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DAILY CURRENT AFFAIRS, 26 MARCH 2026

RETAIL INFLATION

 

1. Context

The Union government on Wednesday asked the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) to target retail inflation at 4% with a margin of 2% on either side for another five years ending March 2031.

2. What is Inflation?

  • It is the rise in prices of goods and services within a particular economy wherein consumers' purchasing power decreases, and the value of the cash holdings erodes.
  • In India, the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) measures inflation.
  • Some causes that lead to inflation are demand increases, reduction in supply, demand-supply gap, excess circulation of money, increase in input costs, devaluation of the currency, and rise in wages, among others.

3. Retail Inflation

Consumers often directly buy from retailers. So, the inflation experienced at retail reflects the actual price rise in the country. It also shows the cost of living better. In India, the index that reflects the inflation rate at the retail level is known as Consumer Price Index (CPI). Unlike WPI, CPI includes both goods and services. CPI is used to calculate the Dearness Allowance (DA) for government employees.

4. How Inflation is measured?

  • In India, inflation is primarily measured by two main indices- WPI (Wholesale Price Index) and CPI (Consumer Price Index), Which measures Wholesale and retail-level price changes, respectively.
  • The CPI calculates the difference in the price of commodities and services such as food, medical care, education, electronics, etc, which Indian consumers buy for use.
  • On the other hand, the goods or services sold by businesses to smaller businesses for selling further are captured by the WPI.
  • Both WPI (Wholesale Price Index) and CPI (Consumer Price Index) are used to measure inflation in India. 

5. What is the Inflation Target?

  • Under Section 45ZA, in consultation with the RBI Act, the Central Government determines the inflation target in terms of the Consumer Price Index (CPI), once in five years and notifies it in the Official Gazette.
  • Accordingly, on August 5, 2016, the Central Government notified in the Official Gazette 4 percent Consumer Price Index (CPI) inflation as the target for the period from August 5, 2016, to March 31, 2021, with the upper tolerance limit of 6 percent and the lower tolerance limit of 2 percent.
  • On March 31, 2021, the Central Government retained the inflation target and the tolerance band for the next 5-year period-April 1, 2021 to March 31, 2026.
  • Section 45ZB of the RBI Act provides for the constitution of a six-member Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) to determine the policy rate required to achieve the inflation target.

6. Monetary Policy Committee (MPC)

  • The MPC is a statutory and institutionalized framework under the RBI Act, of 1934, for maintaining price stability, keeping in mind the objective of growth. It was created in 2016.
  • It was created to bring transparency and accountability in deciding monetary policy.
  • MPC determines the policy interest rate required to achieve the inflation target.
  • The committee comprises six members and Governor RBI acts as an ex-officio chairman. Three members are from RBI and three are selected by the government. The inflation target is to be set once every five years. It is set by the Government of India, in consultation with the Reserve Bank of India.
  • The current inflation target is pegged at 4% with -2/+2 tolerance till March 31, 2021.

7. What Caused the drop in Inflation?

  • Retail Inflation or price gains based on the Consumer Price Index, slowed to 6.77 % last month, from September's 7.41%, aided by an appreciable deceleration in food price inflation.
  • The year-on-year inflation based on the Consumer Food Price Index eased by almost 160 basis points in October, to 7.01%, from the preceding month's 8.60%, helped by a 'decline in prices of vegetables, fruits, pulses and oils, and fats', the Government said.
  • With the food and beverages sub-index representing almost 46% of the CPI's weight, the slowdown in food price gains understandably steered overall inflation lower even as price gains in three other essential categories, namely clothing, and footwear, housing, and health remained either little changed from September or quickened.
  • Inflation at the Wholesale Prices Level also continued to decelerate, with the headline reading easing into single digits for the first time in 19 months. A favorable base effect along with a distinct cooling in international prices of commodities including crude oil and steel amid gathering uncertainty in advanced economies was largely instrumental in tempering wholesale price gains.

8. Recent Measures by the Government

To soften the prices of edible oils and pulses, tariffs on imported items have been rationalized from time to time. The stock limits on edible oils are also maintained, to avoid hoarding.
The Government has taken trade-related measures on wheat and rice to keep domestic supplies steady and curb the rise in prices.
The impact of these measures is expected to be felt more significantly in the coming months.

For Prelims & Mains

 

For Prelims: Inflation, MPC, CPI, WPI, food Inflation, RBI, Headline inflation, Core inflation

For Mains: 
 1. Explain the concept of inflation and its impact on an economy. Discuss the various causes of inflation and the measures that can be taken to control it, with specific reference to India. (250 Words)
2. What are the challenges and opportunities associated with managing inflation in India? Evaluate the effectiveness of recent policy measures in addressing inflationary pressures and maintaining price stability. Suggest strategies for sustainable economic growth while managing inflation risks. (250 Words)
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1. Consider the following statements:  (UPSC 2021)
1. The Governor of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is appointed by the Central Government.
2. Certain provisions in the Constitution of India give the Central Government the right to issue directions to the RBI in the public interest.
3. The Governor of the RBI draws his natural power from the RBI Act.
Which of the above statements is/are correct? 
A. 1 and 2 only    B.  2 and 3 only     C. 1 and 3 only     D. 1, 2 and 3
 
 
2. Concerning the Indian economy, consider the following: (UPSC 2015)
  1. Bank rate
  2. Open Market Operations
  3. Public debt
  4. Public revenue

Which of the above is/are component(s) of Monetary Policy?

