SIXTH SCHEDULE
The Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council (LAHDC) Act is a significant legislative framework that governs the administration and governance of the Union Territory of Ladakh in India. Ladakh, located in the northernmost part of India, was previously part of the state of Jammu and Kashmir until August 5, 2019, when Article 370 of the Indian Constitution was abrogated, and the state was reorganized into two separate Union Territories: Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh.
The Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council Act, 1995, plays a crucial role in the administration of the Ladakh region. Here are some key features and provisions of the LAHDC Act:
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Establishment of Autonomous Hill Development Council: The Act establishes the LAHDC, a local self-government body, in the Ladakh region. The purpose of this council is to promote socio-economic development, cultural preservation, and the overall well-being of the people of Ladakh.
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Composition of the LAHDC: The LAHDC consists of elected members who represent various constituencies within the Union Territory of Ladakh. The council members are elected through a democratic process.
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Powers and Functions: The LAHDC is granted specific powers and functions related to local governance, development planning, and management of resources. These powers include making laws on certain subjects, levying taxes, and overseeing local administration and development activities.
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Financial Autonomy: The LAHDC has financial autonomy, which means it can generate revenue through local taxes and fees and utilize these resources for local development projects and initiatives.
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Executive Committee: The LAHDC has an Executive Committee responsible for the day-to-day administration of the region. The Executive Committee members are elected from among the council members.
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Cultural and Environmental Preservation: The LAHDC Act recognizes the unique cultural and environmental significance of the Ladakh region and emphasizes the preservation of Ladakhi culture and traditions.
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Special Provisions: The Act may contain special provisions for the socio-economic and cultural advancement of Scheduled Tribes and other marginalized communities in Ladakh.
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Governor's Role: The Governor of the Union Territory of Ladakh plays a role in the administration, coordination, and cooperation between the LAHDC and the Union Territory government.
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Relations with the Central Government: The LAHDC Act allows for cooperation and coordination between the LAHDC and the central government of India to facilitate development activities and address the specific needs of the region
Article 244 of the Indian Constitution provides for the administration of certain tribal areas in India. It empowers the President of India to issue regulations for the peace and good governance of these areas. This article is particularly relevant to the administration of Scheduled Areas and Tribal Areas in various states.
Here are the key provisions and details of Article 244:
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Scheduled Areas and Tribal Areas: Article 244 primarily deals with the administration of Scheduled Areas and Tribal Areas within the states of India. These areas are inhabited predominantly by Scheduled Tribes (indigenous tribal communities).
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Power of the President: The President of India is authorized by Article 244 to issue regulations that apply to these Scheduled Areas and Tribal Areas. These regulations are intended to provide for the peace, good governance, and welfare of the tribal communities living in these areas.
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Governors' Role: While the President has the authority to issue regulations, these regulations are typically made after consulting with the Governor of the state. The Governor plays a crucial role in the administration of these areas.
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Application of Laws: The regulations issued under Article 244 can specify the manner in which laws passed by the state legislature apply to the Scheduled Areas and Tribal Areas. It can also specify the extent to which laws made by the Parliament of India apply to these areas.
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Conflict Resolution: Article 244 allows for regulations to be made to resolve conflicts and disputes between different tribal communities within these areas.
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Extension to Fifth Schedule Areas: Article 244 extends to the Fifth Schedule areas of India, which are those areas specified in the Fifth Schedule of the Indian Constitution. These areas have a higher degree of protection and autonomy for the tribal communities residing there
The Sixth Schedule of the Indian Constitution pertains to the administration of tribal areas in the states of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram. It provides special provisions and safeguards for the protection of the rights and interests of the tribal communities living in these regions. The Sixth Schedule is a significant component of India's federal structure and recognizes the distinctive cultural, social, and historical characteristics of these tribal areas. Here are some key features and provisions of the Sixth Schedule:
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Areas Covered: The Sixth Schedule covers specific tribal areas in the states of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram. These areas are known as "Scheduled Areas" and are inhabited by various indigenous tribal communities.
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Tribal Autonomous District Councils (ADCs): The central feature of the Sixth Schedule is the creation of Autonomous District Councils (ADCs) within these tribal areas. These ADCs have significant powers and responsibilities for local governance, including legislation on matters such as land, forests, and local customs and traditions. Each state has its own ADCs, known by different names, such as the "Autonomous District Council" in Assam and "District Council" in Meghalaya.
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Composition of ADCs: The ADCs have a defined number of seats reserved for tribal members, and they also include nominated members. These councils are responsible for formulating and implementing policies related to education, health, and socio-economic development within their areas.
