LANGUAGE LEARNING MODEL (LLM)
1. Context
At the AI Impact Summit, the Bengaluru-based startup Sarvam AI released two Large Language Models (LLMs), which are the foundation for AI systems that power services like Google’s Gemini and OpenAI’s ChatGPT. The two models were trained on 35 billion and 105 billion parameters respectively, and were less power- and compute-intensive than comparable models, while demonstrating improvements over other models in Indian languages, Pratyush Kumar, a Sarvam co-founder said.
2. What are Language Learning Models (LLM)?
- Language Learning Models, more commonly referred to as Large Language Models (LLMs), are a type of artificial intelligence system designed to understand and generate human language.
- They are built to read text, identify patterns in how language is used, and then produce responses that are coherent and contextually relevant. The term “large” refers to the enormous amount of data they are trained on, as well as the vast number of parameters—mathematical values—that help them process and predict language.
- At their core, these models work by learning from examples. During training, they are exposed to massive collections of text drawn from books, articles, research papers, and other publicly available material.
- Instead of memorizing specific answers, they learn the statistical relationships between words. In simple terms, they learn how likely one word is to follow another in a given context. Over time, this ability to predict the next word in a sentence becomes highly refined, allowing the model to generate complete paragraphs, essays, summaries, translations, or even computer code.
- Modern language models are typically built using a neural network architecture known as the Transformer. This design allows the system to pay attention to the relationships between words in a sentence, even if those words are far apart.
- Because of this, the model can understand context better than earlier language-processing systems. For example, it can distinguish between different meanings of the same word depending on how it is used in a sentence, and it can maintain coherence across longer passages of text.
- Although these models can appear intelligent, they do not truly “understand” language in the human sense. They do not possess consciousness, personal experiences, or emotions.
- Their responses are generated based on learned patterns rather than genuine comprehension. This means they can sometimes produce incorrect or misleading information, especially if the training data contained errors or biases.
- Language Learning Models have become important because they change the way humans interact with technology. Instead of using rigid commands or technical instructions, users can communicate naturally in everyday language.
- This has applications in education, business, governance, research, customer service, and many other fields. By enabling machines to process and generate language fluently, these models act as powerful tools that assist with writing, problem-solving, and information analysis.
3.How are LLM are Trained ?
- Large Language Models are developed and deployed using clusters of high-performance Graphics Processing Units (GPUs). The expense of procuring these GPUs, combined with the substantial electricity required to operate them for extended training periods, often amounts to several million dollars.
- Equally critical to this process is access to vast volumes of data, much of which is sourced from the internet. However, online content is far more abundant in English, European languages, and East Asian languages such as Korean and Japanese, compared to most Indian languages.
- This imbalance creates a dual difficulty for building LLMs within India using domestic funding.
- First, the limited availability of high-quality data in Indian languages means that many models either deliver weaker performance in these languages or consume additional computational resources—often translating user inputs into English for processing and then translating responses back into the original language.
- Although machine translation for Indian languages has improved significantly and is frequently relied upon to enhance output quality, this approach is not always optimal.
- Second, financial constraints present another barrier. Developing and training large-scale language models requires significant capital investment, which can be difficult for Indian companies to justify, particularly in the absence of clear and immediate commercial applications tailored to local markets.
- Dependence on translation layers also poses practical challenges for developers aiming to promote indigenous LLMs.
- For instance, locally developed models such as Sarvam’s 35-billion-parameter system—demonstrated at a summit research symposium and adapted for use on feature phones—may face limitations if their performance in Indian languages is not robust. Such shortcomings can affect user experience, adoption rates, and overall effectiveness in real-world applications
4. Government Initiatives
- Under the IndiaAI Mission, the government has supported domestic AI development by facilitating large-scale computing infrastructure within the country.
- More than 36,000 GPUs have been deployed across data centres run by Indian companies such as Yotta, enabling researchers and startups to undertake model training and inference at concessional rates.
- As part of this initiative, Sarvam was provided access to 4,096 GPUs from a shared national compute facility, with government support for this effort estimated at nearly ₹100 crore.
- The total infrastructure cost of this GPU cluster is reported to be around ₹246 crore, though the resources are expected to remain available for broader use beyond a single project.
- The Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology has promoted indigenous LLM development for multiple strategic reasons. A central concern is that models created abroad may lack both the incentive and the contextual depth needed to effectively support India’s diverse linguistic landscape.
- Additionally, building domestic capacity to train and deploy large language models is viewed as essential for strengthening India’s broader artificial intelligence ecosystem and nurturing homegrown expertise.
- In this context, Sarvam’s unveiling of its two language models marks an important milestone in India’s efforts to build a high-performance yet cost-efficient LLM. The government appears keen to replicate the kind of cost innovation seen when China’s DeepSeek introduced its R1 model, which was rapidly adopted across the AI sector for reducing training and inference expenses without sacrificing performance quality. Policymakers hope to encourage a similar competitive advantage in India
5. Way Forward
An important advancement for AI systems designed to operate efficiently in local environments has been the development of the Mixture of Experts (MoE) architecture. Early large language models were built with hundreds of billions—or even more than a trillion—parameters, and during inference they generally relied on activating the entire network of parameters to generate responses. This approach significantly increased computational costs and made each query resource-intensive.
In contrast, the MoE framework improves efficiency by engaging only a selected subset of the model’s parameters for any given task. By activating just a portion of the overall network rather than the whole system, MoE-based models can process requests more quickly while reducing computational load and operational expenses
|
For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance
For Mains: GS-III: Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, robotics, nano-technology, bio-technology and issues relating to intellectual property rights.
|
|
Previous Year Questions
1.With the present state of development, Artificial Intelligence can effectively do which of the following? (UPSC CSE 2020) 1. Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units 2. Create meaningful short stories and songs 3. Disease diagnosis 4. Text-to-Speech Conversion 5. Wireless transmission of electrical energy Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only (c) 2, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 Answer (b) (b) 1, 3, and 4 only Explanation:
|
Source: The Hindu
CRBON CAPTURE AND UTILISATION (CCU)
1. Context
Carbon Capture and Utilisation (CCU) refers to a set of technologies that capture carbon dioxide emissions from industrial sources or directly from the air and convert them into useful products. This process removes carbon from the atmosphere and puts it into the economy as inputs for fuels, chemicals, building materials, or polymers. Unlike carbon capture and storage, where captured CO₂ is permanently stored underground rather than reused, CCU uses up the captured carbon.