(a) 1 only   (b) 2, 3 and 4    (c) 1 and 2     (d) 1, 3 and 4

 

3. An increase in Bank Rate generally indicates: (UPSC 2013)

(a) Market rate of interest is likely to fall.
(b) Central bank is no longer making loans to commercial banks.
(c) Central bank is following an easy money policy.
(d) Central bank is following a tight money policy.
 

4. Which of the following statements is/are correct regarding the Monetary Policy Committee (MPC)? (UPSC 2017) 

1. It decides the RBI's benchmark interest rates.
2. It is a 12-member body including the Governor of RBI and is reconstituted every year.
3. It functions under the chairmanship of the Union Finance Minister.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

A. 1 only      B.  1 and 2 only      C. 3 only      D. 2 and 3 only

 
5. Read the following passage and answer the question that follows. Your answers to these items should be based on the passage only.
Policymakers and media have placed the blame for skyrocketing food prices on a variety of factors, including high fuel prices, bad weather in key food producing countries, and the diversion of land to non-food production. Increased emphasis, however, has been placed on a surge in demand for food from the most populous emerging economics. It seems highly probable that mass consumption in these countries could be well poised to create a food crisis.
With reference to the above passage, the following assumptions have been made: (UPSC 2021)
1. Oil producing countries are one of the reasons for high food prices.
2. If there is a food crisis in the world in the near future, it will be in the emerging economies. Which of the above assumptions is/are valid?
A. 1 only        B. 2 only           C. Both 1 and 2         D.  Neither 1 nor 2
 
 
6. India has experienced persistent and high food inflation in the recent past. What could be the reasons? (UPSC 2011)
1. Due to a gradual switchover to the cultivation of commercial crops, the area under the cultivation of food grains has steadily decreased in the last five years by about 30.
2. As a consequence of increasing incomes, the consumption patterns of the people have undergone a significant change.
3. The food supply chain has structural constraints.
Which of the statements given above are correct? 
A. 1 and 2 only          B. 2 and 3 only        C. 1 and 3 only          D. 1, 2 and 3
 
 
7. With reference to inflation in India, which of the following statements is correct? (UPSC 2015) 
A. Controlling the inflation in India is the responsibility of the Government of India only
B. The Reserve Bank of India has no role in controlling the inflation
C. Decreased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation
D. Increased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation
 
 
8. With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2016)
1. The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN and it will go into effect in 2017
2. The Agreement aims to limit greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2°C or even 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.
3. Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility in global warming and committed to donate $ 1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries to cope with climate change.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1 and 3 only     B.  2 only        C. 2 and 3 only        D. 1, 2 and 3
 
Answers: 1-C, 2-C, 3-D, 4-A, 5-D, 6-B, 6-C, 7-B
 
 
Source: The Hindu
 
 

MICROPLASTICS IN OCEANS

 
 
1. Context
 
Microplastics, especially nylon fibres, seem to be present rather sparsely in Chennai’s beach sediments but could still wreak long-term ecological damage, new research has cautioned. A study by researchers at V.O. Chidambaram College in Thoothukudi examined the abundance, sources, and ecological risks of microplastics from beach sediment samples from 15 sites along the Chennai coast. The findings show fibres dominating, with most particles smaller than 1000 m.
 
2. About Microplastics
 
  • Microplastics are tiny plastic particles that result from commercial product development and the breakdown of larger plastics.
  • They are fragments of any type of plastic less than 5mm(0.20 in) in length.
  • Plastic pollution is big evil and can help viruses alive and infectious in fresh water for days
  • Microplastics are particularly harmful to the oceans as they don’t readily break down into harmless molecules and adversely affect the health of marine organisms, which mistake plastic for food. Moreover, these particles can trigger loss of biodiversity and threaten ecosystem balance
3. Key Findings
 
  • Fisheries in Goa primarily operate around estuaries — vital ecological zones that provide nursery habitats for juvenile fish and feeding grounds for adults. These regions are rich in finfish and shellfish, both of which are central to local fishing practices.
  • Owing to their abundance, affordability, and high protein value, these species are widely used in Indian diets.
  • Small pelagic species such as anchovies, sardines, and mackerel play a crucial role in estuarine food webs. They feed on plankton and, in turn, attract larger predatory fish. As filter feeders, they capture suspended particles from the water, making them more susceptible to ingesting microplastics.
  • These smaller fish serve as prey for larger species, which are themselves eaten by elasmobranchs — cartilaginous fishes like sharks inhabiting shallow coastal waters. Through this process, known as trophic transfer, microplastics move progressively up the food chain, ultimately impacting apex predators and humans.
  • Researchers examined fish from the Mandovi estuarine system — part of the Mandovi-Zuari complex that accounts for nearly 97% of Goa’s total fish production. The bamboo shark, a top predator, was chosen as the focal species to study the consequences of microplastic buildup.
  • This study bridges a major knowledge gap by addressing five key aspects: the extent of microplastic contamination in commercially important fish, factors influencing their ingestion, primary pathways of entry within fish bodies, evidence of microplastics in bamboo sharks, and the broader implications of such contamination for marine and human health along Goa’s coastline
They also identified four major shape-types of microplastics: fibres (53%), fragments (29.9%), films (13.1%), and beads (4%). Marine animals use colours to detect prey, and the particles came in nine hues: blue (37.6%), black (24.3%), red (12%), discoloured (8.7%), transparent (6.8%), green (4.4%), pink/purple (2.5%), yellow (1.9%), and orange (1.7%).The types and colours of microplastics revealed their sources to be fishing gear, tire residue from roads, e-waste, packaging, and textiles.
 