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Governor's Role: The Governor of the state is empowered to appoint the District Councils' members, but they must be from the tribal communities. The Governor also has the authority to modify the boundaries of the Scheduled Areas after consulting with the state's legislature.
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Protection of Tribal Customs: The Sixth Schedule safeguards the customary laws and practices of the tribal communities in these areas. It ensures that the traditional institutions and customs of these communities are respected and preserved.
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Land Rights: The Sixth Schedule provides a degree of protection to tribal land rights, making it more difficult for non-tribal individuals or entities to acquire land in the Scheduled Areas.
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Exclusion and Inclusion of Areas: The Sixth Schedule allows for the inclusion or exclusion of areas from the Scheduled Areas through a formal process, which typically involves consultation with the tribal communities affected.
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Amendment: The Sixth Schedule can be amended by the Parliament of India. Any changes or amendments must be approved by a two-thirds majority.
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For Prelims: Fifth Schedule, Sixth Schedule, Autonomous distric council
For Mains: 1.Explain the significance of the Fifth Schedule of the Indian Constitution in the context of tribal governance. How does it protect the interests of Scheduled Tribes?
2.Discuss the provisions and objectives of the Sixth Schedule of the Indian Constitution. How does it impact the governance of tribal areas in the Northeastern states?
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Previous Year Questions
1.What is/ are true in relation to Autonomous Districts (CGPSC 2021)
1. Each Autonomous District Council has 30 members
2.24 members of the Autonomous District Council are elected via voting and rest 6 are nominated by Governor
3.Rights to direct the Acts passed by the Parliament of India is Autonomous. Districts of Assam lie with Governor
A.1 , 2 and 3
B. 1 and 3
C. 1 and 2
D. 1 Only
Answer (B)
2. Based on the Sixth Schedule of Indian Constitution, with respect to the tribal areas of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram (DSSSB PRT General Section Officer 2019)
Which of the following can the Governor of a State do?
1. Can create a new autonomous district
2. The area of atonomous district can be increased
A. 1 Only
B. 2 Only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer (C)
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CORONAL HOLES
- There are regions on the Sun's surface from where fast solar wind gushes out into space.
- As they contain little solar material, they have lower temperatures & thus appear darker than their surroundings.
- Here, the magnetic field is open to interplanetary space, sending solar material out in a high-speed stream of solar wind.
- Coronal holes can last between a few weeks to months, appearing throughout the Sun's approximately 11-year solar cycle.
- The coronal holes are important to understanding the space environment around the Earth through which the technology & astronauts travel.
- Coronal holes cover 6-8% of the total solar surface.
- The reasons for coronal holes are unknown.
- Scientists study these fast solar wind streams because they sometimes interact with Earth's magnetic field, creating a geomagnetic storm, which can expose satellites to radiation & interfere with communications signals.
- As per the US National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), geomagnetic storms relate to Earth's magnetosphere.
- Magnetosphere is the space around a planet influenced by its magnetic field.
- When a high-speed solar stream arrives at Earth, it can allow energetic solar wind particles to hit the atmosphere over the poles.
- In the case of the strong solar wind, the resulting geomagnetic storm can cause changes in the ionosphere, part of the Earth's upper atmosphere.
- Radio & GPS signals travel through this layer, so communications can get disrupted.
Solar maximum and solar minimum are two phases of the solar cycle, which is an approximately 11-year period characterized by changes in the Sun's activity.
Solar Maximum: This is the phase of the solar cycle when solar activity is at its highest. During solar maximum, there is an increase in the number of sunspots on the Sun's surface, as well as solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs). The Sun's magnetic activity is more pronounced, leading to these phenomena. Solar maximum can cause disruptions in satellite communications, power grids, and can also increase the visibility of auroras in regions closer to the poles.
Solar Minimum: This is the phase when solar activity is at its lowest. Sunspots are less frequent or even absent during this time. The Sun's magnetic activity is quieter, and there are fewer solar flares and CMEs. Solar minimum is associated with a decrease in the overall solar output. While it might seem less eventful, it's an important phase as it marks the beginning of the next solar cycle.
These cycles are part of the Sun's natural variability, and studying them helps scientists understand solar phenomena and their potential impacts on Earth's environment and technology
6.What is the solar cycle?
- The solar cycle refers to the approximately 11-year cycle of changes in the Sun's activity. It's characterized by a periodic variation in the number of sunspots, as well as other solar phenomena such as solar flares, coronal mass ejections (CMEs), and changes in the Sun's magnetic field.