2. What is Carbon Capture and Utilisation (CCU)?
- Carbon Capture and Utilisation (CCU) is an approach to climate mitigation that focuses on treating carbon dioxide not merely as a waste product, but as a resource.
- In the context of rising global temperatures and increasing industrial emissions, CCU represents an attempt to balance economic development with environmental responsibility.
- When fossil fuels such as coal, oil, or natural gas are burned in power plants or used in industries like cement and steel manufacturing, large quantities of carbon dioxide (CO₂) are released into the atmosphere.
- This CO₂ traps heat and contributes to global warming. Carbon Capture and Utilisation seeks to intervene in this process. Instead of allowing the carbon dioxide to escape into the air, it is captured at the source of emission through specialized technologies.
- These technologies separate CO₂ from other gases produced during combustion or industrial processes.
- Once captured, the carbon dioxide is compressed and transported to facilities where it can be put to productive use. This is the key difference between CCU and Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS).
- While CCS focuses on storing the captured carbon dioxide deep underground in geological formations to prevent its release, CCU aims to convert the captured CO₂ into valuable products.
- The utilisation aspect of CCU can take many forms. Carbon dioxide can be used to manufacture chemicals such as methanol and urea, which are widely used in fertilisers and industry.
- It can also be converted into synthetic fuels, building materials like carbon-infused concrete, and even used in the production of carbonated beverages. In some cases, CO₂ is injected into oil fields to enhance oil recovery.
- By turning emissions into economically useful goods, CCU attempts to create a circular carbon economy, where carbon is reused instead of continuously extracted and emitted.
- The importance of CCU becomes particularly relevant for countries that rely heavily on fossil fuels for energy and industrial growth.
- For example, India, which has significant coal-based power generation, is exploring CCU as part of its broader climate strategy, with policy discussions supported by institutions such as NITI Aayog. For developing economies, CCU offers a transitional pathway: it allows industries to continue operating while reducing their carbon footprint.
- However, CCU is not without challenges. Capturing carbon dioxide requires substantial energy and investment. In some cases, the process itself can be energy-intensive, which may reduce the overall environmental benefit unless powered by renewable energy.
- Moreover, the long-term climate impact depends on how permanently the carbon is locked into products. If CO₂ is used to produce fuels that are later burned, it eventually returns to the atmosphere.
3. Why does India need CCU?
- India needs Carbon Capture and Utilisation (CCU) because of the unique structure of its economy, energy system, and development priorities.
- Unlike many developed countries that have already industrialised and are now transitioning away from fossil fuels, India is still in a growth phase where energy demand, infrastructure expansion, and industrial production are rapidly increasing.
- This creates a complex challenge: how to grow economically while reducing carbon emissions.
- One of the primary reasons India needs CCU is its continued dependence on coal. A large portion of India’s electricity generation comes from coal-based thermal power plants.
- While renewable energy capacity is expanding significantly, coal remains critical for ensuring energy security and meeting base-load power requirements. Completely phasing out coal in the short term is neither economically nor socially feasible.
- CCU provides a transitional solution by capturing carbon emissions from these plants and converting them into useful products, thereby reducing the overall carbon footprint without abruptly disrupting energy supply.
- Another important factor is the nature of India’s industrial emissions. Sectors such as cement, steel, fertilisers, and petrochemicals are considered “hard-to-abate” sectors because their production processes inherently generate carbon dioxide.
- For example, cement manufacturing releases CO₂ not only from fuel combustion but also from chemical reactions in limestone processing.
- In such sectors, switching to renewable energy alone cannot eliminate emissions. CCU offers a technological pathway to manage these unavoidable emissions.
- India’s climate commitments also make CCU strategically important. Under the Paris Agreement, India has pledged to reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP and achieve net-zero emissions by 2070.
- Achieving this target while maintaining high economic growth will require a combination of renewable energy expansion, energy efficiency improvements, green hydrogen, and carbon management technologies like CCU.
- Institutions such as NITI Aayog have recognised CCU as part of India’s long-term decarbonisation strategy.
- Economic considerations further strengthen the case for CCU. By converting captured carbon into products such as methanol, synthetic fuels, construction materials, and chemicals, India can create new industries and green jobs.
- This supports the vision of a circular carbon economy, where waste emissions become raw materials for other sectors. For a country aiming to boost manufacturing under initiatives like Make in India, CCU can align environmental sustainability with industrial competitiveness
4. Where does India Stand today ?
- India has started promoting Carbon Capture and Utilisation (CCU) by extending research support through the Department of Science and Technology, which has developed a dedicated roadmap to guide research and development in this field.
- Additionally, the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas has released a draft 2030 roadmap for Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS), outlining potential projects where these technologies can be implemented.
- In the private sector, Ambuja Cements, part of the Adani Group, is collaborating with IIT Bombay on an Indo-Swedish pilot initiative aimed at converting captured carbon dioxide into fuels and other value-added materials.
- Similarly, JK Cement is engaged in developing a CCU demonstration facility focused on capturing CO₂ for use in products such as lightweight concrete blocks and olefins.
- Expanding beyond the cement industry, Organic Recycling Systems Limited (ORSL) is spearheading India’s first pilot-scale Bio-CCU platform, which transforms carbon dioxide derived from biogas streams into bio-alcohols and specialised chemical products
5. Global Scenario
- The European Union’s Bioeconomy Strategy and its Circular Economy Action Plan clearly endorse CCU as an approach to transform carbon dioxide into raw materials for fuels, chemicals, and other industrial products, aligning the technology with broader sustainability and circular economy objectives.