4. Impacts of Microplastics on Ocean and Marine life
  • Several recent studies have detected microplastics in marine organisms, from phytoplankton to whales and dolphins, which might prove hazardous for them
  • The ingestion of such particles can cause “mechanical problems, such as lacerations and blockages to internal systems.”
  • Ingested plastics can cause chemical problems by leaching absorb chemicals into organisms
  • We know that microplastics absorb many hydrophobic compounds, like DDT, PCBs and other industrial chemicals, and evidence shows they can be released when ingested
  • Microplastics can also disrupt the carbon cycle of the oceans
  • Normally, phytoplankton absorbs carbon and are eaten by zooplankton, who excrete the carbon in the form of faecal pellets that sink to the sea floor
  •  Once these carbon-containing pellets reach there, “the carbon can be remineralized into rocks  preventing it from escaping back into the atmosphere,”
  • If zooplanktons consume microplastics, their faecal pellets sink at a much slower rate, which means they are more likely to break apart or be eaten by other animals
  • Making it less likely that the carbon will reach the seafloor and become permanently sequestered
5. How to limit plastic pollution in oceans
 
  • Researchers of the latest study suggested that there is an urgent need to implement a global resolution to limit the production of single-use, throwaway plastic
  • We need cities to be responsible for managing their waste so it does not leave their territory
  • We need to reduce the amount of chemical additives in new plastic products
  •  If we talk about recycling, there have to be requirements that recycled plastic be used in new products
  •  The industries that make plastic like to talk about how technically we can recycle all of it. But they don’t like to commit to buying recycled plastic, therefore recycling fails
 
6. Risk Assessment
 
  • Overall, the study classified the region and its ecosystem as having a low overall risk, though it noted that benthic organisms — those living on or near the sea floor — face greater vulnerability than pelagic species that inhabit open waters. The researchers detected 19 types of plastic polymers, of which 11 were deemed highly toxic.
  • The findings also revealed that 66 out of 71 shellfish species examined had poor nutritional value. Earlier research has linked microplastic exposure in fish to reduced fitness levels, lower protein and fatty acid content, and diminished nutritional quality.
  • Beyond the ecological impact, these changes may have socioeconomic consequences: as the quality of such fish declines, market demand may fall, threatening the livelihoods of coastal communities dependent on fisheries.
  • Given that microplastics are now present across the planet, the study emphasizes the urgent global need to tackle plastic pollution through improved waste management systems and innovation in biodegradable alternatives
7.What is the Global Plastics Treaty?
 
  • In March 2022, the United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA) committed to combating plastic pollution, including in marine ecosystems. To achieve this, it established Intergovernmental Negotiating Committees (INC) tasked with drafting a treaty by the end of 2024.
  • Over two years, countries convened five times to reconcile differing perspectives on addressing plastic pollution. While many nations support recycling initiatives and banning specific plastics, such as India's 2022 prohibition on single-use plastics, they remain hesitant to curb overall plastic production. This resistance stems from the economic significance of plastic manufacturing in petro-states and countries with large polymer industries.
  • Ahead of the most recent negotiation round in Busan, South Korea, INC-5 Chair Luis Vayas Valdivieso presented a draft "non-paper," summarizing nations' varied approaches to managing plastic production.
  • However, negotiations highlighted a stark divide between countries that see plastic pollution as a waste management issue and those advocating for production cuts at the source. This gap remains unresolved
 
For Prelims: Microplastics, Nano Particles, Particulate Matter, Wastewater Management
 
For Mains: GS III - Environment and Ecology
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2022)
 
1. Other than those made by humans, nanoparticles do not exist in nature.
2. Nanoparticles of some metallic oxides are used in the manufacture of some cosmetics.
3. Nanoparticles of same commercial products which enter the environment are unsafe for humans.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 Only
B. 3 Only
C. 1 and 2
D. 2 and 3
Answer (D)
2.There is some concern regarding the nanoparticles of some chemical elements that are used by the industry in the manufacture of various products. Why? (UPSC CSE 2014)
1. They can accumulate in the environment, and contaminate water and soil.
2. They can enter the food chains.
3. They can trigger the production of free radicals.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
A.1 and 2 only
B.3 only
C.1 and 3 only
D.1, 2 and 3
Answer (D)
 
Source: The Hindu
 
 

SCHEDULED CASTE LIST

 
 
1. Context
 
 The Supreme Court on Tuesday held that the Scheduled Caste status is available only to Hindus, Sikhs and Buddhists and that conversion to any other religion will result in “immediate and complete loss of” the caste “status from the moment of conversion regardless of birth”.
 
2.What is the Scheduled Caste list?
 
The Scheduled Caste (SC) list is an official designation given by the Indian government to certain historically disadvantaged and marginalized communities in India. These communities are identified based on social, economic, and educational criteria. The SC list is part of India's affirmative action policy aimed at providing social justice and equal opportunities to those who have faced historical discrimination and social exclusion.
 
