and fuel suppliers must adhere to strict quality standards and monitor the blending process to avoid issues with fuel performance.
- Feedstock Availability and Cost: The production of ethanol relies on agricultural feedstocks, such as corn, sugarcane, or other biomass. The availability and cost of these feedstocks can vary, affecting the overall cost of ethanol production and blending.
- Land Use and Food Security Concerns: Utilizing agricultural land for ethanol production can raise concerns about competing with food production and potentially impacting food security in some regions.
- Competing Uses for Ethanol: Ethanol has various applications beyond fuel blending, such as in the production of alcoholic beverages, pharmaceuticals, and industrial chemicals. Competing uses can influence the availability and cost of ethanol for blending.
8. National Biofuel Policy
- India has a National Policy on Biofuels, which was first introduced in 2009 and later revised in 2018. The policy aims to promote the use of biofuels to reduce the country's dependence on fossil fuels, enhance energy security, promote sustainable development, and mitigate greenhouse gas emissions.
- The policy encourages the blending of biofuels with conventional fossil fuels to create biofuel blends. It focuses on the production and utilization of first-generation biofuels like ethanol and biodiesel, as well as advanced biofuels made from non-food feedstock.
- The policy sets targets for blending biofuels with conventional fuels in the transportation sector. For instance, the policy aimed for a 20% ethanol blending in petrol and a 5% biodiesel blending in diesel by 2030.
- The policy emphasizes the development and promotion of second-generation biofuels, which are produced from non-food feedstock, such as agricultural residues, waste, and non-edible oils. This helps avoid competition with food crops and ensures sustainability.
- The policy supports research and development initiatives in the biofuels sector, aimed at improving production processes, enhancing feedstock availability, and developing cost-effective technologies for biofuel production.
- The policy focuses on creating a robust supply chain for biofuels, from feedstock cultivation and collection to biofuel production, distribution, and marketing. This helps in ensuring a smooth and efficient supply of biofuels across the country.
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For Prelims: Ethanol Blending, E20 fuel, Greenhouse Gas Emission, National Policy on Biofuels, Food Security, and Gasoline.
For Mains: 1. Discuss the benefits and challenges of ethanol blending in transportation fuels as a strategy to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote renewable energy sources. (250 Words).
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Previous year Question1. According to India's National Policy on Biofuels, which of the following can be used as raw materials for the production of biofuels? (UPSC 2020)
1. Cassava
2. Damaged wheat grains
3. Groundnut seeds
4. Horse gram
5. Rotten potatoes
6. Sugar beet
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1, 2, 5, and 6 only
B. 1, 3, 4, and 6 only
C. 2, 3, 4, and 5 only
D. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6
Answer: A
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GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD
1.Context
For the first time in a decade, Gujarat saw the birth of a Great Indian Bustard (GIB) chick on March 26 — after a “trans-state conservation effort” that involved an “arduous 770-km road journey” across a “halt-free corridor” to transport a 15-day old fertile egg from Sam in Rajasthan’s Jaisalmer district to Naliya in Gujarat’s Kutch district.
2.About Great Indian Bustard
- The Great Indian Bustard (GIB) is a critically endangered bird species native to the Indian subcontinent. It is one of the heaviest flying birds in the world and is characterized by its large size, long legs, and brownish-grey plumage with black markings. The male GIB is distinguished by its distinctive black crown and long, drooping feathers on the neck.
- Historically, the GIB inhabited grasslands and semi-arid regions across India, Pakistan, and Nepal. However, due to habitat loss, hunting, and other human activities, its population has declined dramatically. Today, the species is primarily found in isolated pockets in the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh in India.
- Conservation efforts aimed at protecting the Great Indian Bustard include habitat restoration, anti-poaching measures, captive breeding programs, and community engagement initiatives. Despite these efforts, the GIB remains at risk of extinction, and urgent action is needed to ensure its survival.