- The cycle starts at solar minimum when solar activity is at its lowest, with fewer sunspots and reduced solar flares and CMEs. Over the course of about 11 years, solar activity gradually increases, reaching a peak known as solar maximum. During solar maximum, there's a higher occurrence of sunspots, intense solar flares, and more frequent CMEs.
- After reaching its peak, solar activity decreases again, entering another solar minimum, and the cycle starts anew. This cyclic variation in solar activity is driven by the Sun's magnetic field and the dynamo processes occurring within it.
- Scientists study the solar cycle to better understand the Sun's behavior and its impact on space weather, Earth's atmosphere, climate, and technological systems. The solar cycle has implications for satellite communications, power grids, and even the Earth's climate patterns.
SURROGACY BILL
1. Context
The Union government has modified the Surrogacy (Regulation) Rules, 2022 and notified that both gametes need not come from a married couple in case they are certified as suffering from a medical condition. As per the latest amendment, the couple can have a child born through surrogacy but must have at least one gamete from the intending couple
2. Genesis of the Bill
The Surrogacy Bill was first proposed in 2016, driven by reports of exploitation of women in surrogacy arrangements. It seeks to address these concerns and regulate surrogacy practices in the country.
Provisions of the Surrogacy (Regulation) Bill
The Surrogacy Bill primarily focuses on altruistic ethical surrogacy for infertile Indian married couples. The key provisions are as follows:
- Indian married couples in the age groups of 23-50 years for women and 26-55 years for men.
- A legal marriage of at least five years is mandatory.
- The couple cannot have a surviving child, whether biological or adopted, except for cases involving mentally or physically challenged children or those with life-threatening disorders with no permanent cure.
- Surrogacy clinics must be registered, and national and state surrogacy boards must be established.
- The bill prohibits commercial surrogacy and penalizes abandoning or disowning a surrogate child with imprisonment up to 10 years and a fine up to Rs 10 lakh.
3. Recommended Changes by the Select Committee
The Select Committee, led by BJP Rajya Sabha MP Bhupender Yadav, has proposed several changes to the Surrogacy Bill:
- The committee recommends removing the clause limiting surrogacy to close relatives, allowing any willing woman to become a surrogate mother, provided all other requirements are met and authorized by the appropriate authority.
- The committee supports the ban on commercial surrogacy.
- It suggests allowing divorced and widowed women between the ages of 35 and 45 to be single-commissioning parents. The five-year waiting period for childless married couples could be waived with a medical certificate indicating their inability to conceive.
- The committee recommends that persons of Indian origin should also be eligible to avail of surrogacy services.
- The definition of commissioning parents remains limited to married couples, excluding single individuals, whether men or women.
4. The Role of the ART Bill
- ART is used to treat infertility. It includes fertility treatments that handle both a woman's egg and a man's sperm. It works by removing eggs from a woman's body and mixing them with sperm to make embryos. The embryos are then put back in the woman's body.
- In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) is the most common and effective type of ART.
- ART procedures sometimes use donor eggs, donor sperm, or previously frozen embryos. It may also involve a surrogate carrier.
- The Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Bill, which has been in development since 2008, aims to regulate the field of assisted reproduction.
- It requires the registration of IVF clinics and sperm banks, among other provisions.
- The Select Committee suggests that the Surrogacy Bill should be enacted after the ART Bill to avoid duplication and better address the technical and medical aspects.
| India's surrogacy market is estimated to involve around 2,000 babies born through commercial surrogacy annually. Lack of regulations and economic disparities contribute to this $2.3 billion industry. |
5. Previous Parliamentary Scrutiny
The Surrogacy Bill was previously scrutinized by the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Health and Family Welfare. Recommendations made by that committee, such as replacing "altruistic" with "compensated" and allowing surrogates from outside the family, were not accepted by the government.
6. The Way Forward
The government has the authority to accept or reject the recommendations put forth by the Select Committee. While previous progressive recommendations were not implemented, there is hope that the current suggestions could lead to more inclusive and comprehensive surrogacy regulations in India. The future of surrogacy in the country remains a matter of debate and deliberation.