Here are key aspects of the Scheduled Caste list:
 
  • The designation of Scheduled Castes is governed by Article 341 of the Indian Constitution. It empowers the President of India to specify the castes, races, or tribes deemed to be Scheduled Castes in various states and union territories
  • The primary purpose of the SC list is to ensure that members of these communities receive special consideration and benefits in education, employment, and political representation to help overcome historical disadvantages and discrimination
  • Members of Scheduled Castes are entitled to reservations (quotas) in educational institutions, government jobs, and legislatures. This includes reserved seats in the Lok Sabha (the lower house of India's Parliament) and State Legislative Assemblies
  • In addition to reservations, various social welfare schemes and programs are designed to improve the living conditions, educational attainment, and economic status of SC communities. These include scholarships, grants, and special financial assistance
  • The list of Scheduled Castes can be amended from time to time by the Parliament of India. New communities can be added, and existing communities can be removed based on changing socio-economic conditions and through recommendations from state governments and commissions
  • The SC list varies from state to state. A community recognized as SC in one state may not necessarily be recognized as such in another state. This is because the socio-economic conditions and historical context of caste-based discrimination can differ across regions
 
3.Who has the authority to amend the Schedule caste list?
 

The authority to amend the Scheduled Caste (SC) list rests with the Parliament of India. This process is outlined in Article 341 of the Indian Constitution. Here's how it works:

  • Presidential Notification: Article 341(1) states that the President of India, after consulting with the Governor of the respective state, can specify the castes, races, or tribes to be recognized as Scheduled Castes in relation to that state or union territory. This is done through a public notification.

  • Parliamentary Approval: Article 341(2) stipulates that any inclusion or exclusion of castes, races, or tribes from the list of Scheduled Castes can only be done through a law enacted by Parliament. This means that the President cannot unilaterally amend the SC list; any changes must be approved by the Parliament through legislation.

  • Process:

    • Proposal: A proposal for amending the SC list typically starts with recommendations from state governments or Union territories, which may conduct their own reviews and surveys.
    • Review and Recommendation: These recommendations are reviewed by the National Commission for Scheduled Castes, which advises the President on such matters.
    • Legislative Process: Based on these recommendations, the central government can introduce a bill in Parliament to amend the SC list. This bill must go through the usual legislative process, including approval by both houses of Parliament (the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha) and receiving the President's assent.

  • Consultation: The President must consult with the Governor of the concerned state before making any specification of Scheduled Castes in that state, ensuring that local contexts and perspectives are considered

 
4. What is the purpose of Article 341 of the Constitution?

Article 341 of the Indian Constitution is designed to address the historical injustices and social disadvantages faced by certain communities, by formally recognizing them as Scheduled Castes (SCs).

The purpose of Article 341 is multifaceted:

  • Identification and Recognition: Article 341 provides a mechanism for identifying and officially recognizing castes, races, or tribes that have historically faced extreme social, educational, and economic disadvantages. This formal recognition is crucial for the implementation of targeted affirmative action policies.

  • Legal Framework for Affirmative Action: By identifying and listing Scheduled Castes, Article 341 creates a legal basis for implementing various affirmative action measures aimed at uplifting these communities. These measures include reservations (quotas) in education, employment, and political representation, as well as various social welfare programs.

  • Consultation and Specification:

    • Article 341(1): Empowers the President of India, in consultation with the Governor of a state, to specify the castes, races, or tribes that shall be treated as Scheduled Castes in relation to that state or union territory. This ensures that local conditions and contexts are considered in the identification process.
    • Article 341(2): Stipulates that any subsequent amendments to this list, such as adding or removing castes, must be enacted by Parliament. This ensures that changes to the SC list are subject to a thorough legislative process, providing an additional layer of scrutiny and legitimacy
  • The overarching goal of Article 341 is to promote social justice and equality. By recognizing certain communities as Scheduled Castes, the Constitution aims to rectify historical discrimination and provide these communities with enhanced opportunities for social, educational, and economic advancement
  • The identification of Scheduled Castes under Article 341 allows the government to design and implement targeted interventions and policies that specifically address the needs and challenges of these communities. This helps in ensuring that the benefits of affirmative action and social welfare programs reach those who need them the most
 
5. What is the role of the National Commission for Scheduled Caste?
 
The National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC) plays a vital role in safeguarding the rights and interests of Scheduled Castes (SCs) in India.
 
Established under Article 338 of the Indian Constitution, the Commission has several key functions and responsibilities:
  • The NCSC monitors the implementation of constitutional and other legal safeguards for SCs.
  • It investigates and inquires into specific complaints regarding the deprivation of rights and safeguards of SCs
  • The Commission advises the central and state governments on policies and measures required to improve the socio-economic development of SCs.
  • It provides recommendations on the planning process and socioeconomic development schemes for SCs
  • The NCSC presents annual reports to the President of India on the working of these safeguards and measures.
  • These reports are then laid before each house of Parliament, along with a memorandum explaining the action taken on the recommendations and the reasons for non-acceptance of any recommendations
  • The Commission reviews the progress of the development of SCs under the Union and any State.
  • It participates in and advises on the planning process for the socio-economic development of SCs
  • The NCSC conducts studies, research, and analysis on issues relating to the socio-economic development of SCs.
  • It promotes awareness and education among SC communities regarding their rights and the measures available to them
  • The NCSC has the powers of a civil court in matters of summoning and enforcing the attendance of any person from any part of India and examining them on oath.
  • It can also require the production of any document, receive evidence on affidavits, and issue commissions for the examination of witnesses and documents
  • The Commission works to ensure that SCs are protected against discrimination and exploitation in various sectors, including employment, education, and access to resources.
  • It looks into complaints regarding violations of rights and discrimination against SCs in different areas
  • The NCSC reviews the working of the constitutional and other legal safeguards for SCs and recommends measures for their effective implementation.
  • It suggests amendments to existing laws or the introduction of new legislation aimed at improving the status and welfare of SCs
 