- In the industrial sector, ArcelorMittal and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd. have partnered with the climate technology firm D-CRBN to test an innovative process at ArcelorMittal’s facility in Ghent, Belgium.
- This initiative focuses on converting captured CO₂ into carbon monoxide, which can then be reused in steelmaking and chemical manufacturing.
- In the United States, the expansion of CCU technologies is supported through a mix of fiscal incentives, including tax credits and government funding, especially for projects producing fuels and chemicals derived from carbon dioxide.
- Meanwhile, in the United Arab Emirates, the Al Reyadah project and proposed CO₂-to-chemicals clusters are integrating CCU solutions with green hydrogen to advance low-carbon industrial development
6. Way Forward
The primary challenge in expanding CCU in India relates to economic viability. The processes involved in capturing, refining, and converting carbon dioxide demand significant energy and financial investment. In the absence of supportive policy measures or incentives, products manufactured using captured CO₂ may find it difficult to compete with conventional, fossil-fuel-based alternatives that are currently more affordable.
Another major concern is the state of infrastructure. Effective deployment of CCU depends on the presence of well-developed industrial clusters, efficient systems for transporting captured CO₂, and seamless integration with downstream manufacturing units. However, such integrated ecosystems are not uniformly available across India’s industrial landscape.
In addition, the lack of well-defined regulatory standards, certification mechanisms, and stable market signals generates uncertainty for investors. This uncertainty can dampen private sector participation and restrict market demand for products derived from captured carbon.
That said, India has made encouraging progress by formulating strategic roadmaps for the advancement of CCU technologies. The successful and timely implementation of these plans will be crucial in ensuring that CCU contributes meaningfully to the country’s broader climate and industrial objectives
|
For Prelims: Carbon Capturing, COP21, Paris Agreement, carbon cycle
For Mains:
1. What is Carbon farming? discuss the effective techniques within carbon farming for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and explain the challenges that exist in implementing them, particularly in developing countries like India. (250 Words)
|
|
Previous Year Questions
1. With reference to carbon nanotubes, consider the following statements (UPSC 2020)
1. They can be used as carriers of drugs and antigens in the human body.
2. They can be made into artificial blood capillaries for an injured part of the human body.
3. They can be used in biochemical sensors.
4. Carbon nanotubes are biodegradable.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2, 3 and 4 only C. 1, 3 and 4 only D. 1, 2, 3 and 4
2. With reference to the recent developments in science, which one of the following statements is not correct? (UPSC 2019)
A. Functional chromosomes can be created by joining segments of DNA taken from cells of different species.
B. Pieces of artificial functional DNA can be created in laboratories.
C. A piece of DNA taken out from an animal cell can be made to replicate outside a living cell in a laboratory.
D. Cells taken out from plants and animals can be made to undergo cell division in laboratory petri dishes
3. Consider the following statements (upsc 2016)
1. The Sustainable Development Goals were first proposed in 1972 by a global think tank called the 'Club of Rome
2. Sustainable Development goals has to be achieved by the year 2030
Which of the statements given above is/ are correct
A. 1 Only B. 2 Only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 Nor 2
4. LPG stands for (MPSC 2017)
A. Liquidity, Profitability and Growth
B. Liberalisation, Privatisation and Growth
C. Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation
D.None of the above
5. Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana was launched (RRC Group D 2018)
A. July 2017 B. January 2018 C. May 2014 D. May 2016
6. In the context of WHO Air Quality Guidelines, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022)
1. The 24-hour mean of PM2.5 should not exceed 15 μg/m³ and annual mean of PM2.5 should not exceed 5 μg/m³.
2. In a year, the highest levels of ozone pollution occur during the periods of inclement weather.
3. PM10 can penetrate the lung barrier and enter the bloodstream.
4. Excessive ozone in the air can trigger asthma.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
A. 1, 3 and 4 B. 1 and 4 only C. 2, 3 and 4 D. 1 and 2 only
Answers: 1-C, 2-A, 3-B, 4-C, 5-D, 6-B
|
Source: The Hindu
DIVERSITY IN JUDICIARY
1. Context
P. Wilson, senior advocate and Rajya Sabha MP of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) party, has introduced a private member Bill to amend the Constitution in order to bring diversity in judicial appointments and set up regional benches of the Supreme Court
2. What does the Constitution provide?
Article 124 of the Constitution states that the President appoints judges of the Supreme Court in consultation with the Chief Justice of India (CJI). In the same manner, Article 217 lays down that High Court judges are appointed by the President after consulting the CJI, the concerned High Court’s Chief Justice, and the Governor of the respective State. Further, under Article 130, the Supreme Court is to function from Delhi, unless the Chief Justice of India, with the approval of the Central Government, designates another location as its seat
3. What is the collegium system?
- According to the constitutional framework, judicial appointments were made by the government in consultation with the judiciary until the 1980s.
- In the First Judges Case (1981), the Supreme Court ruled that the executive had primacy in appointing judges, on the ground that it is democratically accountable to the people.
- However, to safeguard judicial independence and prevent political influence, the Supreme Court in the Second Judges Case (1993) introduced the collegium system for appointments. This position was reaffirmed in the Third Judges Case (1998).
- Under the collegium system, appointments to the Supreme Court are recommended by a body comprising the Chief Justice of India (CJI) and four senior-most judges of the Supreme Court.
- For High Court appointments, the collegium includes the CJI and two senior-most Supreme Court judges. The collegium initiates proposals for appointments and forwards its recommendations to the Central Government.
- While the government may return a recommendation for reconsideration, if the collegium reiterates its view, the appointment becomes binding.
- The collegium system has played a significant role in maintaining judicial independence from the executive in matters of appointments. However, it has faced criticism for its opacity and limited accountability.
- Concerns have also been raised about alleged favoritism, including the appointment of relatives of sitting judges. In 2014, Parliament enacted the 99th Constitutional Amendment to establish the National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC), which was intended to recommend judicial appointments.
- The proposed NJAC was to include the CJI, two senior Supreme Court judges, the Union Law Minister, and two eminent persons.