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For Prelims: Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Bill, Surrogacy (Regulation) Bill, 2019, Select Committee of Parliament, IVF clinics, sperm banks,
For Mains:
1. Discuss the ethical and legal challenges associated with surrogacy in India. How can the government strike a balance between regulating the industry and ensuring the rights and well-being of all parties involved? (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. In the context of recent advances in human reproductive technology, “Pronuclear Transfer” is used for (UPSC 2020) (a) fertilization of egg in vitro by the donor sperm Answer: D 2. With reference to the Parliament of India, which of the following Parliamentary Committees scrutinizes and reports to the House whether the powers to make regulations, rules, sub-rules, by-laws, etc., conferred by the Constitution or delegated by the Parliament are being properly exercised by the Executive within the scope of such delegation? (UPSC 2018) (a) Committee on Government Assurances Answer: B 3. Who among the following devised the technique IVF (In vitro Fertilization)? (SSC CGL 2017) A. Sir Frank Whittle
B. Robert Edwards
C. Edward Jenner
D. Dr. Martin Cooper
Answer: B 4. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2019) 1. Genetic changes can be introduced in the cells that produce eggs or sperms of a prospective parent.
2. A person’s genome can be edited before birth at the early embryonic stage.
3. Human induced pluripotent stem cells can be injected into the embryo of a pig.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: D |
Source: The Indian Express
MEITEI TRIBE
1. Context
2. About Manipur's ethnic composition
- Geography has a lot to do with Manipur's problems. Four highways, two of them lifelines for the State, are the valley's access points to the world beyond.
- The valley, which comprises about 10 per cent of Manipur's landmass, is dominated by the nontribal Meitei who account for more than 64 per cent of the population of the State and yields 40 of the State's 60 MLAs.
- The hills comprising 90 per cent of the geographical area are inhabited by more than 35 per cent recognised tribes but send only 20 MLAs to the Assembly.
- While a majority of the Meities are Hindus followed by Muslims, the 33 recognised tribes, broadly classified into "Any Naga Tribes" and Any Kuki Tribes" are largely Christians.
3. Meitei's arguments
- Hearing a petition by eight people representing the Meeti (Meitei) Tribe Union, the Manipur High Court directed the State government to submit, within four weeks, a 10-year-old recommendation to the Union Tribal Affairs Ministry for the inclusion of the Meitei community in the ST list.
- The court referred to the Ministry's letter in May 2013 to the Manipur government seeking specific recommendations along with the latest socioeconomic survey and ethnographic report.
- The letter followed a representation submitted by the Scheduled Tribe Demand Committee of Manipur (STDCM), which began demanding ST status for the Meiteis in 2012.
- The petitioners told the High Court that the Meiteis were recognised as a tribe before the merger of the State with the Union of India in 1949.
- They argued that the ST status is needed to "preserve" the community and "save the ancestral land, tradition, culture and language" of the Meities.
- The STDCM also said the Meiteis needed constitutional safeguards against outsiders, stating that the community has been kept away from the hills while the tribal people can buy land in the "shrinking" Imphal Valley.
4. Reasons for the tribal groups against ST status for Meiteis
- The tribal groups say the Meiteis have a demographic and political advantage besides being more advanced than them academically and in other aspects.
- They feel the ST status to the Meiteis would lead to loss of job opportunities and allow them to acquire land in the hills and push the tribals out.
- Groups such as the All Tribal Students Union of Manipur point out that the language of the Meitei people is included in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution and many of them have access to benefits associated with the SC, OBC or EWS status.
- To the hill tribal people of Manipur, the demand for ST status is a ploy to attenuate the fervent political demands of the Kukis and Nagas as well as a tacit strategy of the dominant valley dwellers to make inroads into the hill areas of the State.
5. Factors that led to the unrest
- Pro-government groups in Manipur claim some tribal groups with vested interests are trying to scuttle Chief Minister Nongthombam Biren Singh's crusade against drugs.
- The anti-drug drive began with destroying poppy fields and the theory that "illegal settlers" from Myanmar ethnically related to the KukiZomi people of Manipur are behind clearing forests and government lands to grow opium and cannabis.
- The first violent protest was against the eviction of the residents of a Kuki village.
- This made the State government withdraw from the suspension of operations with two Kuki extremist groups accused of inciting the protesters.
- The large-scale arson and violence claiming the life of at least one person on May 3 and 4, 2023, following a "Tribal solidarity rally" against the reported move to include the Meiteis in the ST list.
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For Prelims: Meitie tribe, opium, cannabis, Naga Tribes, Kuki Tribes, Imphal Valley,
For Mains 1. Who are Meitei's People? Discuss the Reasons why the tribal groups are against ST status for Meiteis. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Non-scheduled population concentrated in central valley of Manipur is called (BPSC CDPO 2018)
1. Meitei
2. Mishmi
3. Kuki
4. Apatanis
5. None of the above/More than one of the above
Answer: 1
2. Consider the following pairs: (UPSC 2018)
Tradition State
1. Chapchar Kut festival Mizoram
2. Khongjom Parba ballad Manipur
3. Thang-Ta dance Sikkim
Which of the pairs given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 1 and 2 C. 3 only D. 2 and 3
Answer: B
3. Which of the following statements related to tribes in India are correct? (UPSC CAPF 2017)
1. Tharu tribes are found in Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand
2. Irula, Chenchu and Sumali tribes are found in Kerala
3. Garasia tribes are found in Goa
4. Gaddi tribes are nomadic herders of Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1 and 4 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1, 2 and 4 only D. 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: C