6.Way Forward
 
The Bihar Legislature had enacted the Bihar Reservation of Vacancies in Posts and Services (for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other Backward Classes) Act, 1991 (Act No.3 of 1992). Under the Act, it had declared the lists of Extremely Backward Classes and at serial number 33, Tanti-Tantwa was shown as falling under the Extremely Backward Classes
 
 
For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance
For Mains: GS-II: Government policies and intervention
 
Previous Year Questions

Prelims

1.Consider the following statements about Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) in India: (UPSC CSE 2019)

1. PVTGs reside in 18 states and one Union Territory.

2. A stagnant or declining population is one of the criteria for determining PVTG status.

3. There are 95 PVTGs officially notified in the country so far.

4. Irular and Konda Reddi tribes are included in the list of PVTGs.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

(a) 1, 2 and 3

(b) 2, 3 and 4

(c) 1, 2 and 4

(d) 1, 3 and 4

Answer (c)

  • PVTGs reside in 18 states and one Union Territory: This is correct. PVTGs are distributed across various states and one Union Territory in India.

  • A stagnant or declining population is one of the criteria for determining PVTG status: This is correct. Criteria for identifying PVTGs include factors like a stagnant or declining population, pre-agricultural level of technology, extremely low literacy, and a subsistence level of economy.

  • There are 95 PVTGs officially notified in the country so far: This statement is incorrect. There are 75 PVTGs officially notified in the country.

  • Irular and Konda Reddi tribes are included in the list of PVTGs: This is correct. Both the Irular and Konda Reddi tribes are recognized as PVTGs.

Given this analysis, the correct statements are 1, 2, and 4

Mains

1.What are the two major legal initiatives by the state since independence addressing discrimination against Scheduled Tribes (STs)? (UPSC CSE 2017)
Source: The Hindu
 
 

NATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS COMMISSION (NHRC)

 
 
1. Context
The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC), India has taken suomotu cognizance of a media report that a total of 285 inmates died in different jails of Chhattisgarh over the past four years, with the highest number of 90 deaths in 2022 and 66 during January 2025 to 31st January 2026. Reportedly, the state government in the Assembly cited suicide and chronic ailments as the reasons behind the inmates’ death.
 
2. What is the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC)?
  • The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) is a statutory body established in India in 1993 under the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993.
  • It serves as an autonomous public institution tasked with the protection and promotion of human rights across the country.
  • The NHRC investigates complaints of human rights violations, conducts inquiries, and recommends remedial action to the government.
  • It also plays a role in promoting awareness of human rights and providing education on related issues.
  • The commission consists of a chairperson and several members appointed by the President of India, and it operates at both the central and state levels
3. History of NHRC
 
  • The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) was established in India on October 12, 1993, under the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993.
  • This Act was enacted to fulfill the obligations India undertook by becoming a signatory to the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, which called for the establishment of national institutions for the promotion and protection of human rights.
  • The NHRC was founded with the aim of addressing human rights violations and promoting awareness and respect for human rights across the country. It operates as an autonomous body, independent of the government, to ensure impartiality and effectiveness in its functioning.
  • Since its inception, the NHRC has played a crucial role in investigating complaints of human rights violations, conducting inquiries, and making recommendations to the government for remedial action. It also engages in advocacy, education, and awareness programs to promote a culture of human rights in India.
  • Over the years, the NHRC has evolved and expanded its scope to address various human rights issues, including those related to civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights. It operates at both the central and state levels, with a chairperson and members appointed by the President of India.
  • The NHRC's history is marked by its efforts to uphold the principles of justice, equality, and dignity enshrined in the Indian Constitution and international human rights instruments
4. NHRC Composition 

The composition of the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) includes a chairperson and several members appointed by the President of India. According to the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993, the NHRC consists of:

  • Chairperson: The chairperson is appointed by the President of India and must be a retired Chief Justice of the Supreme Court or a serving or retired Judge of the Supreme Court.

  • Members: The NHRC can have up to four members, including a member who is or has been a Judge of the Supreme Court, a member who is or has been the Chief Justice of a High Court, and two other members who have knowledge or practical experience in matters relating to human rights.

These appointments aim to ensure the independence, expertise, and credibility of the NHRC in addressing human rights issues effectively. The members serve fixed terms as specified by the Act, and they collectively contribute to the commission's efforts to protect and promote human rights across the country

5.Appointment of NHRC Members

 

The appointment of members to the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) follows a process outlined in the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993. Here's an overview of the appointment procedure:

  • Selection Committee: A Selection Committee is constituted to recommend candidates for appointment as Chairperson and members of the NHRC. The Selection Committee is chaired by the Prime Minister of India and includes the following members:

    • The Speaker of the Lok Sabha (House of the People) or the Deputy Speaker, in case the Speaker is unable to attend.
    • The Minister in charge of the Ministry of Home Affairs in the Government of India.
    • The Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha.
    • The Leader of the Opposition in the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) in the absence of the Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha
6.Functions & Powers of NHRC
 
The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) of India is empowered with various functions and powers to protect and promote human rights across the country.
 