- However, in 2015, the Supreme Court struck down the NJAC, holding that it violated the basic structure of the Constitution by undermining judicial independence. As a result, the collegium system continues to govern judicial appointments today
4. About this new private member's bill
- The collegium system prioritizes merit while recommending appointments to the higher judiciary. However, it has been criticized for not adequately representing the country’s social diversity.
- For example, among judges appointed to the higher judiciary between 2018 and 2024, only about one-fifth were from Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), and Other Backward Classes (OBC).
- The representation of women has remained below 15%, while that of religious minorities is under 5%.
- A Private Member’s Bill seeks to address this imbalance by mandating proportional representation for SCs, STs, OBCs, women, and religious minorities in appointments to the Supreme Court and High Courts, in line with their population share.
- The Bill also proposes that the Central Government must notify collegium recommendations within a maximum period of 90 days.
- Access to the Supreme Court is another concern, as it functions solely from Delhi, making it difficult for many citizens to approach the apex court. Additionally, over 90,000 cases were pending before the Supreme Court as of January 2026.
- To tackle these challenges, the Bill suggests establishing regional benches of the Supreme Court in New Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, and Chennai.
- These benches would exercise the Court’s full jurisdiction, except in matters involving substantial constitutional questions, which would continue to be heard by the Constitution Bench at the principal seat in Delhi.
5. Way Forward
The responsibility for promoting social diversity in judicial appointments largely rests with the judiciary, particularly through the collegium mechanism. The proposed Private Member’s Bill assumes significance because it seeks to establish a constitutional mandate to achieve greater inclusivity. As a long-term measure, the National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC) could be reconsidered with a more diversified composition. Its structure may be expanded to include members from the legislature, the Bar Council, and academia, similar to appointment frameworks followed in countries such as South Africa and the United Kingdom. Such a model would make the consultative process more representative and participatory, while ensuring adequate inclusion of SCs, STs, OBCs, minorities, and women.
Furthermore, as suggested earlier by Parliamentary Committees and the Law Commission, regional benches of the Supreme Court can be created within the existing constitutional framework. The Court could begin by establishing a bench in one region on a pilot basis and subsequently expand to other regions within a defined timeframe
|
For Prelims: Collegium system, National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC), Supreme court, Article 124, 99th Constitutional Amendment Act
For Mains:
1. Discuss the evolution of the Supreme Court of India from its inauguration in 1950 to the present day. How has its structure and capacity evolved to meet the changing demands of the legal landscape? (250 Words)
2. Examine the constitutional provisions that govern the Supreme Court of India. How do these provisions delineate the powers, jurisdiction, and composition of the Supreme Court? (250 Words)
3. What are the key features of the National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC) Act, and how did it differ from the Collegium system? (250 Words)
4. How does the appointment process of judges in the Supreme Court of India, emphasise the role of the Collegium system? What are the concerns associated with this system, and do you believe reforms are necessary? (250 Words)
|
|
Previous Year Questions
1. With reference to the Indian judiciary, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2021)
1. Any retired judge of the Supreme Court of India can be called back to sit and act as a Supreme Court judge by the Chief Justice of India with the prior permission of the President of India.
2. A High Court in India has the power to review its own judgment as the Supreme Court does.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
2. In India, Judicial Review implies (UPSC 2017)
A. the power of the Judiciary to pronounce upon the constitutionality of laws and executive orders
B. the power of the Judiciary to question the wisdom of the laws enacted by the Legislatures
C. the power of the Judiciary to review all the legislative enactments before they are assented to by the President
D. the power of the Judiciary to review its own judgments given earlier in similar or different cases
3. Consider the following statements:
1. The motion to impeach a Judge of the Supreme Court of India cannot be rejected by the Speaker of the Lok Sabha as per the Judges (Inquiry) Act, 1968.
2. The Constitution of India defines and gives details of what constitutes 'incapacity and proved misbehaviour' of the Judges of the Supreme Court of India
3. The details of the process of impeachment of the Judges of the Supreme Court of India are given in the Judges (Inquiry) Act, of 1968.
4. If the motion for the impeachment of a Judge is taken up for voting, the law requires the motion to be backed by each House of the Parliament and supported by a majority of the total membership of that House and by not less than two-thirds of total members of that House present and voting.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2 B. 3 only C. 3 and 4 only D. 1, 3 and 4
4.The power to increase the number of judges in the Supreme Court of India is vested in (UPSC 2014)
A. the President of India B. the Parliament C. the Chief Justice of India D. the Law Commission 5.The power of the Supreme Court of India to decide disputes between the Centre and the States falls under its (UPSC P 2014)
A. advisory jurisdiction B. appellate jurisdiction. C. original jurisdiction D. writ jurisdiction Answers: 1-A, 2-A, 3-C, 4-B, 5-C
|
Source: The Hindu
DENOTIFIED, NOMADIC, SEMI-NOMADIC TRIBES (DNTs)
1. Context
On January 30, the Union government assured community leaders from Denotified, Nomadic, and Semi-Nomadic Tribes (DNTs) that the Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India had agreed to enumerate these communities in the upcoming second phase of the Census due in 2027.
2. Who are the Denotified, Nomadic, and Semi-Nomadic Tribes (DNTs)?
- Communities now described as denotified, nomadic, and semi-nomadic tribes were once branded as “criminal” by colonial authorities. British administrators believed that certain groups were inherently inclined toward criminal activity.
- This belief was formalized through the Criminal Tribes Act (CTA) of 1871, enacted in the same year as the commencement of systematic population censuses in India.
- The CTA of 1871 aimed at the registration, monitoring, and regulation of communities labelled as criminal tribes and eunuchs. It defined such groups as tribes, gangs, or classes of people supposedly predisposed to committing non-bailable offences.
- While presenting the Act, the then Member for Law and Order, T.V. Stephens, argued that India’s caste-based social structure justified this approach. He claimed that “professional criminals” were entire tribes whose ancestors had been offenders for generations, whose social customs compelled them to commit crimes, and whose descendants would inevitably violate the law.