4. With reference to Manipuri Sankirtana, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2017)
1. It is a song and dance performance.
2. Cymbals are the only musical instruments used in the performance.
3. It is performed to narrate the life and deeds of Lord Krishna.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1, 2 and 3 B. 1 and 3 only C. 2 and 3 only D. 1 only
Answer: B
5. Comprehension
Nagaland, one of India's smallest states, is located in the north-east. It is bounded by Myanmar on the east, Arunachal Pradesh on the north, Assam on the west and Manipur on the south. Nagaland is mostly mountainous except the part bordering the Assam valley. Mount Saramati is the highest peak and forms a natural barrier between Nagaland and Myanmar. The Nagas, inhabitants of Nagaland, form more than twenty tribes. Konyak is the largest of the Naga tribes. Traditionally, the Nagas wear colourful tribal outfits with bamboo shields and decorated spears. They are simple at heart, are known for their festive spirit and burst into dance and music on such occasions as festivals, marriages and harvest. Folk songs and ballads popular among the Nagas uphold such values as bravery, love, generosity, etc. Dances are mostly woven around war themes and are performed with amazing mock war emotions. Bamboo dance is a well-known dance of the Nagas. Colourfully dressed young girls performing the bamboo dance at an incredible speed and with great accuracy present a fascinating sight. The Nagas celebrate their festivals with great enthusiasm. Almost every Naga tribe has its own festival. Sankarni is the major festival of the Zemis tribe. This religious festival coincides with Shivratri. Sekrenyi is a festival celebrated by the Angamis tribe to ensure the health and well-being of the community. Moatsu is the most important festival celebrated by the Aos tribe after the sowing is over. Feasting and merry-making invariably accompany festivals. Wood-carving is a famous Naga craft. The Konyaks, the best wood-carvers among all the Naga tribes, are skilled in carving human and animal figures. Weaving is a traditional Naga art in which each tribe has its own special designs and colours. Shawls, shoulder bags, and intricately woven mats and baskets make magnificent souvenirs for the tourists.
The largest Naga tribe is (Odisha Police SI 2022)
A. Konyak.
B. Zemis.
C. Aos
D. Angami
Answer: A
6. Which of the following tribes belongs to Nagaland? (NTPC 2021)
A. Bonda
B. Limboo
C. Rengma
D. Pnar
Answer: C
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TURHA
- In a bygone era, the ceremonial use of the turha marked the arrival of kings, nobility, and other esteemed dignitaries. In the Maharashtra region, the turha held significance in the court of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj.
- Swar Classical, an organization specializing in software for Indian classical music, notes that the tutari served as a salute during the Adilshahi kings' reign in Bijapur (1490-1686). The turha's resonant sound initiated preparations for important journeys, tasks, and battles. Additionally, it signaled the commencement and conclusion of combat.
- According to Swar Classical's website, tutari musicians sought refuge in temples during colonial rule to evade the British, intertwining the music with religious traditions.
- In contemporary times, the turha finds application in celebratory events like weddings and political rallies in Maharashtra.
- It played a prominent role as a rallying call during the farmers' protest of 2020-21. The turha's melodic notes are often complemented by the rhythmic beats of percussion instruments like the dhol.
- In Pune, the annual Ganeshotsav celebration remains incomplete without the vibrant sounds of the turha, accompanied by the lively cadence of dhol-tasha beats
- Before a political party can be allotted a symbol, it needs to be officially recognized by the Election Commission. Recognition is based on certain criteria, including the party's performance in elections and its adherence to the guidelines set by the ECI
- Recognized political parties, as well as independent candidates, are required to apply to the Election Commission for the allotment of a symbol.
- The application typically includes the party's or candidate's preferences for symbols.
- The Election Commission considers various factors when allotting symbols, including the party's past performance, its representation in existing legislative bodies, and other relevant criteria.