Here are some of its key functions and powers:
  • The NHRC is authorized to inquire into complaints of human rights violations received from individuals or groups. It can investigate violations committed by public servants or by any authority or person acting under the government's authority
  • The Commission has the power to monitor human rights violations, including through suo moto action, where it can initiate an inquiry based on media reports, complaints, or its own knowledge
  • Following investigations or inquiries, the NHRC can make recommendations to the concerned authorities for remedial action, prosecution, or compensation to victims of human rights violations
  • The NHRC engages in activities to raise awareness about human rights issues through seminars, workshops, publications, and other educational programs
  • It advises the government on policies and measures to promote and protect human rights effectively
  • The NHRC can intervene in court proceedings related to human rights violations, either as a party or as amicus curiae (friend of the court)
  • The Commission conducts research and studies on human rights issues to better understand the challenges and formulate appropriate responses
  • Based on its findings and experiences, the NHRC can recommend legislative reforms to strengthen human rights protection in the country
  • The NHRC collaborates with international human rights organizations and participates in international forums to promote human rights globally
  • The NHRC has the authority to visit and monitor places of detention, such as prisons and juvenile homes, to ensure that inmates' human rights are respected
 
7. Limitations of NHRC 
 
National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) of India plays a significant role in protecting and promoting human rights, it also faces several limitations, including:
 
  • The NHRC lacks direct enforcement authority. It can investigate human rights violations, make recommendations, and issue guidelines, but it cannot enforce its decisions or ensure their implementation. Its recommendations are non-binding, and compliance by government agencies or other authorities is voluntary.
  • The process of investigation and resolution of complaints by the NHRC can be lengthy and time-consuming, leading to delays in providing justice to victims of human rights violations. This delay can undermine the effectiveness of the NHRC in addressing urgent and serious violations
  • The NHRC operates with limited resources, including budgetary allocations and staffing. This constraint can affect its capacity to handle a large number of complaints effectively and conduct thorough investigations into human rights violations
  • The NHRC's jurisdiction is limited to investigating human rights violations committed by public servants or authorities acting under the government's authority. It may not have jurisdiction over violations by non-state actors or in certain areas like the armed forces, where separate mechanisms exist
  • There have been instances where political pressures or interference have affected the independence and impartiality of the NHRC. Political influence can hinder its ability to address human rights violations objectively and without bias
  • Many people, especially in rural areas and marginalized communities, may not be aware of the NHRC's existence or how to access its services. This lack of awareness and accessibility can prevent victims of human rights violations from seeking redress through the commission
  • Even when the NHRC makes recommendations for remedial action or compensation, there may be instances where these recommendations are not implemented fully or effectively by the concerned authorities
 
 
For Prelims: National Human Rights Commission
For Mains: Emerging Human Rights Challenges, Role and Functions of the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC)
 
Previous Year Questions

1.Other than the Fundamental Rights, which of the following parts of the Constitution of India reflect/reflects the principles and provisions of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)? (UPSC CSE 2020)

  1. Preamble
  2. Directive Principles of State Policy
  3. Fundamental Duties

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 and 2 only 
(b) 2 only 
(c) 1 and 3 only 
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (d)

2.Consider the following: (UPSC CSE 2011)

  1. Right to education
  2. Right to equal access to public service
  3. Right to food.

Which of the above is/are Human Right/Human Rights under “Universal Declaration of Human Rights”?

(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2 only 
(c) 3 only 
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (d)

 

1.Though the Human Rights Commissions have contributed immensely to the protection of human rights in India, yet they have failed to assert themselves against the mighty and powerful. Analysing theirstructural and practical limitations, suggest remedial measures. (UPSC CSE Mains GS 1 2021)
Source: The Hindu
 
 

LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY ELECTIONS

 

 

1. Context

Election Commission India (ECI) conducted a training programme for all 294 Returning Officers (RO) for the West Bengal Legislative Assembly, 2026 today at the Divisional Headquarters at Jalpaiguri, Malda, Presidency, Burdwan and Medinipur Divisions
 

2. Reforms and changes are proposed by Election Commission of India in the upcoming elections

The Election Commission of India (ECI) has proposed several reforms and changes for the upcoming elections, including:

  • The ECI has proposed that VVPAT machines be made mandatory for all elections. VVPAT machines generate a paper slip that displays the voter's chosen candidate, which is then dropped into a sealed box. This allows voters to verify their vote and helps to prevent fraud.
  • The ECI is also considering the use of R-EVMs in the upcoming elections. R-EVMs are EVMs that can be operated from a remote location, such as a polling booth in a remote area. This would make it easier for voters in remote areas to cast their votes.
  • The ECI has also proposed to make online voter registration easier and more accessible. This would make it easier for eligible voters to register to vote, especially young voters and voters who live abroad.
  • The ECI has also proposed measures to increase transparency in political funding. This would include requiring political parties to disclose their sources of income and expenditure.
  • The ECI has also proposed to strictly enforce the Model Code of Conduct during elections. The Model Code of Conduct is a set of guidelines that political parties and candidates must follow during elections. It is intended to ensure that elections are conducted in a fair and free manner.
  • The ECI is proposing to increase the number of polling booths in areas with a large number of voters. This would make it easier for voters to cast their votes without having to travel long distances.
  • The ECI is proposing to introduce new rules for regulating the use of social media during elections. This includes requiring political parties to disclose their social media accounts and to be transparent about the content they are sharing.

3. The election process

The election process in India is as follows:

  • The ECI announces the schedule for the elections at least six weeks before the date of polling. The schedule includes the dates for filing nominations, campaigning, and polling.
  • Political parties and candidates file their nominations with the ECI on the specified dates. Each candidate must file a nomination form and pay a deposit. The nomination form must include the candidate's name, address, and other personal information.
  • The ECI scrutinizes the nominations to ensure that they meet all the requirements. The ECI may reject a nomination if the candidate is not eligible to contest the election or if the nomination form is not properly filled out.
  • The candidates campaign for the elections from the date of notification of candidates to the 48 hours before the polling day. During this period, the candidates hold rallies, give speeches, and distribute pamphlets.
  • Voting is held on the day of the election, which is a public holiday in India. Voters must cast their votes at the polling booth in the constituency where they are registered to vote. Voters must show their voter ID card to cast their vote.
  • The votes are counted after the polls close. The counting of votes is done in the presence of representatives of the candidates and political parties. The candidate who receives the most votes in a constituency is declared the winner.
  • The ECI declares the results of the elections after the counting of votes is complete. The winning candidates are awarded certificates of election.