- The Government of India repealed the CTA in 1952, after the law had undergone multiple amendments. With its repeal, the communities earlier classified as criminal were officially “denotified,” and subsequently came to be known as Denotified Tribes (DNTs).
- However, the same year also witnessed the enactment of habitual offender laws across various States. Although these laws removed the idea of inherited criminality, they introduced the category of “habitual offenders.”
- In practice, this resulted in the continued surveillance and marginalisation of the same communities—no longer labelled as criminals by birth, but still subjected to systemic targeting under a different legal framework
3. History of their Enumeration
- Although both the Criminal Tribes Act (CTA) and the first synchronous Census operations in India commenced in 1871, Census documents began explicitly referring to “criminal tribes” only from 1911 onward.
- The provincial Census reports of 1911 and 1931 shed light on how these communities were officially recorded and categorized under that label. The 1931 Census marked the final instance when such groups were distinctly enumerated.
- After the repeal of the CTA and the subsequent denotification of these communities, later Censuses discontinued their separate identification. This decision was consistent with the post-Independence policy that caste enumeration—except for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes—was unnecessary.
- Efforts to address the condition of these communities, however, had already begun prior to their formal denotification. In 1949, the government established the Ayyangar Commission to examine related issues.
- By 1952, with the recognition of “backward classes” as a category distinct from SCs and STs, many denotified groups were included in such lists under the term “Vimukt Jatis.”
- Over the decades following Independence, most of these communities were gradually incorporated into the categories of SCs, STs, or Other Backward Classes.
- In 1998, noted writer Mahasweta Devi and scholar G. N. Devy initiated the Denotified, Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Tribes Rights Action Group (DNT-RAG).
- Their advocacy contributed to the creation of a technical advisory group and eventually led to the formation of the first National Commission for Denotified, Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Tribes under the chairmanship of B. S. Renke.
- This Commission submitted its recommendations for the welfare of DNTs in 2008. Subsequently, another national commission was constituted under Bhiku Ramji Idate, which presented its report in 2017.
- Each of these commissions underscored the fundamental challenge of properly identifying and classifying DNT communities, emphasizing that comprehensive and accurate categorization would require a dedicated Census enumeration.
- According to the Idate Commission’s most recent assessment, nearly 1,200 communities were identified as belonging to the DNT category, most of which had already been placed within the existing SC, ST, or OBC lists.
- In addition, the Commission identified approximately 268 denotified communities that remained unclassified. A study commissioned by NITI Aayog and conducted by the Anthropological Survey of India recommended appropriate classification for these 268 groups. However, the findings of this study have not been implemented and currently remain pending consideration
4. What is their Status now?
- In several States, Denotified, Nomadic, and Semi-Nomadic Tribes (DNTs) have been included within backward class categories, as well as in the SC and ST lists. In some instances, they have benefited from reservation policies, particularly where sub-classification has ensured targeted distribution of benefits.
- Additionally, certain State governments have introduced welfare measures designed specifically for these communities.
- Despite these initiatives, DNT representatives contend that the social stigma attached to them has persisted even after their denotification, largely due to the continued enforcement of laws such as the Habitual Offenders Act.
- They argue that such legal frameworks have perpetuated discrimination, leaving most DNT communities socially, economically, educationally, and politically marginalized.
- Only a limited number of relatively settled groups have managed to achieve some degree of advancement by leveraging available opportunities.
- Although the Idate Commission had proposed the establishment of a permanent national body dedicated to DNTs, the first government led by Narendra Modi concluded that a Welfare Board would be adequate, given that most DNT communities had already been accommodated within the SC, ST, or OBC categories.
- Subsequently, the Ministry of Social Justice introduced the SEED (Scheme for Economic Empowerment of DNTs) programme to support livelihood generation, education, housing, and healthcare initiatives for these groups.
- However, only a small portion of the allocated ₹200 crore budget has reportedly been utilized over the past five years. A major implementation challenge has been the requirement that beneficiaries obtain a DNT certificate for eligibility.
- This certification is meant to exist alongside SC, ST, or OBC status where applicable. Community leaders across various States have consistently raised concerns that DNT certificates are not being issued in most regions, despite repeated communications from the Central government.
- Official data indicates that only a limited number of districts across a handful of States currently provide such certification.
- This administrative bottleneck has intensified demands among DNT groups for a distinct constitutional category, equivalent to SC, ST, and OBC classifications. Advocates argue that such recognition would standardize the issuance of DNT certificates nationwide.
- There have also been calls for internal sub-categorisation within the DNT grouping to address disparities in levels of backwardness among different communities.
- Furthermore, leaders and organizations such as the All India Denotified Nomadic Tribes Development Council have framed their campaign for separate classification as a quest for formal acknowledgment of the historical discrimination and stigma imposed upon them.
- They maintain that colonial authorities branded them as “criminal” primarily because of their resistance to foreign rule.
- Some community representatives also emphasize that their ancestors had served as defenders against external invasions, including during periods preceding colonial rule, and had histories of opposing certain Islamic regimes
5. Way Forward
Beyond verbal commitments to community representatives that they would be included in official counts, there has been no clarity regarding the methodology or mechanism for carrying out such enumeration.
Organizations representing Denotified, Nomadic, and Semi-Nomadic Tribes (DNTs) have explicitly called for the inclusion of a dedicated column or question in Census questionnaires to enable their proper identification. This position has also been supported by scholars such as G. N. Devy, who have consistently advocated for a separate Census exercise specifically focused on DNT communities.