- The commission aims to ensure a fair and level playing field for all political parties and candidates
- To prevent confusion among voters, the ECI takes care to avoid allocating similar symbols to different parties or candidates in the same constituency
- Some symbols are reserved for national and state-level parties, and other symbols are available for regional or unrecognized parties. Independent candidates may also have specific symbols allotted to them
- Once the Election Commission makes a decision on symbol allotment, it notifies the political parties and candidates about the symbols assigned to them
- Political parties and candidates have the option to appeal the decision of the Election Commission or seek a review if they are dissatisfied with the allotted symbol
The Election Symbols (Reservation and Allotment) Order, 1968, is a legal order in India that provides the framework for the reservation and allotment of symbols to political parties and independent candidates during elections. The order was issued by the Election Commission of India (ECI) under the powers conferred by Section 29A of the Representation of the People Act, 1951.
Key provisions and aspects of the Election Symbols (Reservation and Allotment) Order, 1968, include:
- The order sets out the criteria for the recognition of political parties by the Election Commission. Recognition is based on factors such as the party's performance in elections and its adherence to the guidelines laid down by the ECI
- The order provides for the reservation of certain symbols for national and state-level political parties. Reserved symbols are not available for use by other parties or candidates
- The criteria for the allotment of symbols are outlined in the order. The Election Commission considers factors such as the party's or candidate's past performance, representation in legislative bodies, and other relevant considerations
- The order emphasizes the need to avoid confusion among voters by ensuring that similar symbols are not allotted to different parties or candidates in the same constituency
- The order outlines the process for allotting symbols to independent candidates who are not affiliated with any political party
- The Election Commission notifies political parties and candidates about the symbols allotted to them. This notification is an important part of the electoral process
- The order allows political parties and candidates to appeal the decision of the Election Commission regarding symbol allotment. They may also seek a review if they are dissatisfied with the allotted symbol
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For Prelims: Indian Polity and Governance-Constitution, Political System, Panchayati Raj, Public Policy, Rights Issues, etc.
For Mains:General Studies II: Salient features of the Representation of People’s Act.
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KALA AZAR
- Kala-azar, also known as visceral leishmaniasis or black fever, is a potentially deadly parasitic disease caused by protozoa of the Leishmania genus.
- The main species responsible for the disease are Leishmania donovani and Leishmania infantum. The disease is transmitted to humans through the bites of infected female sandflies, primarily of the genus Phlebotomus in the Old World and Lutzomyia in the New World.
- Kala-azar affects the internal organs, such as the liver, spleen, and bone marrow, leading to symptoms such as prolonged fever, weight loss, enlargement of the spleen and liver, and anemia.
- The name "kala-azar" translates to "black fever" in Hindi and refers to the darkening of the skin that can occur in some cases.
- The disease is endemic in certain regions of Africa, Asia, and South America, where conditions are favorable for the survival of the sandfly vector.
- Kala-azar can be a serious public health concern, especially in impoverished areas with limited access to healthcare. Treatment typically involves antimonial drugs, but drug resistance has been a concern in some regions.
- Efforts to control and eliminate kala-azar involve vector control measures, early diagnosis, and treatment of cases, as well as research into new treatment options and vaccines
- In 2020, over 90% of newly reported cases to the World Health Organization (WHO) were concentrated in ten countries: Brazil, China, Ethiopia, Eritrea, India, Kenya, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, and Yemen.
- Notably, Bangladesh achieved the distinction of being the first country globally to be officially recognized by the WHO for successfully eliminating kala-azar as a public health concern in October 2023. India is now tasked with maintaining its progress in the coming three years to attain WHO certification.
- As of October this year, India documented 530 cases and four fatalities attributed to the infection, representing a decline from 891 cases and three deaths in 2022. The figures for 2021 indicated 1,357 cases and eight deaths.
- Additionally, there were 286 reported instances of post-kala azar dermal leishmaniasis (PKDL) by October 2023. The complete cure of this skin condition is imperative, as it can serve as a reservoir for the parasite
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Prolonged Fever: Persistent and irregular bouts of fever that may last for weeks or months.
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Weight Loss: Unexplained and significant weight loss.
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Enlarged Spleen (Splenohepatomegaly): The spleen often becomes enlarged, leading to abdominal discomfort.
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Enlarged Liver: Hepatomegaly, or enlargement of the liver, can also occur.
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Anemia: Reduced red blood cell count, leading to fatigue, weakness, and pallor.
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Jaundice: Yellowing of the skin and eyes due to liver involvement.
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Swollen Lymph Nodes: Lymph nodes may become enlarged.
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Discoloration of the Skin: In some cases, the skin may darken, leading to the term "kala-azar" or black fever.