- The Great Indian Bustard is not only a symbol of India's rich biodiversity but also an indicator of the health of its grassland ecosystems. Efforts to conserve this iconic species are therefore crucial for preserving India's natural heritage and biodiversity
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International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) status – critically endangered. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)-Appendix 1 Convention on Migratory Species (CMS)-Appendix 1 Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972-Schedule 1 |
3.What are the Article 21 and 14 of the Indian Constitution?
Article 21 and Article 14 of the Indian Constitution are fundamental rights that guarantee certain protections to citizens of India.
Article 21: Right to Life and Personal Liberty
Article 21 of the Indian Constitution states that "No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law." This article provides individuals with the fundamental right to life and personal liberty. It ensures that no person can be deprived of their life or personal liberty except through the due process of law. Over the years, the Supreme Court of India has interpreted Article 21 expansively to encompass various rights and freedoms, including the right to privacy, dignity, shelter, and a clean environment.
Article 14: Right to Equality
Article 14 of the Indian Constitution guarantees the right to equality before the law and equal protection of the laws to all persons within the territory of India. It states that "The State shall not deny to any person equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of India." Article 14 ensures that the government cannot discriminate against individuals based on factors such as religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth. It mandates that all individuals are entitled to equal treatment and opportunities under the law. The principle of equality enshrined in Article 14 is fundamental to the Indian legal system and is upheld by the judiciary to prevent arbitrary or discriminatory actions by the state
4.Habitat
- The Great Indian Bustard (GIB) primarily inhabits grasslands and semi-arid regions across the Indian subcontinent. Historically, it was found in various states of India, including Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh, as well as in parts of Pakistan and Nepal.
- These grasslands provide the GIB with suitable habitat for foraging, nesting, and mating. They typically consist of open, flat terrain with sparse vegetation, including grasses, shrubs, and scattered trees. The bird's large size and long legs make it well-adapted to traversing these open landscapes.
- However, due to extensive habitat loss and degradation resulting from factors such as agricultural expansion, development projects, and human encroachment, the natural habitat of the Great Indian Bustard has been significantly reduced. Today, the remaining populations are primarily confined to fragmented patches of grassland habitat, often in protected areas and wildlife reserves.
- Conservation efforts aimed at preserving the GIB's habitat include initiatives such as habitat restoration, land management practices to promote grassland health, and the establishment of conservation reserves and corridors to connect fragmented habitats. Protecting and restoring these grassland ecosystems is crucial for the survival of the Great Indian Bustard and the countless other species that depend on them for their existence
5.Threats
- Power Transmission Lines –among the greatest threat to the Great Indian Bustard are overhead transmission lines.
- Due to their poor frontal vision, the birds cannot spot the power lines from a distance and are too heavy to change course when close. Thus they collide with the cables and die.
- Hunting
- Attack by feral dogs and wild pigs
- The natural habitat of Bustards is also an ideal space for setting up wind turbines and solar panels.
- Habitat loss due to widespread agriculture.
- According to the Wildlife Institute of India (WII), in Rajasthan, 18GIBs die every year after colliding with power lines.
6.Steps Taken
The Supreme Court ordered all overhead power transmission lines in core and potential Great Indian Bustard habitats in Rajasthan and Gujarat be made underground.
The court sought reports from the chief secretaries of the two states in six weeks on the installation of bird diverters (reflector–like structures strung on power cables) in priority areas.SC asked them to assess the length of transmission lines that need to go underground.
The captive breeding programme of the Great Indian Bustard was spearheaded by the wildlife institute of India, Dehradun
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For Prelims :Flagship species, WII, Bustard status, Indian Polity and Governance For Mains :GS II – Constitution of India 1.What are the major threats to Great Indian Bustard? Suggest measures to save them. |
SPECIAL INTENSIVE REVISION (SIR)
- The Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of the Electoral Rolls is an important exercise undertaken by the Election Commission of India (ECI) to ensure that the voter lists (electoral rolls) are accurate, updated, and inclusive before any major election or as part of the annual revision cycle.