Nevertheless, official statements from the Union Government suggest that there is currently no plan to introduce a separate classification category for DNTs in the Census
|
For Prelims: Scheduled Tribes, Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups, Kudmis, Mundas, Oraons, Santhals, Article 366 (25), Article 342, Backward Classes Commission 1955, the Advisory Committee (Kalelkar), on Revision of SC/ST lists (Lokur Committee), 1965 and the Joint Committee of Parliament on the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Orders (Amendment) Bill 1967 (Chanda Committee), 1969, Goa, Daman & Diu Reorganization Act 1987
For Mains:
1. Who are Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups? Discuss the criterion for the specification of a community as Scheduled tribes. (250 Words)
|
|
Previous Year Questions 1. Consider the following statements about Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) in India: (UPSC 2019)
1. PVTGs reside in 18 States and one Union Territory.
2. A stagnant or declining population is one of the criteria for determining PVTG status.
3. There are 95 PVTGs officially notified in the country so far.
4. Irular and Konda Reddi tribes are included in the list of PVTGs.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
A. 1, 2 and 3 B. 2, 3 and 4 C. 1, 2 and 4 D. 1, 3 and 4
Answer: C 2. With reference to the history of India, "Ulgulan" or the Great Tumult is the description of which of the following events? (UPSC 2020) A. The Revolt of 1857
B. The Mappila Rebellion of 1921
C. The Indigo Revolt of 1859 - 60
D. Birsa Munda's Revolt of 1899 - 1900
Answer: D 3. When did the Tana’ Bhagat Movement start? (Jharkhand Civil Service 2015)
A. April 1912 B. April 1913 C. April 1914 D. April 1915
Answer: C
4. Consider the following statements about the Santhal Hool of 1855 - 56: (UPSC CAPF)
1. The Santhals were in a desperate situation as tribal lands were leased out
2. The Santhal rebels were treated very leniently by British officials
3. Santhal inhabited areas were eventually constituted separate administrative units called Santhal parganas
4. The Santhal rebellion was the only major rebellion in mid-19th century India.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 C. 1, 3 and 4 D. 1 and 3 only
Answer: D
5. After the Santhal Uprising subsided, what was/were the measure/measures taken by the colonial government? (UPSC 2018)
1. The territories called 'Santhal Paraganas' were created.
2. It became illegal for a Santhal to transfer land to a non-Santhal.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: C
6. The National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC) was formed by insertion of Article ______ in the Constitution of India. (SSC CGL 2020)
A. 328B B. 338A C. 338B D. 328A
Answer: B
7. With reference to the Parliament of India, which of the following Parliamentary Committees scrutinizes and reports to the House whether the powers to make regulations, rules, sub-rules, by-laws, etc. conferred by the Constitution or delegated by the Parliament are being properly exercised by the Executive within the scope of such delegation? (UPSC 2018)
A. Committee on Government Assurances
B. Committee on Subordinate Legislation
C. Rules Committee
D. Business Advisory Committee
Answer: B
8. Justice Madan B Lokur committee was set up to take steps to (Haryana Civil Services 2021)
A. Look into violation of environment rules.
B. Prevent stubble burning
C. Draft new water policy
D. Regulate digital lending
Answer: B
9. Match the pairs - (Committees on Media) (MPSC 2019)
(A) (Name) (B) (Year)
(a) Chanda Committee (i) 1982
(b) Kuldip Nayar Committee (ii) August, 1977
(c) Verghese Committee (iii) March, 1977
(d) P.C. Joshi Committee (iv) 1964
1. (a) – (i), (b) – (ii), (c – (iii), (d) – (iv)
2. (a) – (i), (b) – (iii), (c – (ii), (d) – (iv)
3. (a) – (iv), (b) – (iii), (c – (ii), (d) – (i)
4. (a) – (iv), (b) – (ii), (c – (iii), (d) – (i)
Answer: 3
10. Consider the formation of the following States and arrange these in chronological order : (UPPSC Combined State Exam 2021)
1. Goa
2. Telangana
3. Jharkhand
4. Haryana
Select the correct answer from the codes given below.
A. 1, 2, 3, 4 B. 4, 1, 3, 2 C. 3, 2, 4, 1 D. 4, 3, 1, 2
Answer: 2
|
Source: The Hindu
SPECIAL INTENSIVE REVISION (SIR)
1. Context
The Supreme Court on Tuesday permitted the deployment of judicial officers from Odisha and Jharkhand for completing the adjudication of claims and objections of persons included in the “logical discrepancy/unmapped category” during the ongoing Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls in West Bengal.
2. What is the Special Intensive Revision?
- The Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of the Electoral Rolls is an important exercise undertaken by the Election Commission of India (ECI) to ensure that the voter lists (electoral rolls) are accurate, updated, and inclusive before any major election or as part of the annual revision cycle.
- In simpler terms, the SIR is a comprehensive verification and correction process of the electoral rolls — aimed at including eligible voters, removing ineligible ones, and rectifying errors in the existing list.
- It is called “special” because it involves an intensified, house-to-house verification and greater public participation compared to the routine annual summary revision
- The purpose of the Special Intensive Revision is to maintain the purity, accuracy, and inclusiveness of India’s democratic process. Clean and updated voter rolls are essential for free, fair, and credible elections, as they prevent issues like bogus voting, disenfranchisement, and duplication.
- In summary, the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) is a focused, large-scale voter verification campaign conducted by the Election Commission to ensure that the electoral rolls are error-free, inclusive, and reflective of the current eligible voting population. It plays a crucial role in strengthening the integrity and transparency of India’s electoral system
|
During the Special Intensive Revision, Booth Level Officers (BLOs) visit households to verify voter details such as name, address, age, and photo identity. This exercise helps identify:
|
3. Election Commission of India, its powers and functions
- Article 324(1) of the Indian Constitution empowers the Election Commission of India (ECI) with the authority to oversee, guide, and manage the preparation of electoral rolls as well as the conduct of elections for both Parliament and the State Legislatures.
- As per Section 21(3) of the Representation of the People Act, 1950, the ECI holds the right to order a special revision of the electoral roll for any constituency, or part of it, at any time and in a manner it considers appropriate.
- According to the Registration of Electors’ Rules, 1960, the revision of electoral rolls may be carried out intensively, summarily, or through a combination of both methods, as directed by the ECI.