- Targeting the sandfly vectors that transmit the Leishmania parasites is a crucial aspect of the elimination program. This may involve the use of insecticide-treated bed nets, indoor residual spraying, and environmental management to reduce sandfly breeding sites
- Timely diagnosis and treatment of kala-azar cases are essential to prevent the spread of the disease. Access to accurate diagnostic tools and effective antiparasitic drugs is a priority
- Implementing surveillance systems to monitor the prevalence of kala-azar, track new cases, and assess the effectiveness of control measures is integral to the elimination program.
- Strengthening the capacity of healthcare systems, including training healthcare workers, improving laboratory facilities, and enhancing overall infrastructure, is vital for successful implementation.
- Involving communities in awareness campaigns, education, and active participation in control measures can enhance the program's effectiveness. Community engagement fosters cooperation, early reporting of cases, and adherence to preventive measures.
- Ongoing research into new treatment options, diagnostic tools, and potential vaccines is important for advancing the understanding of the disease and improving control strategies.
- Kala-azar often transcends national borders, so collaboration between neighboring countries is crucial to effectively address the movement of the disease and implement coordinated control measures
National Vector Borne Disease Control Program (NVBDCP) is a comprehensive public health initiative in India that focuses on the prevention and control of vector-borne diseases. The program is implemented by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India. While the specific details of programs may evolve, as of my last update, the NVBDCP primarily addresses diseases such as malaria, dengue, chikungunya, lymphatic filariasis, and kala-azar (visceral leishmaniasis).
Key components and activities of the National Vector Borne Disease Control Program include:
- The program involves the surveillance and monitoring of vector-borne diseases to track their prevalence, identify high-risk areas, and assess the effectiveness of control measures.
- Implementation of strategies to control the vectors responsible for transmitting diseases. This includes measures such as insecticide-treated bed nets, indoor residual spraying, larval control, and environmental management.
- Conducting awareness campaigns and health education programs to inform communities about preventive measures, early symptoms, and the importance of seeking medical care.
- Supporting research initiatives to improve the understanding of vector-borne diseases, develop innovative control methods, and enhance the overall effectiveness of disease prevention and control strategies.
India faces several vector-borne diseases, where the transmission of these diseases occurs through the bites of infected vectors such as mosquitoes, ticks, and sandflies. Some of the significant vector-borne diseases in India include:
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Malaria: Transmitted by Anopheles mosquitoes, malaria is a parasitic infection caused by Plasmodium parasites. It remains a major public health concern in various parts of India.
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Dengue Fever: A viral infection transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes, particularly Aedes aegypti. Dengue fever has periodic outbreaks in different regions of India.
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Chikungunya: Caused by the chikungunya virus and transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes, this disease leads to fever and severe joint pain. Outbreaks occur intermittently in India.
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Lymphatic Filariasis: Commonly known as elephantiasis, this disease is caused by filarial worms and transmitted by Culex mosquitoes. The National Filaria Control Program aims to eliminate this disease in India.
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Kala-azar (Visceral Leishmaniasis): Caused by the Leishmania parasite and transmitted by sandflies, kala-azar affects internal organs. The National Kala Azar Elimination Program works towards controlling and eliminating this disease.
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Japanese Encephalitis (JE): A viral infection transmitted by Culex mosquitoes, JE can lead to inflammation of the brain. Vaccination campaigns are conducted in endemic regions to prevent outbreaks.
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Zika Virus: Although not as widespread, the Zika virus can be transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes. Cases of Zika have been reported in some parts of India.
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Rickettsial Infections: Diseases like scrub typhus and spotted fever are caused by bacteria transmitted through the bites of infected mites and ticks
LARGE HADRON COLLIDER
1. Context
2. What is the Large Hadron Collider?
- The Large Hadron Collider is an expansive and intricate apparatus constructed for the examination of particles, which are the smallest constituents known in nature.
- Its physical structure entails a 27-kilometer-long circular track, situated 100 meters underground along the Swiss-French border. During operation, the collider propels two beams of protons, nearing the speed of light, in opposite directions within a ring of superconducting electromagnets.
- The magnetic field generated by these superconducting electromagnets maintains the protons in a precise beam, guiding them through beam pipes until they ultimately collide. In preparation for collision, a different type of magnet is employed to compress the particles, enhancing the likelihood of collisions.
- Described by the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), which oversees the particle accelerator complex housing the LHC, the challenge is likened to aligning two needles precisely 10 kilometers apart so that they meet midway.
- To accommodate the substantial current carried by the LHC's powerful electromagnets, comparable to that of a lightning bolt, a cooling system using liquid helium is employed.
- This distribution system keeps critical components ultra-cold at a temperature of minus 271.3 degrees Celsius, colder than interstellar space. Due to these stringent requirements, adjusting the temperature of the colossal machine is a challenging task
3. The functioning of the LHC
- A hadron is a subatomic particle made up of smaller particles.