4. The maximum and minimum strengths of a legislative assembly

  • The maximum and minimum strength of a legislative assembly is specified in the Constitution of India.
  • The Constitution also gives the states the autonomy to decide on the number of seats reserved for women Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
  • The maximum strength of a legislative assembly in India is 500 members and the minimum strength is 60 members. However, there are some exceptions to this rule.
  • For example, the legislative assemblies of Arunachal Pradesh, Goa, and Sikkim have a minimum strength of 30 members, and the legislative assemblies of Mizoram and Nagaland have a minimum strength of 40 and 46 members respectively.
  • The strength of a legislative assembly is determined by the population of the state. The larger the population of the state, the larger the size of the legislative assembly.

5. Determination of the legislative assembly’s strength

  • The strength of the legislative assembly is determined by the Delimitation Commission.
  • The Delimitation Commission is a quasi-judicial body that is appointed by the Government of India.
  • The Delimitation Commission is responsible for redrawing the boundaries of constituencies based on the latest census data.
  • The Delimitation Commission takes into account several factors when determining the strength of a legislative assembly, including:
  1. The population of the state
  2. The geographical features of the state
  3. The distribution of population within the state
  4. The number of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the state
  • The Delimitation Commission also ensures that each constituency has approximately the same number of voters.
  • This is important to ensure that all voters have equal representation in the legislative assembly.
  • Once the Delimitation Commission has determined the strength of the legislative assembly, it publishes a delimitation order.
  • The delimitation order specifies the number of constituencies in the state and the boundaries of each constituency.
  • The strength of a legislative assembly is an important factor in determining the level of representation that voters have.
  • A larger legislative assembly means that there are more representatives to represent the interests of the people.

6. Reasons for no uniformity in the organisation of state legislatures

  • There is no uniformity in the organization of state legislatures in India because the Constitution of India gives the states a lot of autonomy in this matter.
  • The Constitution only specifies the minimum and maximum strength of state legislatures.
  • The states are free to decide on the number of seats reserved for women, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
  • The Constitution also gives the states the option to have a unicameral or bicameral legislature. A unicameral legislature has only one house, while a bicameral legislature has two houses.

Currently, six states in India have a bicameral legislature:

  1. Andhra Pradesh
  2. Bihar
  3. Telangana
  4. Karnataka
  5. Maharashtra
  6. Uttar Pradesh

The other states and union territories in India have a unicameral legislature.

The following are some of the reasons why there is no uniformity in the organization of state legislatures:

  • Some states have a bicameral system because they have a long history of bicameralism. For example, the states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar had bicameral legislatures before independence.
  • India is a linguistically and culturally diverse country. The states have different languages, cultures, and traditions. This diversity is reflected in the organization of state legislatures. For example, the state of Tamil Nadu has a unicameral legislature because it has a strong tradition of unitary government.
  • Political parties often play a role in determining the organization of state legislatures. For example, the state of Telangana has a bicameral legislature because the ruling party wanted to create a separate upper house to represent the interests of different groups in the state.
  • The states have different administrative requirements. This may necessitate different types of state legislatures.

The following are some of the advantages and disadvantages of having a bicameral legislature:

Advantages:

  • A bicameral legislature can provide better representation for different groups in the state.
  • A bicameral legislature can act as a check on the power of the lower house.
  • A bicameral legislature can provide a forum for more in-depth deliberation on legislation.

Disadvantages:

  • A bicameral legislature can be more expensive to run than a unicameral legislature.
  • A bicameral legislature can be more difficult to manage than a unicameral legislature.
  • A bicameral legislature can lead to a deadlock between the two houses.

7. Model Code of Conduct

After the Election Commission announces the schedule for the polls, various activities related to the election process, including nomination filing, campaigning, polling, and counting, are carried out as per the prescribed timeline. The Model Code of Conduct comes into effect, and the election machinery is put into motion to ensure a free and fair electoral process.

7.1. Duration of Model Code of Conduct

  • The Model Code of Conduct (MCC) is a set of guidelines that political parties and candidates must follow during elections in India.
  • It is intended to ensure that elections are conducted in a fair and free manner.
  • The MCC was first introduced in 1971 and has been updated several times since then.
  • The Model Code of Conduct (MCC) is enforced from the date of the announcement of the election schedule by the Election Commission and remains in operation until the completion of the election process, which includes the counting of votes and the announcement of results.

7.2. The Role of the Election Commission in the State Legislative Assembly Elections

  • The Election Commission of India (ECI) is a constitutional body responsible for conducting elections to the Parliament of India and the legislative assemblies of the states and union territories of India.
  • The ECI is also responsible for conducting elections to the office of the President of India and the Vice President of India.
  • The State Election Commissions (SECs) are statutory bodies responsible for conducting elections to the urban local bodies (ULBs) and rural local bodies (RLBs) in the states.
  • The SECs are set up under the provisions of the Constitution of India and the state election laws.