- An intensive revision involves preparing an entirely new roll, while a summary revision deals with updating or modifying the existing one
4. How is SIR different from the National Register of Citizens (NRC)?
| Aspect | Special Intensive Revision (SIR) | National Register of Citizens (NRC) |
| Purpose | To verify, update, and correct the electoral rolls so that all eligible voters are included and ineligible names are removed | To identify legal citizens of India and detect illegal immigrants |
| Authority / Governing Body | Conducted by the Election Commission of India (ECI) | Conducted under the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) |
| Legal Basis | Based on Article 324(1) of the Constitution, Section 21(3) of the Representation of the People Act, 1950, and the Registration of Electors' Rules, 1960. | Governed by the Citizenship Act, 1955 and the Citizenship (Registration of Citizens and Issue of National Identity Cards) Rules, 2003 |
| Scope | Focuses only on Indian citizens aged 18 years and above who are eligible to vote | Covers all residents of India (or a particular state) to determine their citizenship status |
| Nature of the Exercise | A regular, recurring administrative exercise carried out to maintain accurate voter lists | A special, large-scale verification exercise conducted under specific legal or political mandates. |
| Relation to Citizenship | Does not determine citizenship — only eligibility to vote | Directly determines citizenship status |
5. What are the concerns related to SIR?
One of the major concerns is the erroneous deletion of eligible voters from the rolls.
-
Mistakes during house-to-house verification or data entry may lead to legitimate voters—especially migrants, daily-wage workers, and marginalized communities—being left out.
-
Such exclusions can directly affect voter participation and undermine the democratic process.
Despite the intensive verification, fake or duplicate names often remain due to poor coordination or outdated records.
-
Deaths, migrations, or multiple registrations in different constituencies are not always updated accurately.
-
This raises questions about the accuracy and credibility of the electoral rolls.
The SIR is a large-scale field operation requiring trained personnel, coordination among departments, and robust data systems.
-
Booth Level Officers (BLOs) are often overburdened with multiple duties and may not have sufficient time or training for thorough verification.
-
Limited digital infrastructure in rural areas can also hamper real-time data updates.
Electoral roll revisions, especially when conducted close to elections, can spark political allegations of bias or manipulation.
-
Parties may accuse each other or the Election Commission of targeting specific communities or constituencies.
-
Even unintentional errors can lead to trust deficits in the electoral process.
6. Way Forward
While the Special Intensive Revision is essential for ensuring clean and updated electoral rolls, its effectiveness depends on transparent procedures, proper training, digital accuracy, and public awareness.
Addressing these concerns is vital to maintain trust in the Election Commission and uphold the credibility of India’s democratic system
Addressing these concerns is vital to maintain trust in the Election Commission and uphold the credibility of India’s democratic system
|
For Prelims: Special Intensive Revision (SIR), National Register of Citizens (NRC), Election Commission of India (ECI)
For Mains: GS II - Indian Polity
|
Previous year Question1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2017)
1. The Election Commission of India is a five-member body.
2. Union Ministry of Home Affairs decides the election schedule for the conduct of both general elections and bye-elections.
3. Election Commission resolves the disputes relating to splits/mergers of recognized political parties.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only
B. 2 only
C. 2 and 3 only
D. 3 only
Answer: D
2. Consider the following statements : (UPSC 2021)
1. In India, there is no law restricting the candidates from contesting in one Lok Sabha election from three constituencies.
2. In the 1991 Lok Sabha Election, Shri Devi Lal contested from three Lok Sabha constituencies.
3. As per the- existing rules, if a candidate contests in one Lok Sabha election from many constituencies, his/her party should bear the cost of bye-elections to the constituencies vacated by him/her in the event of him/her winning in all the constituencies.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. 1 and 3
D. 2 and 3
Answer: B
Mains
1.To enhance the quality of democracy in India the Election Commission of India has proposed electoral reforms in 2016. What are the suggested reforms and how far are they significant to make democracy successful? (UPSC CSE 2017)
|
Source: Indianexpress
HUMAN AND ANIMAL CONFLICT
1. Context
Elephant attacks killed eight people in Jharkhand’s Hazaribagh district and one in West Bengal’s Paschim Medinipur district last week. In neighbouring Odisha, three women were killed and three injured in a tusker attack in Dhenkanal district the previous week
2. What is a Human and Animal Conflict?
Human-animal conflict refers to the interactions and conflicts that arise between humans and wildlife when their interests and activities overlap. This conflict often occurs when human activities and development encroach upon natural habitats, leading to increased contact and competition for resources between humans and animals. The consequences of human-animal conflict can be detrimental to both parties and may include economic losses, damage to property, injury, and loss of life for both humans and animals.
Common scenarios of human-animal conflict include:
-
Crop Raiding: Wild animals may enter agricultural fields and damage crops, leading to economic losses for farmers.
-
Livestock Predation: Predatory animals may attack and kill domesticated animals, such as cattle, sheep, or poultry, causing financial losses for livestock farmers.
-
Urban Encroachment: As human populations expand and urban areas expand into natural habitats, animals may find themselves in close proximity to human settlements, leading to conflicts over space and resources.
-
Road Accidents: Animals crossing roads, especially in areas near forests or wildlife habitats, can lead to collisions with vehicles, resulting in injuries or fatalities for both humans and animals.
-
Attacks on Humans: In some cases, wild animals may perceive humans as a threat and may attack, leading to injuries or fatalities.
-
Conservation Challenges: Human-animal conflict can pose challenges for wildlife conservation efforts, as negative interactions with humans may lead to retaliation against wildlife, posing a threat to endangered species
3. What are the reasons for the increase in human-wildlife conflict?
Experts attribute the surge in incidents of human-wildlife conflict to various factors, including the expansion of cultivated areas around wildlife habitats, alterations in cropping patterns, a notable rise in the populations of animals like elephants and tigers resulting from conservation initiatives, and the movement of livestock and humans into wildlife habitats during unconventional hours. Additionally, there has been a significant upturn in the populations of prolific breeders such as wild boars and peacocks.