- The LHC typically uses protons, which are made up of quarks and gluons.
- It energises the protons by accelerating them through a narrow circular pipe that is 27 km long.
- Simply put, this pipe encircles two D-shaped magnetic fields, created by almost 9,600 magnets. There is a proton at the 3 o'clock position.
- It is made to move from there to the 9 o'clock position by turning on one hemisphere of magnets and turning on one hemisphere of magnets and turning off the other, such that the magnetic field acting on the proton causes it to move clockwise.
- Once it reaches the 9 o'clock position, the magnetic polarity is reversed by turning off the first hemisphere and turning on the second.
- This causes the proton to move in an anticlockwise direction, from the 9 o'clock position.
- This way, by switching the direction of the magnetic field more and more rapidly, protons can be accelerated through the beam pipe.
- There are also other components to help them along, focus the particles, and keep them from hitting the pipe's walls.
- Eventually, the protons move at 99.999999 per cent of the speed of light.
- In the process, they accrue a tremendous amount of energy according to the special theory of relativity.
4. The effects of a collision
- When two antiparallel beams of energised particles collide head-on, the energy at the point of collision is equal to the sum of the energy carried by the two beams.
- Thus far, the highest centre of mass collision energy the LHC has achieved is 13.6 TeV (teraelectronvolts).
- This is less energy than what would be produced if you clapped your hands once.
- The feat is that the energy is packed into a volume of space the size of a proton, which makes the energy density very high.
- At the moment of collision, there is chaos. There is a lot of energy available, and parts of it coalesce into different subatomic particles under the guidance of the fundamental forces of nature.
- Which particle takes shape depends on the amount and flavour of energy available and which other particles are being created or destroyed around it.
- Some particles are created very rarely. If a particle is created with a probability of 0.00001 per cent there will need to be at least 10 million collisions to observe it.
- Some particles are quite massive and need a lot of the right kind of energy to be created (this was one of the challenges of discovering the Higgs boson).
- Some particles are extremely shortlived and the detectors studying them need to record them in a similar timeframe or be alert to proxy effects.
- The LHC's various components are built such that scientists can tweak all these parameters to study different particle interactions.
5. The findings of the LHC
- The LHC consists of nine detectors. Located over different points on the beam pipe, they study particle interactions in different ways.
- Every year, the detectors generate 30, 000 TB of data worth storing and even more overall.
- Physicists pore through this data with the help of computers to identify and analyse specific patterns.
- This is how the ATLAS and CMS detectors helped discover the Higgs boson in 2012 and confirmed their findings in 2013.
- The LHC specialises in accelerating a beam of hadronic particles to certain specifications and delivering it.
- Scientists can choose to do different things with the beam. For example, they have used the LHC to energise and collide lead ions with each other and protons with lead ions.
- Using the data from all those collisions,
- They have tested the predictions of the Standard Model of particle physics,'
- The reigning theory of subatomic particles;
- Observed exotic particles like pentaquarks and tetraquarks and checked if their properties are in line with theoretical expectations; and
- Pieced together information about extreme natural conditions like those that existed right after the Big Bang.
6. What lies ahead for the LHC
- These successes strike a contrast with what the LHC has not been able to find "new physics", the collective name for particles or processes that can explain the nature of dark matter or why gravity is such a weak force, among other mysteries.
- The LHC has tested some of the predictions of theories that try to explain what the Standard Model can't and caught them short.
- This has left the physics community in a bind.
- One way forward, which is already in the works, is to improve the LHC's luminosity (a measure of the machine's ability to produce particle interactions of interest) by 10x by 2027 through upgrades.
- Another more controversial idea is to build a bigger version of the LHC, based on the hypothesis that such a machine will be able to find 'new physics' at even higher energies.
- While both CERN and China have unveiled initial plans for bigger machines, physicists are divided on whether the billions of dollars they will cost can be used to build less expensive experiments, including other colliders, with guaranteed instead of speculative results.
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For Prelims: Large Hadron Collider, European Organization for Nuclear Research, CERN,
For Mains:
1. What is the Large Hardon Collider? Discuss how it works and what lies ahead of the world's largest science experiment. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Large Hadron Collider was in news recently for doing some scientific research to prove the presence of an elementary particle. The scientist who predicted this particle in 1964 has been awarded Nobel Prize in 2013. What is this discovery? (UPSC CAPF 2014)
A. Particles known as quarks having mass
B. Origin of Universe timings
C. Higg's Bosons or God Particles explaining mass
D. None of the above
Answer: C
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