- In simpler terms, the SIR is a comprehensive verification and correction process of the electoral rolls — aimed at including eligible voters, removing ineligible ones, and rectifying errors in the existing list.
- It is called “special” because it involves an intensified, house-to-house verification and greater public participation compared to the routine annual summary revision
- The purpose of the Special Intensive Revision is to maintain the purity, accuracy, and inclusiveness of India’s democratic process. Clean and updated voter rolls are essential for free, fair, and credible elections, as they prevent issues like bogus voting, disenfranchisement, and duplication.
- In summary, the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) is a focused, large-scale voter verification campaign conducted by the Election Commission to ensure that the electoral rolls are error-free, inclusive, and reflective of the current eligible voting population. It plays a crucial role in strengthening the integrity and transparency of India’s electoral system
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During the Special Intensive Revision, Booth Level Officers (BLOs) visit households to verify voter details such as name, address, age, and photo identity. This exercise helps identify:
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- Article 324(1) of the Indian Constitution empowers the Election Commission of India (ECI) with the authority to oversee, guide, and manage the preparation of electoral rolls as well as the conduct of elections for both Parliament and the State Legislatures.
- As per Section 21(3) of the Representation of the People Act, 1950, the ECI holds the right to order a special revision of the electoral roll for any constituency, or part of it, at any time and in a manner it considers appropriate.
- According to the Registration of Electors’ Rules, 1960, the revision of electoral rolls may be carried out intensively, summarily, or through a combination of both methods, as directed by the ECI.
- An intensive revision involves preparing an entirely new roll, while a summary revision deals with updating or modifying the existing one
| Aspect | Special Intensive Revision (SIR) | National Register of Citizens (NRC) |
| Purpose | To verify, update, and correct the electoral rolls so that all eligible voters are included and ineligible names are removed | To identify legal citizens of India and detect illegal immigrants |
| Authority / Governing Body | Conducted by the Election Commission of India (ECI) | Conducted under the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) |
| Legal Basis | Based on Article 324(1) of the Constitution, Section 21(3) of the Representation of the People Act, 1950, and the Registration of Electors' Rules, 1960. | Governed by the Citizenship Act, 1955 and the Citizenship (Registration of Citizens and Issue of National Identity Cards) Rules, 2003 |
| Scope | Focuses only on Indian citizens aged 18 years and above who are eligible to vote | Covers all residents of India (or a particular state) to determine their citizenship status |
| Nature of the Exercise | A regular, recurring administrative exercise carried out to maintain accurate voter lists | A special, large-scale verification exercise conducted under specific legal or political mandates. |
| Relation to Citizenship | Does not determine citizenship — only eligibility to vote | Directly determines citizenship status |
One of the major concerns is the erroneous deletion of eligible voters from the rolls.
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Mistakes during house-to-house verification or data entry may lead to legitimate voters—especially migrants, daily-wage workers, and marginalized communities—being left out.
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Such exclusions can directly affect voter participation and undermine the democratic process.
Despite the intensive verification, fake or duplicate names often remain due to poor coordination or outdated records.
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Deaths, migrations, or multiple registrations in different constituencies are not always updated accurately.
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This raises questions about the accuracy and credibility of the electoral rolls.
The SIR is a large-scale field operation requiring trained personnel, coordination among departments, and robust data systems.
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Booth Level Officers (BLOs) are often overburdened with multiple duties and may not have sufficient time or training for thorough verification.
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Limited digital infrastructure in rural areas can also hamper real-time data updates.
Electoral roll revisions, especially when conducted close to elections, can spark political allegations of bias or manipulation.
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Parties may accuse each other or the Election Commission of targeting specific communities or constituencies.
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Even unintentional errors can lead to trust deficits in the electoral process.