Notably, the increased frequency of conflicts involving elephants is primarily attributed to habitat depletion and fragmentation caused by human activities. Furthermore, the invasion of alien species has diminished the availability of food and water, while the cultivation of monoculture species like eucalyptus and acacia has adversely impacted plant biodiversity
4. Kerala State vs Human and Animal Conflict
- Approximately 30% of Kerala's land area is covered by forests. Given the relatively small size of the state, with an average width of approximately 70 km and a population exceeding 3.46 crore, numerous densely populated human settlements are situated in close proximity to protected forest regions.
- Additionally, many agricultural plantations are located near wildlife habitats, particularly in hilly areas, including the heavily forested eastern part of the state. While this geographical arrangement inevitably results in human-animal conflict, Kerala has experienced a notable surge in such incidents in recent years.
- Residents living near the fringes of forests have suffered substantial financial losses to their livelihoods, primarily due to frequent raids by elephants and wild boars. Since 2015, over 600 people in Kerala have lost their lives in conflicts with animals.
- This has triggered protests among affected villagers, some of which have escalated into open confrontations between protesters and officials from the State Forest department
- According to a study conducted by the State Forest department, Kerala experienced human-wildlife conflicts in 1,004 areas.
- The study documented more than 48,000 incidents of crop damage from 2013-14 to 2018-19. Among the 35 forest and wildlife divisions in the state, Nilambur north (94), Wayanad south (92), and Wayanad north (70) forest ranges reported the highest numbers of major conflict locations.
- The State recorded the highest number of incidents involving wild elephants, accounting for 14,611 occurrences between 2013-14 and 2018-19. Other contributors to these incidents include wild boars (5,518), bonnet macaques (4,405), and snakes (2,531).
- Elephants, bonnet macaques, and wild boars have caused significant damage to farmers living in forest fringe areas. Herbivores like sambar, spotted deer, and gaur have also played a considerable role in crop damage.
- The study reported a total of 814 livestock animals, including cattle, buffalo, and goats, being killed or injured in such attacks, with tigers preying on 420 of these animals
5.What are the reasons for the increase in human-wildlife conflict?
- Experts attribute the escalation in human-wildlife conflict incidents to several factors, including the expansion of cultivated areas surrounding wildlife habitats, alterations in cropping patterns, a notable rise in the populations of animals like elephants and tigers resulting from conservation efforts, and the movement of livestock and humans into wildlife habitats during unconventional hours.
- Additionally, there has been a significant upturn in the populations of prolific breeders such as wild boars and peacocks.
- However, the increased frequency of conflicts involving elephants can be traced to habitat depletion and fragmentation caused by human activities. Furthermore, the presence of invasive alien species has diminished the availability of food and water. The cultivation of monoculture species like eucalyptus and acacia has also had adverse effects on plant biodiversity
6.What are the proposed solutions and why are they not effective?
- Elephant-resistant trenches and solar-powered fences are commonly employed in Kerala and are generally deemed effective, provided they receive proper maintenance. However, there are several areas where these protective measures have not been implemented.
- Additionally, nearby residents often break these fences to allow their cattle to graze in the forests, and elephants themselves may damage the fences using their legs and tusks.
- In a master plan costing ₹620 crores to address this issue, the Forest department proposes the installation of elevated power fences that are beyond the reach of elephants.
- Furthermore, as part of the State government's new eco-restoration policy, the Forest department aims to plant suitable indigenous vegetation (wild mango, wild gooseberry, and wild jackfruit) in the forests to ensure food security for wild animals and discourage them from entering agricultural lands.
- Complementary measures include establishing early warning systems that utilize drones and human observers to track the movement of elephants and other dangerous animals, allowing people to avoid areas where they have been spotted. However, the widespread implementation of such warning mechanisms is lacking in Kerala.
- On the contrary, these measures are not effective against wild boars. Despite Kerala's request to declare wild boars as vermin still pending with the Centre, the State government has recently granted local bodies the authority to cull wild boars that pose threats to agricultural crops or human life.
- Other alternatives include capturing and neutering the boars or relocating them to forests where predators like tigers and leopards are present
7.How is human-animal conflict connected to the ESZ norm?
Human-animal conflict is connected to the concept of Ecologically Sensitive Zones (ESZ) norms through the need to establish buffer areas around protected areas, wildlife habitats, and other ecologically sensitive zones. ESZ norms are guidelines and regulations aimed at minimizing human disturbances and activities that could negatively impact biodiversity and ecosystems in designated areas. These zones are established to create a buffer between human settlements and wildlife habitats, reducing the chances of conflict between humans and animals.
Here's how human-animal conflict is connected to ESZ norms:
-
Buffer Zones: ESZ norms often define buffer zones around national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and other ecologically sensitive areas. These buffer zones act as a transitional space to mitigate the impacts of human activities on wildlife and vice versa.
-
Land Use Planning: ESZ norms include regulations related to land use planning around protected areas. By controlling and guiding developmental activities in these zones, there is an attempt to minimize disturbances to wildlife and their habitats, consequently reducing the likelihood of conflict.
-
Wildlife Corridors: ESZ norms may address the creation and preservation of wildlife corridors, which are crucial for the movement of animals between different habitats. Ensuring the connectivity of habitats helps in preventing isolated populations, which can lead to increased interactions and conflicts with humans.
-
Conservation Measures: ESZ norms may include measures to conserve and restore natural habitats. By maintaining the integrity of these habitats, the likelihood of wildlife straying into human-dominated landscapes in search of food or suitable habitat is reduced.
-
Community Engagement: Some ESZ norms encourage community engagement and participation in conservation efforts. Involving local communities in wildlife conservation can lead to better understanding and cooperation, reducing conflicts by promoting coexistence
|
Previous Year Questions
1.Consider the following statements in respect of Trade Related Analysis of Fauna and Flora in Commerce (TRAFFIC): (UPSC CSE 2017)
Which of the above statements is/are correct? (a) 1 only Answer: (b) 2.With reference to Indian elephants, consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2020) Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A.1 and 2 only B.2 and 4 only C.3 only D.1, 3 and 4 only Answer (A) 3.With reference to Indian laws about wildlife protection, consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2021) A.1 and 2 B.2 only C.1 and 3 D.3 only Answer (B) |
Source: The Hindu