The ECI's role in state legislative elections includes

  • The ECI announces the schedule for state legislative elections at least six weeks before the date of polling. The schedule includes the dates for filing nominations, campaigning, and polling.
  • The ECI scrutinizes the nominations of political parties and candidates to ensure that they meet all the requirements.
  • The ECI is responsible for conducting polling on the day of the election. This includes setting up polling booths, providing ballot papers, and deploying security personnel.
  • The ECI is responsible for counting votes after the polls close. The counting of votes is done in the presence of representatives of the candidates and political parties.
  • The ECI declares the results of the elections after the counting of votes is complete. The winning candidates are awarded certificates of election.
  • The Model Code of Conduct is a set of guidelines that political parties and candidates must follow during elections. The Model Code of Conduct is intended to ensure that elections are conducted in a fair and free manner.
  • The ECI monitors the campaign period to ensure that all political parties and candidates adhere to the Model Code of Conduct.
  • The ECI conducts voter education programs to ensure that all eligible voters are aware of their rights and responsibilities.
  • The ECI resolves disputes that arise during the election process, such as disputes over the validity of nominations or the counting of votes.

7.3. The salient features of the Model Code of Conduct

 
The salient features of the Model Code of Conduct are as follows:
  • The Model Code of Conduct is intended to ensure that elections are conducted in a fair and free manner. This means that all political parties and candidates must have an equal opportunity to participate in the election process.
  • The Model Code of Conduct requires all political parties and candidates to be transparent about their activities and finances. This helps to promote accountability and deter corruption.
  • The Model Code of Conduct prohibits political parties and candidates from discriminating against any person based on caste, creed, religion, language, or sex. This helps to ensure that all citizens have an equal opportunity to participate in the election process.
  • The Model Code of Conduct respects the right to free speech. However, it prohibits political parties and candidates from making false or misleading statements. It also prohibits them from inciting violence or hatred.
  • The Model Code of Conduct requires political parties and candidates to maintain law and order during the election process. This means that they must avoid any actions that could lead to violence or disorder.
 
For Prelims: Election Commission of India, State Election Commissions, State legislative elections, Model Code of Conduct, Bicameralism, Delimitation Commission, VVPAT, R-EVM's, 
 
For Mains: 
1. Critically examine the reasons for the lack of uniformity in the organization of state legislatures in India. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a bicameral legislature?  (250 words)
2. Discuss the challenges faced by the Election Commission of India in conducting elections in a large and diverse country like India. Suggest measures to improve the electoral process. (250 words) 
3. What factors determine the strength of a legislative assembly in India? How does the Delimitation Commission play a crucial role in the determination of legislative assembly strength? (250 words) 
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 
Prelims

1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2017)

1. The Election Commission of India is a five-member body.
2. Union Ministry of Home Affairs decides the election schedule for the conduct of both general elections and bye-elections.
3. Election Commission resolves the disputes relating to splits/mergers of recognised political parties.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

A. 1 and 2 only          B. 2 only              C. 2 and 3 only                D. 3 only

Answer: D

2. With reference to the Constitution of India, prohibitions or limitations or provisions contained in ordinary laws cannot act as prohibitions or limitations on the constitutional powers under Article 142. It could mean which one of the following? (UPSC CSE 2019)
(a) The decisions taken by the Election Commission of India while discharging its duties cannot be challenged in any court of law.
(b) The Supreme Court of India is not constrained in the exercise of its powers by laws made by the Parliament.
(c) In the event of a grave financial crisis in the country, the President of India can declare a Financial Emergency without the counsel from the Cabinet.
(d) State Legislatures cannot make laws on certain matters without the concurrence of the Union Legislature.

Answer: B

3. Consider the following statements : (UPSC 2021)

1. In India, there is no law restricting the candidates from contesting in one Lok Sabha election from three constituencies.
2. In the 1991 Lok Sabha Election, Shri Devi Lal contested from three Lok Sabha constituencies.
3. As per the- existing rules, if a candidate contests in one Lok Sabha election from many constituencies, his/her party should bear the cost of bye-elections to the constituencies vacated by him/her in the event of him/her winning in all the constituencies.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only         B. 2 only           C. 1 and 3             D. 2 and 3
 
Answer: B
 
4. With reference to the Delimitation Commission, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2012)
1. The orders of the Delimitation Commission cannot be challenged in a Court of Law.
2. When the orders of the Delimitation Commission are laid before the Lok Sabha or State Legislative Assembly, they cannot effect any modifications in the orders.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only          B. 2 only           C. Both 1 and 2             D. Neither 1 nor 2

Answer: C

5. The Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) system was used for the first time by the Election Commission of India in (UPSC CAPF 2019) 

A. North Paravur Assembly Constituency, Kerala
B.  Noksen Assembly Constituency, Nagaland 
C. Mapusa Assembly Constituency, Goa 
D. Nambol Assembly Constituency, Manipur

Answer: B

6. VVPAT, used in Electronic Voting Machine, stands for (BPSC CDPO 2018)

A. Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail
B. Voter Varying Paper Account Trail
C. Voter Verified Paper Account Trail
D. Voting Verifiable Paper Audit Trail
E. None of the above/More than one of the above

Answer: A

7. In which of the following options, Electronic Voting Machines were used for the first time during general elections all over India? (Rajasthan Police Constable 2020)

A. 2014         B. 1999             C. 2004               D.  2009

Answer: C

Mains

1. In the light of recent controversy regarding the use of Electronic Voting Machines (EVM), what are the challenges before the Election Commission of India to ensure the trustworthiness of elections in India? (UPSC 2018)

2. Discuss the role of the Election Commission of India in the light of the evolution of the Model Code of Conduct. ( UPSC 2022)
 
 
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