Addressing these concerns is vital to maintain trust in the Election Commission and uphold the credibility of India’s democratic system
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For Prelims: Special Intensive Revision (SIR), National Register of Citizens (NRC), Election Commission of India (ECI)
For Mains: GS II - Indian Polity
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Previous year Question1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2017)
1. The Election Commission of India is a five-member body.
2. Union Ministry of Home Affairs decides the election schedule for the conduct of both general elections and bye-elections.
3. Election Commission resolves the disputes relating to splits/mergers of recognized political parties.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only
B. 2 only
C. 2 and 3 only
D. 3 only
Answer: D
2. Consider the following statements : (UPSC 2021)
1. In India, there is no law restricting the candidates from contesting in one Lok Sabha election from three constituencies.
2. In the 1991 Lok Sabha Election, Shri Devi Lal contested from three Lok Sabha constituencies.
3. As per the- existing rules, if a candidate contests in one Lok Sabha election from many constituencies, his/her party should bear the cost of bye-elections to the constituencies vacated by him/her in the event of him/her winning in all the constituencies.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. 1 and 3
D. 2 and 3
Answer: B
Mains
1.To enhance the quality of democracy in India the Election Commission of India has proposed electoral reforms in 2016. What are the suggested reforms and how far are they significant to make democracy successful? (UPSC CSE 2017)
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PM KUSUM
1. Context
The centre is considering incorporating a new provision for battery energy storage in the revamped Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyaan (PM KUSUM) scheme, as it works on formulating a new version of the flagship programme.
2. About PM KUSUM
PM-KUSUM Scheme was launched in 2019, PM-KUSUM and aims to help farmers access reliable daytime solar power for irrigation, reduce power subsidies, and decarbonize agriculture.
PM-KUSUM provides farmers with incentives to install solar power pumps and plants in their fields.
2. Objectives
- PM-KUSUM Scheme is targeted to achieve 10000 MW capacity through the installation of grid-connected solar power plants each of capacity up to 2 MW under Component A and solarisation of 35 lakh agriculture pumps under Component-B and Component-C.
- PM-KUSUM is a demand-driven scheme and capacities are allocated based on demand received from the states.
Scheme aim to increase the country's solar water pumps manufacturing capacity:
- The target of installation or solarisation of 35 lakh pumps through central financial support under the Scheme provides visibility of demand in the coming years.
- Condition of the domestic content requirement for participation in Component-B and Component-C.
- Direct participation of manufacturers of solar pumps/ solar photovoltaic modules/ solar pump controllers either as sole bidder or member of a Joint Venture, in bidding under Component-B and Component-C.
4. Implementing Agency
The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy is the implementing Agency.
Two major schemes for decentralized solar power production.
- PM-KUSUM scheme targeted to achieve 10000 MW capacity through the installation of grid-connected solar power plants each of capacity up to 2 MW under Component A and solarisation of 35 lakh agriculture pumps under Component- B and Component-C; and
- Rooftop Solar Programme Phase II is targeted to achieve 40 GW rooftop solar capacity in the country. The timeline of both the schemes has been extended till 31.3.2026
5. Features
- The implementation agencies in the States/ UTs have to provide priority to the small and marginal farmers while selecting the beneficiaries.
- Separate budgetary allocations are made under the Scheme for the beneficiaries belonging to Scheduled Castes & Scheduled Tribes and also those living in the North-Eastern States.
- Therefore, benefits under the Scheme are already available to the economically backward groups/areas of the country.
- The barren lands of the farmers will be used to install about 10000 MW of solar pumps.
- Additional electricity generated from these pumps can be sold to the state electricity distribution companies called DISCOMs.
- The DISCOMs will be able to get subsidies to buy this electricity.
- The farmers will be able to get a subsidy of 60% for buying solar pumps. This amount will be transferred as a direct benefit transfer to their respective bank accounts.
- The subsidy amount will be shared by the central and state governments.
- 30 % of the remaining amount will be given as a loan to the farmers.
- Thus, only 10% of the amount will have to be borne by the farmers.
6. Challenges
The effective and efficient roll-out of the PM-KUSUM Scheme was hindered by the following factors
- Pandemic-induced disruptions,
- Limited buy-in from States, and
- Implementation challenges
| Unmet targets- Off-grid pumps have been the most popular, but the nearly 2, 80,000 systems deployed fall far short of the scheme’s target of two million by 2022. |
7. Barriers
- Availability of low-cost financing for farmers and
- The state share of funds
- Their economic viability in the presence of high farm subsidies and
- Farmers’ potential unwillingness to feed in surplus power when selling water or irrigating extra land is a more attractive prospect.
8. Significance
- The scheme will open a stable and continuous source of income to rural landowners for 25 years by utilization of their dry or uncultivable land.
- It would also help increase the production of green energy and generate employment in rural areas and would later provide for the solarisation of tube wells and lift irrigation projects of the government sector.
- The scheme would ensure that sufficient local solar or other renewable energy-based power is available for feeding rural load centres and agriculture pump-set loads, which require power mostly during the daytime.
- As these power plants will be located closer to the agriculture loads or electrical substations in a decentralized manner, it will result in reduced Transmission losses for STUs and DISCOMs.
- Moreover, the scheme will also help the DISCOMs to achieve the RPO target.
- The solar pumps will save the expenditure incurred on diesel for running diesel pumps and provide the farmers with a reliable source of irrigation solar pumps.
- The scheme will help in preventing harmful pollution formed from running diesel pumps.
For Prelims & Mains
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For Prelims: DISCOMs, PM-KUSUM,
For Mains:
1. What is PM-KUSUM and discuss the major challenges in it's implementation (250 Words)
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Source: PIB
LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS (LPG)
- The price of LPG has been rising since November 2020; a 14.2 kg cylinder in Delhi now costs Rs 949 -Rs 355 or nearly 60 per cent costlier
- A steady increase in crude prices due to the recovery in demand following the easing of Covid restrictions, slow restoration of production by oil exporters, and the Russia-Ukraine war have contributed to rising prices
- The price of India’s crude oil basket has risen from $41 per barrel in November 2020 to $115.4 as on March 23, 2022
- The government had stopped subsidies on LPG cylinders for most consumers in May 2020, adding to the price burden on consumers
- Due to high inland freight costs, the government now provides subsidies only through its direct benefit transfer scheme to customers in remote areas
- LPG is the primary cooking fuel in more than 70 per cent of Indian households, and 85 per cent of households have LPG connections, according to an independent study released by the Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW)
- However, 54 per cent of households continue to use traditional solid fuels such as firewood, dung cakes, agriculture residue, charcoal, and kerosene, either exclusively or with LPG increasing the exposure to indoor air pollution
- The CEEW findings are from the India Residential Energy Survey 2020, conducted in collaboration with the Initiative for Sustainable Energy Policy in FY 19-20 in nearly 15,000 urban and rural households across 152 districts in 21 most populous states
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For Prelims: Exports, Imports, Inflation, Minimum Support Price
For Mains: 1.Examine the impact of international trade agreements on India's rice exports. Discuss the role of organizations such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) and regional trade agreements in shaping India's rice export policies. Analyze how these agreements have influenced the growth, diversification, and sustainability of India's rice export market.
2.Evaluate the significance of Basmati rice in India's agricultural exports. Elaborate on the economic, cultural, and geopolitical factors that have contributed to the prominence of Basmati rice in India's export portfolio. Discuss the challenges and opportunities associated with the production and international trade of this premium rice variety
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Previous Year Questions
1.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2020)
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only Answer: (d) 2.With reference to Indian economy, demand-pull inflation can be caused/increased by which of the following? (UPSC CSE 2021)
Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2 and 4 only Answer: (a) 3. Consider the following statements: (2020)
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only Answer: (a) |
